Introduction to the Atmosphere This section provides a brief overview of the properties associated with the atmosphere.

The general concepts found in this section are:

The earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very large planet. Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen ( ), which comprises 78% of the atmosphere, and oxygen ( ), which accounts for 21%. Various trace gases make up the remainder. Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via conduction, convection, and radiation. Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring this heat poleward. Major currents, such as the northward flowing Gulf Stream, transport tremendous amounts of heat poleward and contribute to the development of many types of weather phenomena.

Atmospheric Properties The thin envelope of air that surrounds our planet is a mixture of gases, each with its own physical properties. The mixture is far from evenly divided. Two elements, nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99% of the volume of air. The other 1% is composed of "trace" gases, the most prevalent of which is the inert gaseous element argon. The rest of the trace gases, although present in only minute amounts, are very important to life on earth. Two in particular, carbon dioxide and ozone, can have a large impact on atmospheric processes. Another gas, water vapor, also exists in small amounts. It varies in concentration from being almost non-existent over desert regions to about 4% over the oceans. Water vapor is important to weather production since it exists in gaseous, liquid, and solid phases and absorbs radiant energy from the earth.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers based on temperature: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Throughout the Cycles unit, we'll focus primarily on the layer in which we livethe troposphere. Troposphere The word troposphere comes from tropein, meaning to turn or change. All of the earth's weather occurs in the troposphere. The troposphere has the following characteristics.

It extends from the earth's surface to an average of 12 km (7 miles).

The pressure ranges from 1000 to 200 millibars (29.92 in. to 5.92 in.). The temperature generally decreases with increasing height up to the tropopause (top of the troposphere); this is near 200 millibars or 36,000 ft. The temperature averages 15C (59F) near the surface and -57C (71F) at the tropopause. The layer ends at the point where temperature no longer varies with height. This area, known as the tropopause, marks the transition to the stratosphere. Winds increase with height up to the jet stream. The moisture concentration decreases with height up to the tropopause. The air is much drier above the tropopause, in the stratosphere. The sun's heat that warms the earth's surface is

transported upwards largely by convection and is mixed by updrafts and downdrafts. The troposphere is 70% and 21% . The lower density of molecules higher up would not give us enough to survive. Stratosphere The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the troposphere, this part of the atmosphere is dry and less dense. The temperature in this region increases gradually to -3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbtion of ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of "air" is located in the troposphere and stratosphere. The stratopause separates the stratosphere from the next layer. Mesosphere The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the temperatures again fall as low as -93 degrees Celsius as you increase in altitude. The chemicals are in an excited state, as they absorb energy from the Sun. The mesopause separates the mesophere from the thermosphere. The regions of the stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with the stratopause and mesopause, are called the middle atmosphere by scientists. This area has been closely studied on the ATLAS Spacelab mission series. Thermosphere The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. The temperatures go up as you increase in altitude due to the Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high as 1,727 degrees Celsius. Chemical reactions occur much faster here than on the surface of the Earth. This layer is known as the upper atmosphere. Composition of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N2, 78%), Oxygen (O2, 21%), and Argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad of other very influential components are also present which include the water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or Ozone (O<SUB3< SUB>, 0 0.01%), Carbon Dioxide (CO2, 0.01-0.1%), Nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) constitute 99% of the dry atmosphere. The rest of the gases, including GHGs, are collectively classified as "trace" gases due to their low concentrations. The recent attention given to the greenhouse effect and global warming is based on the recorded increases in concentrations of some of the greenhouse gases due to human activity. Of particular interest are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous

oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and ozone. With the exception of chlorofluorocarbons, all of these gases occur naturally and are also produced by human activity. Water vapor is the most important GHG on the planet. Unlike most of the other atmospheric gases, water vapor is considered to be a 'variable' gas; that is, the percentage of water vapor in the atmosphere can vary greatly depending on the location and source of the air. For example, over the tropical oceans, water vapor may account for 4% of the total volume of gases, while over deserts or at high altitudes, it may be nearly absent. Water vapor absorbs heat readily. When discussing gobal warming, however, people often don't consider water vapor. Why not? The main reason is that human activity is not directly changing water vapor content. However, we do directly influence other GHGs. Although other GHGs are individually less important than water vapor, increasing their concentrations may affect global climate in significant and measurable ways. Carbon dioxide ( ) is considered the most important human-influenced GHG. Scientific measurements reveal an unmistakable global increase that is rapid and escalating. This increase arises primarily from the burning of fossil fuels (motorized vehicles, electric power plants, and homes heated with gas or oil) and the burning and clearing of forested land for agricultural purposes. Methane ( ) is largely a product of natural biologic processes, but its output can be accelerated by human activities. is emitted from the decay of organic matter in waterlogged soils (for example, wetlands and rice paddies) and from the digestive tracts of grazing animals (for example, ruminants). The additions from human activities include the expansion of rice agriculture, the increased number of livestock, the increased number of landfills, and leakage from natural gas pipelines. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have no natural source; they are produced entirely by human activity. CFCs have historically been used widely as refrigerants in air conditioners, refrigerators, freezers, and heat pumps. They are found in some foam plastics and used in some electronics manufacturing. Even though CFC production has been vastly reduced, these compounds remain in the atmosphere for a long time; we shall see their effects as GHGs for many years. Nitrous oxide ( ) is a naturally occurring GHG, which has increased significantly in recent years due to human activity. is emitted from coal-burning power plants and can be released from the breakdown of chemical fertilizers in the soil. Ozone ( ) is also a greenhouse gas. It is important not to confuse the presence of the ozone in the stratosphere (a good thing) with the presence of ozone in the troposphere (a bad thing). In the troposphere, ozone can be a major component of urban smog damaging crops and aggravating respiratory problems as well as enhancing the greenhouse effect.

Atmospheric Processes InteractionsAtmosphere and Ocean In the Cycles overview, we learned that water is an essential part of the earth's system. The oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the earth's surface and play an important role in exchanging and transporting heat and moisture in the atmosphere.

Most of the water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans. Most of the precipitation falling over land finds its way back to oceans. About two-thirds returns to the atmosphere via the water cycle.

The oceans and atmosphere interact extensively. Oceans not only act as an abundant moisture source for the atmosphere but also as a heat source and sink (storage). The exchange of heat and moisture has profound effects on atmospheric processes near and over the oceans. Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring this heat poleward. Major currents, such as the northward flowing Gulf Stream, transport tremendous amounts of heat poleward and contribute to the development of many types of weather phenomena. They also warm the climate of nearby locations. Conversely, cold southward flowing currents, such as the California current, cool the climate of nearby locations. Energy Heat Transfer

Practically all of the energy that reaches the earth comes from the sun. Intercepted first by the atmosphere, a small part is directly absorbed, particularly by certain gases such as ozone and water vapor. Some energy is also reflected back to space by clouds and the earth's surface. Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere via conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through contact with neighboring molecules. Some solids, such as metals, are good conductors of heat while others, such as wood, are poor conductors. Air and water are relatively poor conductors. Since air is a poor conductor, most energy transfer by conduction occurs right at the earth's surface. At night, the ground cools and the cold ground conducts heat away from the adjacent air. During the day, solar radiation heats the ground, which heats the air next to it by conduction. Convection transmits heat by transporting groups of molecules from place to place within a substance. Convection occurs in fluids such as water and air, which move freely. In the atmosphere, convection includes large- and small-scale rising and sinking of air masses and smaller air parcels. These vertical motions effectively distribute heat and moisture throughout the atmospheric column and contribute to cloud and storm development (where rising motion occurs) and dissipation (where sinking motion occurs). To understand the convection cells that distribute heat over the whole earth, let's consider a simplified, smooth earth with no land/sea interactions and a slow rotation. Under these conditions, the equator is warmed by the sun more than the poles. The warm, light air at the equator rises and spreads northward and southward, and the cool dense air at the poles sinks and spreads toward the equator. As a result, two convection cells are formed. Meanwhile, the slow rotation of the earth toward the east causes the air to be deflected toward the right in the northern hemisphere and toward the left in the southern hemisphere. This deflection of the wind by the earth's rotation is known as the Coriolis effect. Radiation is the transfer of heat energy without the involvement of a physical substance in the transmission. Radiation can transmit heat through a vacuum. Energy travels from the sun to the earth by means of electromagnetic waves. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the energy associated with it. This is demonstrated in the animation below. As the drill's revolutions per minute (RPMs) increase, the number of waves generated on the string increases, as does the oscillation rate. The same principle applies to electromagnetic waves from the sun, where shorter wavelength radiation has higher energy than longer wavelength radiation.

Most of the sun's radiant energy is concentrated in the visible and near-visible portions of the spectrum. Shorter-than-visible wavelengths account for a small percentage of the total but are extremely important because they have much higher energy. These are known as ultraviolet wavelengths. The Water Cycle Water, in its different forms, cycles continuously through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Water evaporates into the atmosphere from the land and the sea. Plants and animals use and reuse water and release water vapor into the air. Once in the air, water vapor circulates and can condense to form clouds and precipitation, which fall back to earth. At one time or another, all of the water molecules on earth have been in an ocean, a river, a plant, an animal, a cloud, a raindrop, a snowflake, or a glacier! As far as we know, earth is the only planet with water in three phases: solid, liquid, and gas. The phase of water is determined by its temperature and pressure. Water is essential for life on earth. It is recycled through the water or hydrologic cycle, which involves the following processes: Evaporation, the changing of water from a liquid to a gas Condensation, the changing of water from a gas to a liquid Sublimation, the changing of water from a solid to a gas Precipitation, the process by which water molecules condense to form drops heavy enough to fall to the earth's surface Transpiration, the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere Surface runoff, the flowing of water over the land from higher to lower ground Infiltration, the process of water filling the porous spaces of soil Percolation, groundwater moving in the saturated zone below the earth's surface Through these processes, the amount of water on earth remains nearly constant and is continually recycled through time. Water molecules may remain in one form for a very long period of time (for example, water molecules can be locked in Antarctic ice for thousands of years) and in other forms for very short times (for example,

water molecules in desert rainstorms spend mere minutes as surface water before evaporating into vapor again). Earth's Atmosphere The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air, which we call the atmosphere. It reaches over 560 kilometers (348 miles) from the surface of the Earth, so we are only able to see what occurs fairly close to the ground. Early attempts at studying the nature of the atmosphere used clues from the weather, the beautiful multi-colored sunsets and sunrises, and the twinkling of stars. With the use of sensitive instruments from space, we are able to get a better view of the functioning of our atmosphere. Life on Earth is supported by the atmosphere, solar energy, and our planet's magnetic fields. The atmosphere absorbs the energy from the Sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and works with the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The atmosphere also protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space. The envelope of gas surrounding the Earth changes from the ground up. Four distinct layers have been identified using thermal characteristics (temperature changes), chemical composition, movement, and density. Troposphere The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends 8 to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This part of the atmosphere is the most dense. As you climb higher in this layer, the temperature drops from about 17 to -52 degrees Celsius. Almost all weather is in this region. The tropopause separates the troposphere from the next layer. The tropopause and the troposphere are known as the lower atmosphere. Stratosphere The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the troposphere, this part of the atmosphere is dry and less dense. The temperature in this region increases gradually to -3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbtion of ultraviolet radiation. The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of "air" is located in the

troposphere and stratosphere. The stratopause separates the stratosphere from the next layer. Mesosphere The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the temperatures again fall as low as -93 degrees Celsius as you increase in altitude. The chemicals are in an excited state, as they absorb energy from the Sun. The mesopause separates the mesophere from the thermosphere. The regions of the stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with the stratopause and mesopause, are called the middle atmosphere by scientists. This area has been closely studied on the ATLAS Spacelab mission series. Thermosphere The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. The temperatures go up as you increase in altitude due to the Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high as 1,727 degrees Celsius. Chemical reactions occur much faster here than on the surface of the Earth. This layer is known as the upper atmosphere. Composition of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N2, 78%), Oxygen (O2, 21%), and Argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad of other very influential components are also present which include the water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or Ozone (O<SUB3< SUB>, 0 0.01%), Carbon Dioxide (CO2, 0.01-0.1%), Nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) constitute 99% of the dry atmosphere. The rest of the gases, including GHGs, are collectively classified as "trace" gases due to their low concentrations. The recent attention given to the greenhouse effect and global warming is based on the recorded increases in concentrations of some of the greenhouse gases due to human activity. Of particular interest are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and ozone. With the exception of chlorofluorocarbons, all of these gases occur naturally and are also produced by human activity. Water vapor is the most important GHG on the planet. Unlike most of the other atmospheric gases, water vapor is considered to be a 'variable' gas; that is, the percentage of water vapor in the atmosphere can vary greatly depending on the location and source of the air. For example, over the tropical oceans, water vapor may account for 4% of the total volume of gases, while over deserts or at high altitudes, it may be nearly absent. Water vapor absorbs heat readily. When discussing gobal warming, however, people often don't consider water vapor. Why not? The main reason is that human activity is not directly changing water vapor content. However, we do directly influence other

GHGs. Although other GHGs are individually less important than water vapor, increasing their concentrations may affect global climate in significant and measurable ways. Carbon dioxide ( ) is considered the most important human-influenced GHG. Scientific measurements reveal an unmistakable global increase that is rapid and escalating. This increase arises primarily from the burning of fossil fuels (motorized vehicles, electric power plants, and homes heated with gas or oil) and the burning and clearing of forested land for agricultural purposes. Methane ( ) is largely a product of natural biologic processes, but its output can be accelerated by human activities. is emitted from the decay of organic matter in waterlogged soils (for example, wetlands and rice paddies) and from the digestive tracts of grazing animals (for example, ruminants). The additions from human activities include the expansion of rice agriculture, the increased number of livestock, the increased number of landfills, and leakage from natural gas pipelines. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have no natural source; they are produced entirely by human activity. CFCs have historically been used widely as refrigerants in air conditioners, refrigerators, freezers, and heat pumps. They are found in some foam plastics and used in some electronics manufacturing. Even though CFC production has been vastly reduced, these compounds remain in the atmosphere for a long time; we shall see their effects as GHGs for many years. Nitrous oxide ( ) is a naturally occurring GHG, which has increased significantly in recent years due to human activity. is emitted from coal-burning power plants and can be released from the breakdown of chemical fertilizers in the soil. Ozone ( ) is also a greenhouse gas. It is important not to confuse the presence of the ozone in the stratosphere (a good thing) with the presence of ozone in the troposphere (a bad thing). In the troposphere, ozone can be a major component of urban smog damaging crops and aggravating respiratory problems as well as enhancing the greenhouse effect.