Fusing geologic knowledge and seismic in searching for subtle hydrocarbon traps in Indias Cambay Basin

ALKA S. NEGI, S. K. SAHU, P. D. THOMAS, D. S. A. N. RAJU, ROOP CHAND, and JOKHAN RAM, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited, Baroda, India
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our decades of exploration have established the existence of hydrocarbons throughout the entire Paleogene section of the Cambay rift basin. Recent exploration, as part of a deliberate search for hydrocarbons in the structural lows, established the prospectivity of Kalol Formation. Adopting a methodology of integrating geologic knowledge and seismic technology has led to significant discoveries within Nardipur low, Wamaj low, and in the flank of Tarapur depression (Sadra area). The use of multi-attribute technology has enhanced these efforts. Basin-centered gas accumulations (BCGAs), which turn the usual concept of gas entrapment upside down (i.e., gas is below water in low-porosity/low-permeability reservoirs in the deepest part of the basin), have been identified as a new target in the lows of Cambay Basin. Detailed study of geoscientific data, interpretation of long-offset data (6 km) 2D seismic data, and AVO analysis, has revealed likely BCGAs in Wamajs Olpad section. Recent discoveries and leads in Nardipur low, Sadra, and Wamaj low are also due to this integrated methodology and indicate it can be adopted for future exploration of the Paleogene section in other lows of Cambay Basin. Geologic background. Cambay Basin is an aborted intracratonic N-S to NNW-SSE rift graben system in the state of Gujarat in the northwestern part of India (Figure 1). Tectonically, it is a marginal aulacogen type of rift basin bounded on its eastern and western margins by master faults parallel to subparallel to the basin margin. This basin is divided into five tectonic blocks from north-to-south viz, Sanchor Patan, Mehsana-Ahmedabad, Cambay-Tarapur, JambusarBroach, and Narmada-Tapti (Figure 1). The NE-SW, ENEWSW, and NNW-SSE lineaments parallel to the regional Aravalli, Satpura, and Dharwar trends, respectively, control the basin configuration. The basin configuration at the Deccan Trap level comprises 88 half grabens, 26 of which formed in the early stages of basin evolution. The extensional architecture of the basin is defined by two types of faults: listric normal faults trending N-S to NNW-SSE and transfer faults trending ENE-WSW to NE-SW. The interplay of transfer faults and the repeated reactivation of basementcontrolled faults and epierogenic movements (producing little more than tilting, slight warping, and minor faulting of rocks) from time-to-time controlled and contributed to sedimentation. The half graben architecture style of Cambay rift basin resulted in many highs and lows. The sedimentation in the basin is primarily controlled by the prerift, synrift, and postrift stages, which the basin witnessed together with the interplay of local-regional sediment dispersal patterns and drainage systems. The basaltic floor (i.e., the Deccan Trap of late Cretaceous-Paleocene age) forms the tectonic basement. Olpad Formation overlies the Deccan Trap and has a gradational relationship with the overlying Cambay shale. The Olpad facies was deposited in alluvial fans, alluvial fan deltas, over bank and lacustrine environments. The facies is characterized by wacke, sandstone, siltstone, wash, and claystone. The reservoirs in general have low porosity and low permeability. This formation has generated substantial hydrocarbons.
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Figure 1. Location map of Cambay Basin.

Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphy of Cambay Basin (after Mathur et al., 1980).

The synrift stage continued to Early Eocene times in which a thick sequence of Cambay shale was deposited. The section, predominantly black-to-dark gray shale with intervening sands/silts, is the main source of hydrocarbon generation in Cambay Basin. The Cambay shale is divided into

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Figure 5. Sand/silt isolith map of K-IX unit. Figure 3. Prospect map of Ahmedabad block.

Figure 4. Electrolog of well L-B showing sand deposition below K-IX coal.

Figure 6. Effective porosity map prepared using multi attributes showing the channel trends below K-IX coal.

the Older Cambay Shale (OCS) and the Younger Cambay Shale (YCS) formations. OCS recorded the earliest marine sedimentation in the basin with episodes of deposition of coarser clastics. In the northern part of the basin, the Lower and Upper tongue shaly units demarcate the three arenaceous members (Mandhali, Mehsana, and Chhatral) of YCS which is relatively shaly in the southern part the basin. The overlying Kalol Formation of middle Eocene age is a major producer in the area. The formation is mainly divided into two (the Sertha and Wavel) members. Kalol Formation is characterized by intercalations of thin sandstone/siltstone,

shale, and coal. In some areas, an additional reservoir facies, deposited above and below the coals, is the main producer. Figure 2 shows the stratigraphy. Methodology. Isochronopach (time thickness) maps between K-IX and K-X reflectors were initially generated. Then, what were named microisopach maps were prepared for individual units by analyzing well data and isochronopach trends. Correlation has been established between the thickness and development of reservoir facies in the unit. The sand/silt depositional models were finally derived by a
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Figure 7. Isochronopach map between K-IX and K-X reflectors in Wamaj low area.

Figure 9. Electrolog of the well W-D showing sand deposition above K-X coal.

Figure 10. Part of seismic section showing additional development between K-IX and K-X reflectors in the area of well W-D.

Figure 8. Sand/silt isolith map of K-X top unit.

thorough analysis of logs, geologic knowledge, microisopach maps, multi-attribute analysis for reservoir characterization, and by generating porosity maps in areas covered by 3D surveys. The possibility of a new play (the unconventional BCGAs in Olpad Formation) was established by analysis of well cuttings, cores, facies, interpretation of long-offset (6-km) 2D seismic data, AVO analysis, and available geochemical data. Identification of reservoir facies. The play concept and entrapment style for the Sertha units (K-X, K-IX, K-VIII, and K-VII) of Kalol Formation are basically stratigraphic and stratistructural in nature. No oil-water contacts have been
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Figure 11. Structure map at the top of K-IX in Sadra-Mahelaj-Naika area.

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Figure 14. Part of seismic section in the Sadra-Naika-Mahelaj area showing the progradational features below K-IX top. Figure 12. Isochronopach map between K-IX and K-X reflectors in Sadra-Mahelaj-Naika area.

Figure 15. Electrolog of the well M-B showing sand deposition within K-IX and K-X. Figure 13. Isopach map of K-IX unit (below K-IX coal).

encountered for these plays, and reservoir facies is likely hydrocarbon-charged. These reservoirs, sandwiched between coal and shale layers, have horizontal and vertical facies variation which affects the porosity distribution. Nardipur low: The N-S Nardipur low is bounded on the east and west by the producing Limbodra and Kalol fields (Figure 3). This low is a proven kitchen area for generation of hydrocarbons, and any development of reservoir facies is likely to be prospective. The area is covered by a 3D seismic survey. Using the seismic and well data, sand/silt isolith maps of K-IX unit below the coal were prepared (Figures 4 and 5). In order to obtain the layer-by-layer subsurface information, the acoustic impedance volume was generated using a model-based poststack seismic inversion algorithm. For estimating the effective porosity, multi-attribute analysis was then carried out using the acoustic impedance volume as external attribute and several sample-based seismic attributes derived from 3D seismic volume as internal inputs
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through a probabilistic neural network technique. Mean porosity slices below K-IX, after removing the coal thickness, has clearly delineated high-porosity channels trending NE-SW (Figure 6). Well L-B, drilled on the high-porosity trend, produced oil at the rate of 69 m3/d from K-IX pay (Figure 4). Well LA, subsequently drilled on the same porosity trend, is also producing from this pay. Similar mapping, carried out to the south, indicates the same porosity channel trend. A new prospective area has been identified on this porosity trend and awaits drilling. This success motivated adopting this methodology for identification of stratigraphic prospects of K-IX pay further south in the Nardipur low. Wamaj low: This low is bounded to the east by Kalol Field and to the west by Sanand-Jhalora-Viraj fields which are prolific producers. A new discovery, well W-D from Kalol pays in Wavel and Sertha, has opened up another low of Ahmedabad block for stratigraphic and structural plays. The isochronopach map (Figure 7) between K-IX and K-X reflectors has delineated the thickest areas. These isochron max-

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Figure 16. Sand/silt isolith map of K-IX unit (below coal).

Figure 18. Time structure map near the top of Olpad Formation, Wamaj area.

Figure 17. A part of a seismic section across Wamaj low.

imas correlate with the isopach thickness of reservoir unit K-X. The sand maximas also correlate with the isochronopach/isopach maximas. The sand model (Figure 8), derived in part from well data (Figure 9), has identified NW-SE sand lobes which go from the western flank of Kalol toward Wamaj low. The thickest areas on the isochronopach map can be attributed to the likely development of the K-X reservoir unit. The bulging between the K-IX and K-X reflectors (Figure 10) may likely correspond to the development of this reservoir unit. The K-X pay in well W-D in the Wamaj low has proved the sand geometry and indicates the likely development of reservoir facies in Wamaj low that will be further delineated for stratigraphic plays. Sadra: This acreage is on the northwestern flank of Tarapur depression, which is a known kitchen area for generating hydrocarbons. The area is bounded to the north and northeast by Nawagam and Wasna fields and to the west by Dholka-Asmali-Vatrak fields. The structure contour map on

Figure 19. Time structure map near the top of Deccan Trap, Wamaj area.

K-IX top shows the area gradually dips toward Tarapur depression (Figure 11). Detailed analysis of well data from surrounding fields and incorporating 2D seismic data analysis and geologic knowledge confirmed the prospectivity of
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Figure 20. Seismogeologic section across Wamaj low.

Basin-centered gas accumulations (BCGAs) in Wamaj low. Geochemical studies carried out in Wamaj low of Cambay Basin by various agencies have revealed that Olpad Formation consists of Type III organic matter. The TOC values range from 0.5 to 1.0. VRO values of 0.8 to 1.8 indicate that source rock has attained a peak-to-late maturation stage of hydrocarbon generation and is capable of generating gaseous hydrocarbons. Basin modeling studies indicate that about 3650 billon m3 of gas has been generated from Olpad Formation in Wamaj low, which might have migrated and accumulated in the low-permeability reservoir facies as basin-centered gas (BCG) in Olpad Formation itself. The unconventional BCGAs are considered to be the storehouse for huge gas resources trapped in the deepest parts of the basins. The main geologic attributes (source rock, maturation, migration, reservoir, seal, trap formation, and pressure regimes), which characterize such accumulations, are summarized below. They are often in close proximity to gas-prone source rock or sourced by thermal cracking of oil to gas. Generation of hydrocarbons from source occurs at thermal maturity exceeding 0.6% Ro They have short migration distances. They have low porosity (< 13%) and low permeability (< 1.0 md). Reservoirs may range from single, isolated reservoirs with thickness of a few meters to multiple stacked reservoirs with thickness of several thousand meters. The entrapment mechanism ranges from lithologic or relative permeability and/or water block seals as capillary pressure seals. There are no downdip water contacts. They are commonly downdip from more permeable waterfilled reservoirs. They can cut across stratigraphic boundaries. There is no obvious structural and stratigraphic trapping mechanism. The gas is in a dynamic state of updip migration rather than in static equilibrium, and may be roughly in balance with downdip gas influx from adjacent active source rocks. Gas is trapped in the deepest part of the basin. The accumulations are abnormally pressured (i.e., occur in overpressured and subnormal-pressured regimes). This understanding of BCGAs, which is analogous with such accumulations worldwide, caused the Cambay rift basin (which has prominent structural lows and depressions) to be examined for this type of reservoir. To understand the deep structure of Olpad, a long-offset (6 km) 2D seismic survey, was carried out in Wamaj low of Ahmedabad block (Figure 17) and analyzed in conjunction with geologic and geochemical data. The time-structure maps of the deeper events have clearly brought out the structural configuration at these levels in Wamaj low (Figures 18 and 19). We now think that Olpad Formation is sourced from Deccan Trap basalts as alluvial fans and lake deposits, and in this area has three litho unitsC, B, and A (Figure 20). A, the deepest unit and deposited above Deccan Trap, is a conglomerate of volcanic trap fragments, bounded by ferruginous and greenish gray clay metrics and is restricted to the proximal part of alluvial fans. The overlying unit B mainly consists of wacke, wash, sandstone, and siltstone facies with intercalations of red/maroon claystone facies. B is the main unit of Olpad where reservoirs are developed, but in general with low porosity and low permeability. Several water-bearing reser-

Figure 21. Isochronopach map between Olpad and Deccan Trap in Wamaj low area.

the northwestern flank of Tarapur depression in the SadraMahelaj and Naika areas. The variation in thickness brought out by the isochronopach map between the K-IX and K-X reflectors was combined with well data, and microisopach maps were prepared for sediments deposited below the top coal of K-IX (Figures 12 and 13). Features on a number of seismic lines between the K-IX and K-X reflectors (Figure 14) indicate sediment deposition prograding toward the south and southeast. Wells, like M-B, drilled on these features have proved the presence of reservoir facies (Figure 15). The isopach thicknesses are also increasing toward south and southeast. Based on the isochronopach, isopach trends and well data, a sand/silt isolith model of K-IX and K-X was prepared (Figure 16). It has revealed the distribution of reservoir facies. Prospective areas were identified, and 15 wells have been drilled on this sand model, with 14 encountering hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir facies. Furthermore, as the plays are stratigraphic in nature, any development of reservoirs is likely to be hydrocarbon-charged.

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voirs have been encountered in well K-D. The topmost litho unit, C, is characterized by red/maroon claystone facies. The clays are sub-bentonitic, massive, have a waxy appearance and composed of kaolinite and montmorillonite. This unit represents the distal part of the alluvial fan complex. The geologic section indicated that the slope of the basinal low is toward the western flank of Kalol. Thus, unit B possesses the required reservoir characteristics, low porosity and low permeability, required for accumulation of BCGA. The isochronopach map between Olpad top and the Trap top outlines a huge thickness of Olpad Formation in the Wamaj low (Figure 21). Many water-bearing reservoirs encountered in well KD suggest water block as capillary pressure seal, which is likely to provide the capping mechanism for the BCGA in Wamaj low. The study indicates that the BCGA is likely trapped below the more permeable water-filled reservoirs encountered in well K-D. High presumes have been encountered in well K-D, indicating the overpressured regime of a BCGA as in Wamaj low. AVO analysis on a few 2D seismic lines passing through the Wamaj low indicated an AVO anomaly, though within a limited angle in two windows (37003800 ms and 39004000 ms). This has further increased our confidence for the presence of gas below the waterbearing reservoirs. Conclusions. The discoveries in the structural lows (Nardipur and Wamaj) and the flank of the depression (SadraMahelaj-Naika) are the result of conventional techniques,

understanding reservoir characteristics, and integrating geologic knowledge with advanced seismic techniques. This methodology has also helped identify Olpad Formation in Wamaj low as a prospective area for BCGAs in Ahmedabad block of Cambay Basin.
Suggested reading. Estimation of effective porosity using geostatistics and multi-attribute transforms: A case study by Pramanik et al. (GEOPHYSICS, 2004). Basin-centered gas systems by Law (AAPG Bulletin, 2002). Overview of sedimentary basins of India and their hydrocarbon resource potential by Biswas (in Recent Researches in Sedimentary Basins, 1998). Tectonic framework of Cambay Basin, India by Mathur et al. (AAPG Bulletin, 1980). Understanding the reservoir distribution of K IX and K X pays of Kalol Formation through microisopaching in Nawagam-Wasna areas of Cambay Basin by Thomas et al. (ONGC Bulletin, 1999). Seismic signature and its significance to reservoir distribution in the southern part of NawagamWasna area, Cambay Basin by Thomas et al. (Proceedings of SPG Conference Mumbai 2002, organized by SPG India). TLE
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the director (Exploration) Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited, India, for providing the necessary facilities to carry out this work and for permission to publish this paper. We also thank S. K. Gupta, R. T. Arasu, S.Banerjee and their team at GEOPIC, ONGC, Dehradun, India, for providing the facilities and multiattribute analysis of 3D seismic data. Corresponding author: alkasnegi@rediffmail.com

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