Engineering Guid e

RAMA CORPORATION

600 W. Esplanade Avenue San Jacinto, CA 92583 Tel: 800.472.5670 u 909.654.7351 Fax: 800.255.4414 u 909.654.3748

Innovation through Experience

Since

1947

e-mail: rama@koan.com

Table of Contents DESCRIPTION PAGE

Introduction..........................................................................................3 Power Requirements Formulas...................................................................4 Energy Calculations - Short Method...........................................................5 Energy Calculations - Itemized Method...................................................5-6 Heat Loss Curves....................................................................................7 Watt Density Curves...............................................................................8 Power Requirement Curves.......................................................................8 Ohms Law.............................................................................................9 Wattage Requirement Chart.....................................................................10 Properties of Materials.......................................................................11-13 Material Emissivities............................................................................13 Heater Life Estimation........................................................................... 13 Guidelines for Watt Density & Operation Temperature......................14 Corrosion Resistance of Materials.........................................15-16 Equivalents and Conversions...............................................................17-20 Wire Current Carrying Capacity & Temperature Rating................................. 2 1 Trigonometric Solutions........................................................................ 22 Wiring Configurations............................................................................23 Suggested Wiring Practices for Electric Heaters.........................................24 Thermocouple Wire Selection..................................................................24 Temperature and Power Controls.......................................................25-28 Glossary......................................................................................29-31

Introduction

POWER REQUIREMENT FORMULAS

Several conditions must be considered when determining process heating requirements. Energy required to bring a system up to operating temperature in a desired time (start-up) and the energy required to maintain the operating temperature must be determined. The total power required (KW) to satisfy the system needs will be the greater of the two values plus a safety factor. It is helpful to define the heating system problem including sketches and statement of requirements. Some considerations would include: Operating heat losses from exposed surfaces. Insulation requirements. Operating temperatures (beginning and final). Time to reach temperature. Environmental factors (i.e. ambient temperature). Flow rates of process materials and cycle time. Mechanical and thermal properties of process materials. Size of container including weight, thermal properties, and other medium that will absorb heat energy. Type of temperature control used.

his Engineering section covers the basic principles of thermal energy applications as related to electrical resistance type heaters. The foregoing information will assist an individual in selecting approximate requirements for various heating systems. It includes general calculations, engineering data, conversion charts, and suggested wiring practices for solving heating problems. As an aid to understanding basic electrical terminology, a glossary is included. The purpose of this section is for basic electrical sizing of non-complex systems. For critical applications, Rama engineers are available to assist you in selecting components to meet your electrical heating requirements. When selecting electrical heating systems, ambient air temperature, environment toxicity and safety should be considered. Also, a basic understanding of conduction, convection and radiation modes of heat transfer is helpful. As always, Rama design and application engineers are eager to aid you in satisfying your electrical requirements. We are experts in the electrical heating field and try to use off-the-shelf solutions to supply you a high quality, low cost product. This section is designed only as a guide. Rama has produced this guide in order to assist the customer in choosing the correct heater for their application. However, the customer hereby releases Rama from all liability not specifically assumed by Rama hereunder. See Ramas Terms and Conditions for additional information on liability.

SHORT & ITEMIZED METHODS

The Short Method can be used as a quick estimate to approximate energy needs. The Itemized Method includes the properties of conduction, convection and radiation in determining heating properties. The following equations and steps permit calculations to determine wattage requirements for specific applications. STEP 1: Calculate the power required to heat your material and the associated equipment in contact with the material heated. STEP 2: Calculate the power required to heat the added material introduced when equipment is operated. STEP 3: Calculate the power required to melt or vaporize the material during heat-up and operation time. STEP 4: Calculate the power lost from surfaces. STEP 5: Determine the greater energy required between startup power and operating power plus a safety factor.

EQUATIONS: SHORT METHOD

EQUATION 1: For step 1 and Step 2 use the following equation:
Weight Specific Heat Temperature of matl (lb) (BTU/lb - F) Difference (F) KW = 3412 (BTU/KWH) Time allowed for heat-up time (hr)

EQUATION 3D:

Heat loss - Combined convection and QL4 = A FL te

radiation (watt-hours).

EQUATION 2: For step 3 use the following equation:

KW = Wgt. of matl (lb) Heat of fusion and/or vaporization (BTU/lb) 3412 (BTU/KWH) Time allowed for heat-up time (hr)

EQUATION 3: For step 4 use the following equation:

Thermal conductivity Surface Temperature 2 KW = of matl and/or insulation area (ft ) Difference (F) 3412 BTU/KWH Thickness of material and/or insulation (in.)

Q = Heat loss (conduction, convection or radiation) k = Thermal Conductivity (btu in/ft2 F hour) A = Surface area associated with heat loss (ft2) L = Thickness of material (in) CT = Temperature difference (F) te = Time of heat loss (hours) FL = Surface loss factor (W/ft2) (Use as required for convection, radiation, and combined convection/radiation) C = Surface orientation factor: 1.29 (top), 0.63 (bottom), 1.00 (vertical)

EQUATION 4: For step 5 use the following equation:

Power required for start-up operations: Total KW = (Step 1 + Step 3, if applicable + 2/3 Step 4) 1.15 Power required for sustained operations: Total KW = (Step 2 + Step 3, if applicable, + Step 4) 1.15 From these steps, determine the greater power required of the two calculations to size your heater, a safety contingency of 15% is included.

EQUATION 3E:

Heat loss - Total.

QL = QL1 + QL2 + QL3 or QL = QL1 + QL4 if combined convection and radiation losses are used.

EQUATION 4:

Start-up Power (watts). Ps = [ Q1 + Q3 + 2 (QL )] (1 + SF) ts 3 te

EQUATIONS: ITEMIZED METHOD

EQUATION 1:
Heat required to raise temperature of material (watthours). Q1 or Q2 = W Cp CT 3.412 Q = Heat required to raise temperature of material during heat-up or when added material is introduced. W = Weight of material (lb) Cp = Specific heat of material (btu/lb F) CT = Temperature difference (F)

EQUATION 5:

Maintaining Power (watts). Pm = [Q2 + Q4 + (QL)] (1 + SF) tc te

EQUATION 2: Heat required to vaporize or melt material (watt hours).

Qm = W Hf 3.412 Qv = W Hv 3.412

Q3 = Qm or Qv for start-up Q4 = Qm or Qv for working cycle Qm = Heat required to melt material Qv = Heat required to vaporize material W = Weight of material (lb) Hf = Latent heat of fusion (BTU/lb) Hv = Latent heat of vaporization (BTU/lb)

Q1 = Heat required to raise material temperature during start-up (WH) Q2 = Heat required to raise material temperature when added material is introduced (WH) Q3 = Latent heat of fusion/evaporation during start-up (WH) Q4 = Latent heat of fusion/evaporation when added material is introduced (WH) QL = Total losses - Conduction, Convection, Radiation (WH) ts = Start-up time (hr) c = Cycle time (hr) te = Exposure time (hr) SF = Safety Factory (normally 15%) When performing calculations using the Itemized Method, often some of the heat loss factors may be negligible and need not be taken into consideration. Conduction in many cases is the primary contribution to heat loss. After the power requirements have been determined, the appropriate heaters should be selected. The heater temperature will always be higher than the material process temperature. The maximum heater temperature allowed is dependent on the heat transfer path (i.e. hole fit for cartridge heater) and amount of insulation. The heater allowable watt density (w/in2) as a function of heater surface temperature should be verified by means of the charts and graphs shown in this section.

EQUATION 3A: Heat loss - Conduction (watt-hours).

QL1 = k A CT te 3.412 L

EQUATION 3B: Heat loss - Convection (watt-hours).

QL2 = A FL CSF te

EQUATION 3C:

Heat loss - Radiation (watt-hours). QL3 = A FL e te

Use Short Method equation #1.

Energy Calculations
Short Method
EXAMPLE #1
It is desired to heat a platen to 350 F in 1 hour. The two halves of the platen weigh 490 lbs. total and measure 12" 18" 4". The platen is made of mild steel and covered with 1" of insulation. w Weight of material = 490 lbs w Temp. Difference = temp. increase (350 - 70 F) w Specific heat = 0.12 BTU/lb F for mild steel w Heat up time = 1 hour w Thermal Conductivity = approx. 0.67 BTU in/ft2 F hr for insulation w Surface Area = 880 in2 (6.11 ft2) w Insulation thickness = 1"

! Flow Rate = 10 GPM ! Temperature Difference = 150 - 68F ! Density of Water = 62.4 lbs/ft3 (8.34 lbs/gal) ! Specific Heat = 1.0 BTU/lb F Weight = 10 GPM 8.34 lbs/gal 60 min/hr = 5004 lbs/hr KW = 5004 1.0 (150-68) = 120.3 KW 3412 1.0

Energy Calculations
Itemized Method
EXAMPLE #4
Estimate radiation heat loss of polished 304 stainless steel at 700F. Use Itemized Method Equation #3c. ! A = 1 in2 (surface area) ! F = 6.96 W/in2 Black Body Radiation Factor (see Fig. 2 graph for Oxidize Steel curve use for Black Body) ! e = 0.17 (emissivity correction factor) see table 9 ! te = 1 hour exposure time QL3 = A F e te Q = 1 6.96 0.17 1 = 1.18 W/in2

STEP 1:

Power to heat material (equation #1) KW = 490 lb. 0.12 (350-70) = 4.825 KW 3412 1 hr.

STEP 2 and STEP 3 are not required due the fact that no material
is being added or is being melted or vaporized.

STEP 4: Power loss from surfaces (alternate - use Figure 1 Heat Loss Graph) Equation #3.
KW= 0.67 6.11 ft2 (350-70) = 0.336KW 3412 1"

STEP 5: Determine energy required plus safety factor.

Total KW = (4.825 KW + 2/3 0.336KW) 1.15 = 5.806 KW The Start-up requirement is the governing power for this system. There is adequate space to install cartridge heaters in the platen. Six 1/2" diameter 12" long cartridge heaters will be installed in each platen halve. Each heater will be rated at 220V, 500 watts totaling 6000 watts. The watt density of each heater is approx. 27 watts/in2 which is below the maximum allowable temperature (see Fig. 11 graph). Hole fit should be kept to a minimum, suggesting maximum total clearance of 0.005".

EXAMPLE #5
The open tank in figure 1 - 1, is filled with water to within 3 of the top. It is desired to heat the tank and water to 150F in 1 hour. The tank size is 50 long x 15 wide x 30 high and holds 88 gallons of water. The tank weighs 100 lbs and the sides are covered with 2 thick insulation. Initial Temperature = 60F Final Temperature = 150F Heat up Time = 1 hour Tank Weight = 100 lbs Water Volume = 88 gallons Insulation Thickness = 2

WATER Figure 1-1

EXAMPLE #2
How much power is required to melt 100 lbs of aluminum in 1 hour? Use Short Method Equation #2. Weight of Material= 100 lbs Heat of Fusion = 169 BTU/hr Time = 1 Hr KW = 100 lbs 169 BTU/hr = 4.953 KW 3412 BTU/KWH 1 hr

As in the Short Method, the 5 steps to calculate power requirements should be followed. Steps 2 and 3 will be omitted since no material is being added nor is there a material phase change.

STEP 1A: Heat Requirement Calculation: The power required to heat the stainless steel tank (Equation 1).
QT=WCPT = 100 lbs .12 BTU/lb - F 90F = 316.53 (WH) 3.412 3.412 (BTU/WH) Where: QT = Heat required to raise temperature of material, watt hours. W = Weight of material, lb = 100 lbs. CP = Specific heat of material, (BTU/lb F). See Table 7. T = Temperature change = 150F - 60F = 90F

EXAMPLE #3
Find power required to heat 10 gallons per minute of water from 68F to 150F.

STEP 1B: The Power required to heat water (Equation 1).

QW = 732.5lbs 1.0 BTU/lbF 90F =19,321.51(WH) 3.412 (BTU/WH.) Where: W = Weight of Water = 4.1667 1.25 2.25 = 11.72ft3 62.5 = 732.5lbs. Density of Water = 62.5 (lb/ft3) Cp = Specific heat of Water = 1.0 (BTU/lb. F) See table 5. T= Temperature change = 150F - 60F = 90F

Where: A = Area of bottom of tank = 4.1667x 1.25 (ft) = 5.208 (ft2) FL = Heat loss factor from Fig. 2 graph = 100 (W/ft2) t = Time of heat loss = 1 hr e

STEP 4D: Total Losses (Equation 3e)

QL = QLWS + QLTY + QLTB = 1125 + 176 + 286 = 1587(WH) total losses.

STEP 5 : Wattage required to Heat Tank system with 1.15 safety factor (Equation 4).
PS = 2 [Q1 +tQ2 + 3 (QL)] (1 + SF) t s e

STEP 1C: Total power to heat tank and water.

Q1 = QT + QW Q1 = 317 (WH) = 19,321 (WH) = 19,638 (WH)

PS = 19,638WH + 0WH + 2 1587WH 1hr 3 1hr Ps = 23,800 Watts

)]

(1 + .15)

STEP 2: Power required to heat the added material introduced when

equipment is operated. NOT REQUIRED.

ts = start-up time

STEP 3: Power required to melt or vaporize the material during heat-up

and operation. NOT REQUIRED.

STEP 4A:

Heat Loss Equation. Heat loss from water surface: open

The maximum recommended heater watt density for water is 60 (W/in2) (see table 10). Therefore it is recommended, in this application, to use three screw-in immersion heaters with three heaters per assembly at 8,000 watts each or 24,000 watts total. Always round your wattage up to allow for manufacturing tolerances.

tank top. (Equation 3d). QLWS = A FL te = 5.208ft 216(W/ft2) 1(hr) = 1125 (WH) Where: QLWS = Heat loss from a surface, (watt hours) A = Surface area associated with heat loss, (ft2) .1667 1.25 = 5.208 ft2 FL = Heat loss factor, (watts/ft2) 1.5 (w/ft) 1 ft2 = 144in = 216 (w/ft2) (See Fig. 3 graph) te = Time of heat loss (hours) = 1 hour

FIGURE 1: Heat loss through various thickness

insulation (K = .67 @ 200F and .81 @ 900F)

STEP 4B: Heat loss from tank (vertical surfaces): Metal Surfaces with
2 insulation (Equation 3d)

QLTV = A (ft) FL te Insulated QLTV = 24.375 (ft2) 7.2 (W/ft2) 1 (hr) = 175.5 (WH) Where: A = Vertical surfaces area of tank = 2 {[4.1667 2.25 (ft)] + [1.25 2.25 (ft)]} = 24.375 (ft2) FL = Heat loss factor for insulated metal surface from Fig. #1 Graph (Approx. .05w/In2) te = Time of heat loss = 1hr

STEP 4C: Heat loss from tank - bottom surface (Equation 3d).
QLTB = 5.208 (ft2) x 55 (W/ft2) x 1(hr) = 286.44 (WH)

FIGURE 2: Combined convection and radiation heat loss from uninsulated metal surfaces.
Note: Use oxidized steel curve to approximate black body radiation.

Heat Loss Curves

FIGURE 3: Heat loss from surface of fluids.

FIGURE 4: Heat transfer from tubular heaters to air by forced convection.

FIGURE 5:
cylinders.

Heat loss from uninsulated steel

FIGURE 6: Heat required to raise water

temperatures.

FIGURE 7: Allowable watt-density, metal sheath heaters in distributed air velocity at various temperatures.

FIGURE 8: Temperature variation with change in watt-density and hole fit, metal sheath heaters in metal plates and molds.

Watt-Density & Power Requirement Curves

FIGURE 10:

Recommended maximum watt-density vs. varying ambient air

temperature for metal sheath heaters.

FIGURE 9: Heat-up requirements for air for varying rise of temperature.

FIGURE 11: High watt-density vs. temperature for metal sheath heaters in still air (78F).

FIGURE 12: Metal sheath heater temperature at various watt-densities and air temperatures.

FIGURE 13: Heat-up time vs. surface temperature for flexible blanket
heaters (with varying watt-densities) suspended in still air.

FIGURE 14: Maximum recommended watt-density for flexible rubber heaters vs. part (or ambient air) temperature for various mounting methods. For applications where watt-density may be higher consult factory.

VOLTS (E)
Volts = Watts Ohms Volts = Watts Amperes Volts = Amperes Ohms

RAMA CORPORATION Ohms Law

E R

AMPERES (I)
Amperes = Volts Ohms Amperes = Watts Volts

W I IR E I W OHMS (R)
Ohms = Volts Amperes Ohms = Volts 2 Watts Ohms = Watts Amperes 2

WR

W R

Amperes =

Watts Ohms

VOLTS

AMPS WATTS

W E EI IR
2

OHMS

E W

E R

WATTS (W)
Watts = Volts 2 Ohms Watts = Amperes 2 Ohms Watts = Volts Amperes

WATT DENSITY CALCULATIONS

BAND HEATERS: watts/in 2 = Wattage varies directly as ratio of voltages squared: W2 = W1 Wattage Dia. x 3.1416 Width

( E2)2E

CARTRIDGE & TUBULAR HEATERS: watts/in 2 =

Wattage Dia. x 3.1416 Heated Length

3 Phase Amperes = Total Watts Volts 1.732

STRIP HEATERS: watts/in 2 = Wattage Heated Length Width

Wattage Requirement Charts

Table 1: To Heat Steel
WEIGHT IN LBS 25 50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 . TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)

Table 2: To Heat Air

. . .
. TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)
Ft3/Min.

50

100 200 300 400 500 600

.12 .25 .37 .50 .65 .25 .50 .75 1.00 1.25 .50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 .75 1.50 2.25 3.00 3.75 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 1.50 3.00 4.50 6.00 7.50 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 2.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.50 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00 3.50 7.00 10.50 14.00 17.50 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 4.50 9.00 13.50 18.00 22.50 5.00 10.50 15.00 20.00 25.00 KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

CFM 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

50 1.7 3.3 5.0 6.7 8.3 10.0 11.7 13.3 15.0 16.7 18.3 20.0

100 3.3 6.7 10.0 13.3 16.7 20.0 23.3 26.7 30.0 33.3 36.7 40.0

150 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0

200

250

300

350

400

450

500 16.7 33.3 50.0 66.7 83.3 100.0 116.7 133.3 150.0 166.7 183.3 200.0

600 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.0 220.0 240.0

.06 .12 .25 .37 .50 .65 .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50

.75 1.50 3.00 4.50 6.00 7.50 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00 24.00 27.00 30.00

6.7 8.3 13.3 16.7 20.0 25.0 26.7 33.3 33.3 41.7 40.0 50.0 46.7 58.3 53.3 66.7 60.0 75.0 66.7 83.3 73.3 91.7 80.0 100.0

10.0 11.7 13.3 15.0 20.0 23.3 26.7 30.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 40.0 46.7 53.3 60.0 50.0 58.3 66.7 75.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 70.0 81.7 93.3 105.0 80.0 93.3 106.7 120.0 90.0 105.0 120.0 135.0 100.0 116.7 133.3 150.0 110.0 128.3 146.7 165.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

Use the maximum anticipated airflow. Table 2 and below equations assume insulated duct, negligible heat loss, 70 inlet air and 14 PSIA.

Includes 20% safety factor to compensate for heat losses and/or low volume.

FOR STEEL
KW = Kilograms Temp. Rise (C) 5040 Heat-up Time (hrs)

FOR AIR KW = CFM* Temperature rise (F) 3000 FOR COMPRESSED AIR

* Measured at normal temperature and pressure. **Measured at greater system inlet temperature and pressure.

KW = CFM** Density** Temperature Rise (F) 228

Table 3: To Heat Water

FT GAL . . . /HR /HR 20 40 60
.66 1.3 2 2.7 3.3 4 5.3 6.7 8 9.4 10.7 12 13.4 16.7 20 23.4 26.7 33.7 40 53.4 66.8 5 10 13 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 250 300 400 500 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.3 3.7 4.3 5 5.5 7 8 9 11 13 16 21 27
3

Table 4: To Heat Oil

. . . 100 120 140
3 FT GAL /HR /HR

. TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)

. TEMPERATURE RISE ( F)

80

50

. . . . . 100 200 300 400 500

0.5 1 1 3 4 4 9 14 18 22 27 31 36 40 45 49 54 58 62 67 1 2 2 6 8 9 18 28 37 46 56 65 74 84 93 102 112 121 130 140 2 3 4 9 12 15 29 44 58 72 86 100 115 129 144 158 172 186 200 215 2 4 6 12 16 20 40 60 80 100 120 139 158 178 197 217 236 255 275 294 3 6 11 16 22 25 52 77 102 127 151 176 201 226 252 276 302 326 350 375

0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.7 1.6 2.4 3.2 4 4.8 5.6 2.2 3.2 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.5 2.7 4 5.3 6.7 8 9.3 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12 4 6.4 8.5 11 13 15 5.4 8 10.7 13 16 19 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19 22 7.5 11.2 15 19 22 26 8.5 13 17 21 26 30 10 14.5 19 24 29 34 11 16 21 27 32 37 13 20 27 33 40 47 16 24 32 40 48 56 18 28 37 47 56 65 21 32 43 53 64 75 27 40 53 67 80 93 32 47 64 80 96 112 43 64 85 107 128 149 53 80 107 133 160 187 KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75

3.74 7.48 14.96 22.25 29.9 37.4 74.8 112.5 149.6 187 222.5 252 299 336.5 374 412 449 486 524 562

0.3 0.5 1 2 2 3 5 7 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 32 34

KW TO HEAT IN 1 HOUR

FOR WATER Quick estimates for other volumes:

FOR OIL Quick estimates for other volumes:

KW=

Gal/Hr 8.34 Temperature Rise (F) 3412 KW 3412 8.34 Temperature Rise (F)

KW=

Gallons Temperature Rise (F) 800 Process Start-up Time (hrs)

GAL/HR=

Add 5% for uninsulated tanks.

10

Table 5

LIQUIDS
Substance
Acetic Acid, 100% Acetone Allyl Alcohol Ammonia, 100% Amyl Alcohol Aniline Arochlor Oil Brine-Solium Chloride, 25% Butyl Alcohol Butyric Acid Carbon Tetrachloride Corn Syrup, Dextrose Cottonseed Oil Ether Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol, 95% Ethyl Bromide Ethyl Chloride Ethyl Lodide Ethylene Bromide Ethylene Chloride Ethylene Glycol Fatty Acid, Aleic Fatty Acid, Palmitic Fatty Acid, Stearic Formic Acid Freon 11 Freon 12 Freon 22 Fruit, Fresh (Avg) Glycerine Heptane Hexane Honey Hydrochloric Acid 10% Lard Linseed Oil Maple Syrup Mercury Methyl Acetate Methyl Chloroform Methylene Chloride Milk 3.5% Molasses Nitric Acid, 7% Nitric Acid, 95% Nitrobenzene Olive Oil
Specific heat Btu/lb -F

Properties of Materials
Heat of vaporization Btu/lb Boiling point F Densityweight in lbs/ft3 Thermal conductivity Btu-in/hr-ft2 F

Substance

Specific heat Btu/lb -F

Heat of vaporization Btu/lb

Boiling point F

Densityweight in lbs/ft3

Thermal conductivity Btu-in/ hr-ft2 F

.48 .514 .665 1.1 .65 .514 .28 .786 .687 .515 .21 .65 .47 .503 .475 .60 .215 .367 .161 .172 .299 .55 .7 .653 .550 .525 .208 .232 .300 .88 .58 .49 .6 .34 .93 .64 .44 .48 .033 .47 .26 .288 .90 .60 .92 .5 .35 .47

175 225 293 589 216 198 *** 730 254 *** *** *** *** 160 183.5 370 108 166.5 81.3 83 139 *** *** *** *** 216 *** 62 *** *** *** 137.1 142.5 *** *** *** *** *** 117 176.5 95 142 *** *** 918 207 142.2 ***

245 65.4 133 49 207 55 -27 47.9 280 55 63 64.3 650 89.7 220 74.1 244 45.3 345 50.4 170 98.5 231 87.8 *** 59.2 95 46 180 51.5 *** 50.4 101 90.5 54 57 160 113 270 120 240 71.7 387 70.0 547 55.4 520 53.1 721 52.8 213 69.2 74.9 92.1 -21.6 81.8 -41.36 74.53 *** 50-60 556 78.7 210 38.2 155 38.2 *** *** 221 66.5 *** 57.4 552 57.9 *** *** 675 845 133 54.8 165 82.7 104 82.6 *** 64.2 220 87.4 220 64.7 187 93.5 412 *** 570 58

1.14 1.15 *** 3.48 *** 1.25 *** 2.88 *** *** *** *** 1.20 .95 *** 1.30 *** *** *** *** *** *** 1.10 .996 .936 *** .60 .492 .624 *** 1.97 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 59.6 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***

Perchlorethylene .21 90 Petroleum Products: Asphalt .42 *** Benzene .42 170 Fuel Oils: Fuel Oil #1 (Kerosene) .47 86 Fuel Oil #2 .44 *** Fuel Oil Medium #3,#4 .425 67 Fuel Oil Heavy #5,#6 .41 *** Gasoline .53 116 Machine/Lube Oils: SAE 10-30 .43 *** SAE 40-50 .43 *** Napthalene .396 103 Paraffin Melted (150F+) .69 70 Propane (Compressed) .576 *** Toluene .42 *** Transformer Oils .42 *** Phenol (Carbolic Acid) .56 *** Phosphoric Acid 10% .93 *** Phosphoric Acid 20% .85 *** Polyurethane Foam Components: Part A Isocyanate .6 *** Part B Polyoil Resin .7 *** Potassium (1000F) .18 893 Propionic Acid .56 177.8 Propyl Alcohol .57 295.2 Sea Water .94 *** Sodium (1000F ) .30 1810 Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) 30% Sol .84 *** 50% Sol .78 *** Soybean Oil .24-.33 *** Starch *** *** Sucrose, 40% Sugar Syrup .66 *** Sucrose, 60% Sugar Syrup .74 *** Sulfur, Melted (500F) .24 120 Sulfuric Acid 20% .84 *** Sulfuric Acid 60% .52 *** Sulfuric Acid 98% .35 219 Trichloroethylene .23 103 Trichloro-Trifluoroethane .21 63 Turpentine .42 133 Vegetable Oil .43 *** Water 1.00 965 Xylene .411 149.2

250 *** 175 440 *** 580 *** 280 *** *** 424 572 -48.1 *** *** 346 *** *** *** *** 1400 286 208 *** 1638 *** *** *** *** 214 218 832 218 282 625 188 118 319 *** 212 288

101.3 62.3 56 50.5 53.9 55.7 58.9 41-43 55.4 55.4 54.1 56 .13 53.7 56.3 66.6 65.4 69.1

*** 5.04 1.04 1.01 .96 .918 .852 .936 *** *** *** 1.68 1.81 1.032 .9 *** *** ***

77 1.14 74.8 1.32 44.6 260.4 61.8 *** 50.2 *** 64.2 *** 51.2 580 82.9 95.4 57.4 95.4 73.5 80.4 112 71 93.5 114.7 91.3 94.6 54 57.5 62.5 53.8 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 2.88 1.80 .84 *** *** *** 4.08 ***

Table 6

GASES & VAPORS

Substance
Acetylene (ethyne) Air Ammonia Argon Butane Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide Chlorine Ethane Ethylene Helium Hydrogen Chloride Hydrogen
Thermal Specific heat at conductivity constant pressure Btu-in/hr-ft2 F Btu/lb-F * * Density lbs/ft3 * Specific gravity relative to air

At or near room temperature. Average value shown boils at various temperatures with the

distillation range for the material.

Thermal conductivity Btu-in/hr-ft2 F *

Substance
Hydrogen Sulphide Methane Methyl Chloride Natural Gas Nitric Oxide Nitrogen Nitrous Oxide Oxygen Propane Propane (propylene) Sulphur Dioxide Water vapor at 212F

Specific heat at constant pressure Btu/lb-F *

Density lbs/ft3 *

Specific gravity relative to air

.129 .18 .16 .12 .0876 .12 .18 .06 ... .1212 1.10 ... .13

.35 .24 .523 .124 .395 .199 .248 .115 .386 .40 1.25 .191 3.42

.0682 .075 .0448 .1037 .1554 .115 .0727 .1869 .0789 .0733 .0104 .0954 .0052

.907 1.000 .596 1.379 2.067 1.529 .967 2.486 1.049 .975 .1381 1.268 .0695

.091 .21 ... ... .1656 .19 .1056 .18 ... ... .07 .16

.243 .593 .24 .56 .231 .247 .221 .217 .393 .358 .154 .482

.0895 .0417 .1342 .0502 .078 .0727 .1151 .0831 .1175 .1091 .1703 .037

1.19 .554 1.785 .667 1.037 .967 1.53 1.105 1.562 1.451 2.264 .489

*At 70 & atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSIA) Natural gas values are representative. Specific contents of sampling are required for exact characteristics.

11

METAL & NON-METALLIC SOLIDS

Table 7
Substance
Specific Heat Heat of fusion Btu/lb 167 169 69 *** 40 *** *** 75 *** 23 *** *** *** 75 23.8 140 72 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 115.2 *** *** *** 91.1 *** *** *** *** *** *** 29.0 *** *** 144 *** *** *** *** *** *** 11.3 *** 59 116 160 *** *** 5 *** 126 *** 133 *** Melting point F 935 1190 1166 *** 250 *** 1562 144 2345 520 4172 1710 *** 1832 610 1564 1422 6700 *** 3 *** *** 2822 3160 *** *** 2696 *** *** *** 1981 *** *** *** 2900 3000 2200 1945 *** *** 32 2500 2500 2600 2150 2800 *** 620 *** 367 2268 1202 5070 *** -38 *** 4750 2370 2615 2550 *Densityweight in lbs/ft3 173 169 423 121 65 74-81 225 60.5 113.5 612 144 529 131 541 540 96.7 157 138 94 *** 4-10 112-175 450 90 80 78 554 62-88 100 144 556 13.5 92.4 88.1 137-150 144-162 164 1206 160-175 130 56.0 501 525 506 449 480 58 708 130-175 367 463 109 19 194 844 176 638 551 555 522
*Thermal conThermal expanductivity sion in/in/F x Btu/in 10-6 2 hr ft

Substance
Paper Paraffin Pitch (Hard) Plastics: ABS Acrylic Cellulose Acetate Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Epoxy Fluoroplastics Nylon Phenolic Polycarbonate Polyester Polyethylene Polyimides Polypropylene Polystyrene Polyvinyl Chloride Acetate Platinum Porcelain Potassium Potassium Chloride Potassium Nitrate Quartz Rhodium Rubber Rubber, Synthetic Silicone Rubber Silicon Silver Sodium Solder (50%Pb-50%Sn.) Steatite Steel Mild Steel S. 304 Steel S. 430 Sulfur Sugar Tallow Tantalum Teflon Tin, Solid Titanium 99.0% Tungsten Type Metal (85%Pb-13%Sb.) Uranium Vinyl Wood, Pine Wood, Oak Zirconium Zinc

Specific Heat .45 .69 ***

Heat of fusion Btu/lb *** 63 300

Melting point F *** 133 83

*Densityweight in lbs/ft3 58.8 55.3 ***

*Thermal con- Thermal expanducsion in/in/F x tivity 10Btu/in hr ft2 F 6

Thermal
*** ***

Aluminum 2024-T3 .24 Aluminum 1100-0 .24 Antimony .049 Asbestos Cement Board .25 Asphalt .40 Bakelite Resin, Pure .3-.4 Barium .068 Beeswax *** Beryllium .052 Bismuth .031 Boron .309 Brass, Yellow .096 Brickwork & Masonry .220 Bronze (75% Cu; 25% Sn) .082 Cadmium .055 Calcium .149 Calcium Chloride .17 Carbon .280 Cement, Portland Loose .19 Cerafelt Insulation @ 1000F 25 Ceramic Fiber .27 Chalk .215 Chromium .11 Clay .224 Coal .32 Coal Tar .35-.45 Cobalt .099 Coke .265 Concrete, Cinder .16 Concrete, Stone .156 Copper .095 Cork .50 Cotton (Flax, Hemp) .31 Delrin .350 Firebrick, Fireclay .243 Firebrick, Silica .258 Glass .20 Gold .032 Granite .192 Graphite .20 Ice .53 Incoloy 800 .13 Inconel 600 .126 Invar (36%Ni) .126 Iron, Cast .12 Iron, Wrought .12 Isoprene, Rubber .48 Lead, Solid .032 Limestone .217 Lithium .79 Manganese .115 Magnesium .27 Magnesia, 85% .222 MgO (Compacted) .209 Mercury .033 Mica .21 Molybdenum .061 Monel 400 .11 Nickel 200 .12 Nichrome (80% Ni - 20% Cr) .11

1344 1536 131 5.2 1.2 *** *** 1.67 *** 59 *** 828 3-7 180 660 912 *** 173 2.04 1.22 *** 5.76 484 9 11 *** 499 *** 5.3 9.5 2688 .36 .41 1.6 6.6 7.2 5.4 2028 13-28 1.25 11 97 109 73 396 432 1.0 240 3.6-9 516 80.6 1092 *** 20 60.8 3.0 *** 151 468 104.4

12.6 13.1 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 11.2 3-6 *** *** *** *** *** ***

.82 1.6 ***

.35 .34 .3-.5 .3-.4 .25-.3 .28 .3-.5 .35 .3 .2-.35 .54 .27-.31 .46 .32 .2-.3 .035 .26 .058 .17 .26 .26 .059 .44 .40 .45 .162 .057 .295 .051 .20 .122 .12 .11 .175 .30 *** .035 .25 .065 .13 .0321 .040 .028 .3-.5 .45 .57 .066 .096

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 49 *** 26.2 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 38 49.3 17 *** *** *** *** 17 *** 90 *** *** 26.1 *** 79 14 *** *** *** *** 108 43.3

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 3225 *** 146 1454 633 *** 3570 *** *** *** 2570 1760 207 420 *** 2760 2550 2650 246 320 60.0 5425 *** 450 3035 6170 500 3075 *** *** *** 3350 264

69-76 69-74 76-83 74 66-88 131-150 67-72 85-124 74-78 66-92 57-60 90 55-57 66 72-99 1339 145-155 750 124 132 138 776 76.0 58 78 14.5 665 60 558 162 491 494 475 130 105 *** 1036 135 454 283 1200 669 1170 79.5 34 50 400 445

1.32 1.0 1.2-2.3 1.2-2.3 1.2-2.4 1.68 1.68 1.02 1.38 4-5 2.3 2.5-6.8 1.72 .7-1.0 .84-1.2 492 6-10 720 *** *** *** 636 1.1 1.0 *** *** 2904 972 336 17.5-23 456 105.6 150 1.9 *** *** 372 1.7 432 111.6 1130 180 193.2 .8-20 .9 1.1 145 7.40

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 94.0 *** 33-34 *** 4.9 *** *** *** *** *** *** 340 *** *** *** 10.8 *** 13.1 4.5-5.5 6.7 9.6 6.0 36.0 *** *** 3.6 55.0 13.0 4.7 2.5 *** *** 28-100 *** *** 3.2 22.1

*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 9.8 *** *** 45.0 *** *** 5.0 7.9 *** *** 28.3 7.9 5.8 *** 6.0 *** *** 16.4 *** *** *** 14.0 *** 7.7 *** 18.0 *** 6.4 5.8 7.3

* At or near room temperature.

! To convert to Kg/m 3 multiply by 16.02. ! To convert to Kj/Kg multiply by 2.326. ! To convert to Kj/Kg - C multiply Btu/lb - F by 4.187. ! To convert to W/m - C multiply Btu - in/hr - ft 2 by 0.1442.

12

Table 8
Substance
Aluminum

METALS

IN

LIQUID STATE
Heat of fusion Btu/lb Melting point F TemperatureF Density weight lbs/ft3

Specific Heat Btu/lb-F

Thermal conductivity Btu- in hr ft2 -F

Material Emissivities
Heat Loss Factors
Table 9

Bismuth

Cadmium

Gold Lead Lithium Magnesium

Mercury

Potassium Silver

Sodium

.26 .26 .26 .034 @ 520F .0354 .0376 .0632 .0632 .0632 .0632 .0355 .038 .037 1.0 1.0 .317 *** .321 .0334 .03279 *** .3245 .1901 .1826 .0692 .0692 .0692 .331 .320 .301 .0556 .0584 .058 *** *** .12 *** .177

173 *** *** 21.6 *** *** 23.8 *** *** *** 26.9 10.6 *** 284.4 *** 148 *** *** 5 *** *** *** 26.3 *** 44.8 *** *** 48.7 *** *** 17 28 26.1 *** *** 43.9 *** ***

1220.4 *** *** 520 *** *** 609 *** *** *** 1945 621 *** 354 *** 1204 *** *** -38 *** *** *** 147 *** 1761 *** *** 208 *** *** 421 375 449 *** *** 787 *** ***

1220 1292 1454 572 752 1112 626 662 680 752 2012 700 932 392 752 1204 1328 1341 32 212 320 392 300 752 1761 1832 2000 212 400 752 *** *** 482 768 783 787 932 1112

148.6 147.7 *** 626.2 618.7 603.1 500 498.8 *** 495 1076 655.5 648.7 31.7 31 98 94.3 *** *** 833.6 *** 818.8 50.6 46.6 580.6 578.1 574.4 57.9 56.2 53.3 *** *** *** 426.6 *** 432 *** 425

*** 717 842 119 107.4 107.4 *** 307.7 305 *** *** 111.6 107.4 262 *** *** *** *** 57 *** 81 *** 312 277.5 *** *** *** 596.5 556.8 493.8 *** *** *** *** 229.3 *** 400.6 394.8

MATERIAL EMISSIVITIES /METALS

Substance Aluminum Blackbody Brass Copper Incoloy 800 Inconel 600 Iron, Cast Lead, solid Magnesium Nickel 200 Nichrome, 80-20 Solder, 50-50 Steel: mild stainless 304 stainless 430 Tin Zinc
Specific heat Btu/lb-F

Emissivity
Polished surface Medium oxide Heavy oxide

0.24 *** 0.10 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.03 0.23 0.11 0.11 0.04 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.056 0.10

0.09 *** 0.04 0.04 0.20 0.20 *** *** *** *** *** *** 0.10 0.17 0.17 *** ***

0.11 0.75 0.35 0.03 0.60 0.60 0.80 0.28 *** *** *** *** 0.75 0.57 0.57 *** 0.25

0.22 1.00 0.60 0.65 0.92 0.92 0.85 *** *** *** *** *** 0.85 0.85 0.85 *** ***

Solder .5 Sn. .5Pb .6 Sn. .4Pb Tin

HEATER LIFE ESTIMATION

The table below shows the estimated life of a heater internal element (i.e. Tophet A, 80 Ni 20 Cr wire) at various temperatures. The life of a heater is a function of maximum temperature and temperature cycling. Higher temperatures means shorter heater life. Life of cartridge heaters with MGO insulation are limited to the wire oxidation rate. Silicone rubber and mica insulated heaters have life limits associated with the temperature limits of the insulating materials. (Note: Allowances must be made for heater sheath temperature vs. heater element temperature.)

Zinc

MATERIAL EMISSIVITIES /N ON -METALS

Substance
Asbestos Asphalt Brickwork Carbon Glass Paper Plastic Rubber Silicon Carbide Textiles Wood, Oak
Specific heat Btu/lb-F Emissivity

0.25 0.40 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.45 0.2-0.5 0.40 0.20-0.23 *** 0.57

ELEMENT TEMP. (F)

Most non-metals: 0.90

ESTIMATED LIFE 3-1/2 years 1 year 4 months 1-1/2 months 14 days 7 days

1500F 1600F 1700F 1800F 1900F 2000F

13

Table 10
Max. operating temperature F

for Watt Density & Operation Temperature

Max. watt density (W/in2) Sheath material Material to be heated
Max. operating temperature F

Guidelines

Material to be heated

Max. watt density (W/in2)

Sheath material

Acid Solution (Mild) Acetic Boric Carbonic Chromic Citric Fatty Acids Lactic Malic Nitric Phenol - 2-4 Disulfonic Phosphoric Phosphoric (Aerated) Proponic Tannic Tartaric Acetaldehyde Acetone Air Alcyl Alcohol Alkaline Solutions Aluminum Acetate Aluminum Potassium Sulfate Ammonia Gas Ammonium Acetate Amyl Acetate Amyl Alcohol Aniline Asphalt Barium Hydroxide Benzene, liquid Butyl Acetate Calcium Bisulfate Calcium Chloride Carbon Monoxide Carbon Tetrachloride Caustic Soda 2% 10% 75% Citrus Juices Degreasing Solution Dextrose Dowtherm A 1 ft. sec. or more non-flowing Dowtherm E Dyes & Pigments Electroplating Baths Cadmium Copper Dilute Cyanide Potassium Cyanide Rochelle Cyanide Sodium Cyanide Ethylene Glycol Formaldehyde Freon gas Fuel Oils: Grade 1 & 2 (distilate)

180 257 180 180 180 150 122 122 167 180 180 180 180 167/180 180 180 130 C/F 200 212 122 212 C/F 167 240 212 350 200-500 212 150 225 400 200 *** 160 210 210 180 185 275 212 750 750 400 212 180 180 180 180 180 180 300 180 300 200

40 40 40 40 23 20 10 10 20 40 23 23 40 23/40 40 10 10 *** 10 40 10 40 *** 23 23 20 23 4-10 40 10 10 20 5-8 23 23 48 25 25 23 23 20 23 10 12 23 40 40 40 40 40 40 30 10 2-5 23

C-20, Quartz Quartz *** C-20, Quartz 316 S.S. 316 S.S. 316 S.S. 316 S.S. Quartz 316 S.S. Quartz Stainless Steel Copper Quartz 316 S.S. Copper Incoloy Incoloy Copper Steel 316 S.S. Copper Steel Incoloy Incoloy Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Steel 316 S.S. Copper 316 S.S. 316 S.S. Quartz Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy 316 S.S. Steel Stainless Steel Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Quartz 316 S.S. Quartz Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Steel Stainless Steel Steel Steel

Fuel Oils cont. Grade 4 & 5 (residual) Grades 6 & bunker c (residual) Gasoline Gelatin, Liquid Solid Glycerine Glycerol Grease, Liquid Solid Heat Transfer Oils Hydrazine Hydrogen Hydrogen Sulfide Linseed Oil Lubrication Oil SAE 10, 90-100 SSU @ 130F SAE 20, 120-185 SSU @ 130F SAE 30, 185-255 SSU @ 130F SAE 40, -80 SSU @ 210F SAE 50, 80-105 SSU @ 210F Magnesium Chloride Manganese Sulfate Methanol gas Methylchloride Mineral Oil Molasses Naptha Oil Draw Bath Oils (see specific type) Paraffin or Wax (liquid state) Perchloroethylene Potassium Chlorate Potassium Chloride Potassium Hydroxide Soap, liquid Sodium Acetate Sodium Cyanide Sodium Hydride Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Phosphate Steam, flowing Sulfur, Molten Terminols Toluene Trichlorethylene Turpentine Vegetable Oil & Shortening Water (process)

200 160 300 150 150 500 212 *** *** 500 600 212 C/F C/F 150 250 250 250 250 250 212 212 C/F 180 200 400 100 212 600 400 150 200 212 212 160 212 212 140 720

13 8 23 23 5 10 23 23 5 23 15 16 *** *** 50 23 23 23 13 13 40 40 *** 20 23 16 4-5 10 23 24

Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel Incoloy Incoloy Steel Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Incoloy 316 S.S. Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel C-20, Quartz Quartz Stainless Steel Copper Steel Steel Stainless Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel 316 S.S. 316 S.S. Monel Stainless Steel Steel Stainless Steel Incoloy Soda) Quartz Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Incoloy Steel Steel Steel Steel Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel S.S., Incoloy

16 23 40 40 23 20 40 40 28 (See Caustic 212 40 300 10 500 5-10 700 5 600 10 500 23 600 23 650 15 212 23 150 23 300 20 400 212 30 60

Note:

C-20 designates Carpenter Stainless #20. C/F = Consult Factory.

14

Table 11

Corrosion Resistance of materials

SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH 300 Series Stainless SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH 300 Series Stainless Inoconel/Incoloy
Cast Iron Ni Resist Cast Iron Ni Resist

Iron & Steel

Iron & Steel

Inoconel/Incoloy
A A A X X A C A A A A A A C C F A C A F A A A A F A A X A A A A C C X X X X X X X A A X C

Copper Lead Aluminum Nickel

Acetic Acid, Crude Pure Vapor 150 PSI; 400F Acetone Alboloy Process Alodine 200F Aluminum Sulphate Ammonia Gas, Cold Hot Ammonia and Oil Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonium Nitrate Ammonium Sulphate Amyl Alcohol Anhydrous Ammonia Aniline, Aniline Oil Aniline, Dyes Anodizing Solution 10% Chromic Acid 96F Sulphuric Acid 70F Sodium Hydroxide Alkaline Nigrosine Black Dye Nickel Acetate Barium Chloride Barium Hydroxide Barium Sulphide Bleaching Solution 1 1/2 lb. Oxalic Acid per Gallon of H20 at 212F Bonderizing Cadmium Plating Carbolic Acid, Phenol Carbon Dioxide, Dry Wet Carbon Tetrachloride Castor Oil Chloroacetic Acid Cholorine, Dry Wet Chromic Acid Chrome Plating Citric Acid Cobalt Acetate 130F Coconut Oil Copper Chloride Copper Cyanide Copper Plating Copper Sulphate Creosote Deoxidine

C X X F

Monel

C A X A C A C A A A A A C A

F A F F A

C C C C A

F F F F A

X F X X A

F A C C F

F F F F A

A-347 A-316 C F F A A A C C C A A C A F A A A A A A F C C A A A A A

F A C C C A A X X X X X F A X X A X F A F X F A X

Deoxylyle Diphenyle 300-350 Di Sodium Phosphate 25% 180F Diversey No. 99 Dowtherm Ethers Ethyl Chloride Ethylene Glycol 300F. Ferric Chloride Ferric Sulphate Formaldehyde Formic Acid Freon Fuel Oil Fuel Oil, Acid Gasoline, Sour Gasoline, Refined Glycerin, Glycerol Holdens 310A Tempering Bath Houghtons Mar Tempering Salts Hydrochloric Acid <150F >150F Hydrofluoric Acid, Cold <65% >65% Hot <65% >65% Hydrogen Peroxide Iridite 1-Part and 5-Parts Water @ 200F Isopropanol Kerosene Kolene Lacquer Solvents Lard Linseed Oil Magnesium Chloride Magnesium Hydroxide Magnesium Sulphate Mercuric Chloride Mercury Methyl Alcohol,Methanol Methyl Chloride Mineral Oils Naphthalene Nickel Chloride Nickel Plating, Bright Nickel Plating, Dull Nickel Sulphate Nitric Acid, Crude Concentrated Diluted Nitrobenzene

A A A A A A A X X F X C A C C A A C X X X F X C X C A C F A F A A C A A A A A A F A A C A X X F A C A A X X

Monel

Compound

Compound

A A X F-304 A-316 A F C A C A A A X X X X X X A

A F XF C F X A A A A C A A C A A A A F A X X C F X F X F A C A F X A X X A A A X A A X X X X F F X F C X X F A A

A A A F-304 X-316 A A A A C X X F F X A X X A A F

A A A F A A X A A A F A C F A A

C C A F C A X A X C X F A A X A

F C A C C A X C C

A A A A C A X A X A A X A A A A A A X F A A F F A A A A A A A A X A A A A A F X F C F C A X X X F A A A X F X X A X A A A A A C A X A C A X A A

X A A

C A A

C A

A A A

X X X A

RESISTANCE RATINGS:

A = Good

F = Fair

C = Conditional*

X = Unsuitable

Copper Lead Aluminum Nickel

A A X X A A A A X X X A X X X C A C A A A C X X X X X X A C C X X F A A A A X X F X A C X X X A A A A A A X X X C X X A X X X X

15

Table 11

Corrosion Resistance of materials cont.

SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH 300 Series Stainless SUGGESTED M ETAL S HEATH 300 Series Stainless Inoconel/Incoloy
Cast Iron Ni Resist

Copper Lead Aluminum Nickel

Inoconel/Incoloy
A C X A X C C C C C C X X A A C A A A A A

Cast Iron Ni Resist

Iron & Steel

Iron & Steel

Monel

Oakite No. 20 Oakite No. 23 Oakite No. 24 Oakite No. 30 Oakite No. 32 Oakite No. 33 Oakite No. 36 Oakite No. 51 Oakite No. 90 @ 180F Oleic Acid Oxalic Acid Paraffin Parkerizing Perchlorethylene Permachlor Petroleum Oils, Crude <500F >500F >1000F Phenol 85%,120F Phosphoric Acid, Crude Pure <45% >45% Cold Hot Photo Fixing Bath Picric Acid Water Solution Potassium Chloride Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate 208F Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Sulphate Prestone 350F R5 Bright Dip for Copper Polish @ 180F Soap Solutions Sodium Carbonate <20% Sodium Chloride Sodium Cyanide Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypochlorite Sodium Nitrate Sodium Peroxide Sodium Silicate Sodium Sulphate Sodium Sulphide Soybean Oil

A A A A A-347 A A C C A C A A X C C X X X C A A C A A A A A A A X A C A A A

Steam

<500F 500-1000F >1000F Stearic Acid Sulphur Sulphuric Acid <10% Cold Hot 10-75% Cold A A A X X A A C X A

A C X C A X X X X C F C A A A F A

C C F A A

A C A A A A A C A-347 A C A A X-304 C-316 A A A A A-347 F F A-316

Hot 75-95% Cold Hot Fuming Sulphurous Acid Tannic Acid Tar Tartaric Acid Tetrachlorethyene Thermail Granodine Therminall Fr. 18-1/2 W/in2 @ 640F Tin Plating Toluene Triad Solvent Trichloroethylene Turco No. 2623 Turpentine Urea Ammonia Liquor 48F Vegetable Oil Vinegar Water, Acid Mine Containing Oxidizing Salts No Oxidizing Salts Water, Fresh Distilled, Lab Grade Return Condensate Water, Sea Water Whiskey and Wines X-Ray Solution Zinc Chloride Zinc Plating Zinc Sulphate

C X X X F F C C C A A A A A A A F A C A A A A F A A A

C C A C X X A X X X X X X F F C X A X X A C A A X A X X C C X C X

A A A C A C F F F-316 X-304 X-304 F-316 X A X F C-304 F-316 C-316 X-304 F A C-304 A-316

Monel

Compound

Compound

A A A

X X X A C A X X X X A A A A

A C C A C A C X C C X A C X C A C

A C A C A A A C

C A F A X A

A F-304 A A-316 C A X A X A A X A A A A F C F-304 A-316 A C X A A A A C A A A A A A A A A F A

A F-304 A-316 C A-316 A F C X A F-304 A-316 A A A A-316 A A A A A

X X X X F X A C X X C F A A A A A C X X A A A C A X A X F

A A

RESISTANCE RATINGS:

A = Good

F = Fair

C = Conditional*

X = Unsuitable

*Conditional: Performance is dependent upon specific application conditions such as solution, concentration and temperature.

16

Copper Lead Aluminum Nickel

A C X C X C X X X X X X C A A X C C X X A C A A X A C C A C X A C C A A A A X C X C X C X X C A C X A X X A A A A C A A A F C C A A C C C C C A X A C A X X A X A A A A A A A X A X C

Table 12

Equivalents & Conversions

Conversion Table
1 Btu = 251.996 international calories
= = = = = = = 0.03937 inch 0.3937 inch 3.937 inches 39.37 inches 10.93 yards 328.08 feet 0.6214 mile

Metric System Length

UNIT
millimeter (mm) centimeter (cm) decimeter (dm) METER (m) dekameter (dkm) hectometer (hm) kilometer (km)

METRIC EQUIVALENT U.S. EQUIVALENT

= 0.001 meter = 0.01 meter = 0.1 meter = 1.0 meter = 10.0 meter = 100.0 meters = 1000.0 meters

Multiply no. of... By... BRITISH 778.3

THERMAL UNITS

To Obtain...
Foot-pound Horsepower-hours Kilowatt-hours Watts-hours British thermal units Horsepower-hours Kilowatt-hours Watt-hours British thermal units Foot-pound Kilowatt-hours Watt-hours British thermal units Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours Watt-hours British thermal units Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours Kilowatt-hours

FOOT-POUNDS HORSEPOWERHOURS

Metric system/capacity
Unit Metric Equivalent U.S. Equivalent
= 0.034 fluid ounce = 0.338 fluid ounce = 3.38 fluid ounces = 1.05 liquid quarts = 0.284 bushel = 2.837 bushels = 264.18 gallons milliliter (ml) centriliter (cl) deciliter (dl) LITER (l) dekaliter (dkl) hectoliter (hl) kiloliter (kl) = 0.001 liter = 0.01 liter = 0.1 liter = 1.0 liter = 10.0 liters = 100.0 liters = 1000.0 liters

KILOWATT-HOURS WATT-HOURS

Metric system/weight or mass

UNIT METRIC EQUIVALENT
= = = = = = = milligram (mg) centrigram (cg) decigram (dg) GRAM (g) dekagram (dkg) hectogram (hg) kilogram (kg)

U.S. EQUIVALENT
= 0.0154 grain = 0.1543 grain = 1.543 grains = 15.43 grains = 0.3527 ounce avoirdupois = 3.527 ounce avoirdupois = 2.2 pounds avoirdupois

3.929 x 10-4 2.930 x 10-4 .2930 1.285 x 10-3 5.05 x 10-7 3.766 x 10-7 3.766 x 10-4 2545 1.98 x 104 .7457 745.7 3413 2.655 x 106 1.341 1000 3.413 2655 1.341 x 10-3 .001

0.001 gram 0.01 gram 0.1 gram 1.0 gram 10.0 grams 100.0 grams 1000.0 grams

LENGTH

Conversion Factors

WEIGHT
1kg. = 2.205 lb. 1in3 = 16.39 cm3 1ft3 = .02832 m3 1ft3 = 62.43 lb. water 1ft3. = 7.5 gal water 1ft3 = 28.32 liters 1 U.S. gal = .1337 ft3 1 U.S. gal = 231 ft3 1 U.S. gal = 8.345 lb water 1 U.S. gal = 3.785 liters

Metric system/area
UNIT
squared millimeter (mm2) squared centimeter (cm2) square decimeter (dm2)

1in. = 2.54 cm 1ft . = .3048 m 1yd. = .9144 m 1m = 39.37 in

VOLUME

METRIC EQUIVALENT
= = = = = =

U.S. EQUIVALENT
= = = = = = = 0.00155 square inch 0.155 square inch 15.5 square inch 10.76 square feet 0.0247 acre 2.47 acre 0.386 square mile

AREA
1 in2 = 6.452 cm2 1 ft2 = .0929 m2

CENTARE also (ca) square meter (m2) are also (a) square dekameter (dkm2) hecatre also (ha) square hectometer (hm2) square kilometer (km2)

0.000001 centare 0.0001 centare 0.01 centare 1.0 centare 100.0 centares 10,000.0 centares

HORSEPOWER
1 hp. = .746 kW 1 boiler hp. = 9.8 kW

Natural gas equivalent

One therm. = 1,000,000 BTU One ft3. of gas = 1040 BTU (range 10201055) One therm (rounding off) = 1000 ft3. gas One MCF = 1,040,000 BTU

= 1,000,000.0 cantres

Metric system/volume
UNIT METRIC EQUIVALENT U.S. EQUIVALENT
cubic millimeter (mm3) = 0.001 cubic centimeter = 0.016 minim cubic centimeter (cc, cm3 ) = 0.001 cubic decimeter = 0.061 cubic inch 3) cubic decimeter (dm = 0.001 cubic meter = 61.023 cubic inches STERE also (s) = 1.0 cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards cubic meter (m3) cubic dekameter (dkm3) = 1000.0 cubic meters = 1307.943 cubic yards cubic hectometer (hm3) = 1000,000.0 cubic meters = 1,307,942.8 cubic yards cubic kilometer (km3) = 1,000,000,000.0 cubic meters = 0.25 cubic mile

Multiply no. of... By...

bar bar barrel, 42 US gal. calorie Joule Kilojoule Kilograms/cm2
IN

To obtain...
atmosphere pascal meters3 Joule BTU kilowatt-hour pounds/in2

Pressure
UNIT
1 Atmosphere 1kg./cm2 10lb./in2 1 bar 1 meter Hg(0C) 10 in. Hg(32F) 100ft. H2O(60F)

.987 100,000 .159 4.184 .00095 3.600 14.2

FT

ATM
1* 0.967841 0.68046 0.986923 1.31579 0.33421 2.9469

KG /CM 2

LB /IN 2

BAR

MM

HG (0C)

HG (32F)
29.921 28.959 20.360 29.530 39.370 10* 88.175

H2O(60F)

1.033228 1* 0.70307 1.019716 1.35951 0.34532 3.0448

14.6959 14.2233 10* 14.5038 19.3368 4.9115 43.308

1.013250 0.980665* 0.689476 1* 1.333224 0.33864 2.9859

760* 735.559 517.149 750.062 1000* 254* 2239.6

33.934 32.843 23.091 33.490 44.65 11.341 100*

1 inch of Hg (mercury) = 13.6 inch H2O

1 PSI = 2.31 inches of H2O

17

Conversion Tables
AMPERAGE CONVERSION TABLE
Table 13
Volts Single Phase Watts
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1250 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1900 2000 2200 2500 2750 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Volts 3 Phase Balanced Load

HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLE

Table 14
Brinell Watts
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1250 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1750 1800 1900 2000 2200 2500 2750 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Diameter 3000 Kg. Load 10 mm. Ball 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 3.05 3.10 3.15 3.20 3.25 3.30 3.35 3.40 3.45 3.50 3.55 3.60 3.65 3.70 3.75 3.80 3.85 3.90 3.95 4.00 4.05 4.10 4.15 4.20 4.25 4.30 4.35 4.40 4.45 4.50 4.55 4.60 4.65 4.70 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20 5.30 5.40 5.50 5.60 Hardness No. 745 712 682 653 627 601 578 555 534 514 495 477 461 444 429 415 401 388 375 363 352 341 331 321 311 302 293 285 277 269 262 255 248 241 235 229 223 217 212 207 201 197 192 187 183 179 174 170 167 163 156 149 143 137 131 126 121 116 111

Rockwell
(Approximate Value) Tensile Strength 1000 Shore lb./sq in. 91 84 81 79 77 75 73 71 70 68 66 65 63 61 59 58 56 54 52 51 50 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 23 22 21 20 19 18 15

120
.83 1.25 1.67 2.08 2.50 2.92 3.33 3.75 4.17 5.00 5.83 6.25 6.67 7.50 8.33 9.17 10.00 10.40 10.80 11.70 12.50 13.30 14.20 14.60 15.00 15.80 16.70 18.30 20.80 23.00 25.00 29.20 33.30 37.50 41.70 50.00 58.30 66.70 75.00 83.30

240
.42 .63 .83 1.04 1.25 1.46 1.67 1.88 2.08 2.50 2.92 3.13 3.33 3.75 4.17 4.58 5.00 5.21 5.42 5.83 6.25 6.67 7.08 7.29 7.50 7.92 8.33 9.17 10.40 11.50 12.50 14.60 16.70 18.80 20.80 25.00 29.20 33.30 37.50 41.70

480
.21 .31 .42 .52 .63 .73 .84 .93 1.04 1.25 1.46 1.56 1.67 1.87 2.10 2.30 2.51 2.61 2.71 2.91 3.12 3.34 3.54 3.65 3.75 3.96 4.17 4.59 5.21 5.73 6.25 7.30 8.33 9.38 10.42 12.50 14.59 16.67 18.75 20.85

240
.24 .36 .49 .61 .73 .85 .97 1.10 1.20 1.45 1.70 1.81 1.67 2.17 2.41 2.65 2.90 3.10 3.13 3.38 3.62 3.86 4.10 4.22 4.34 4.58 4.82 5.30 6.10 6.63 7.23 8.45 9.64 10.84 12.10 14.50 16.90 19.30 21.70 24.10

480
.13 .18 .25 .30 .37 .43 .49 .55 .60 .73 .85 .91 .97 1.09 1.21 1.33 1.45 1.55 1.57 1.69 1.82 1.93 2.05 2.10 2.17 2.29 2.41 2.65 3.05 3.32 3.62 4.23 4.82 5.42 6.10 7.25 8.50 9.65 10.85 12.10

C 65.3 61.7 60.0 58.7 57.3 56.0 54.7 53.5 52.1 51.0 49.6 48.5 47.1 45.7 44.5 43.1 41.8 40.4 39.1 37.9 36.6 35.5 34.3 33.1 32.1 30.9 29.9 28.8 27.6 26.6 25.4 24.2 22.8 21.7 20.5 (18.8) (17.5) (16.0) (15.2) (13.8) (12.7) (11.5) (10.0) (9.0) (8.0) (6.4) (5.4) (4.4) (3.3) (0.9)

A 84.1 82.2 81.2 80.5 79.8 79.1 78.4 77.8 76.9 76.3 75.0 74.9 74.2 73.4 72.8 72.0 71.4 70.6 70.0 69.3 68.7 68.1 67.5 66.9 66.3 65.7 65.3 64.6 64.1 63.6 63.0 62.5 61.8 61.4 60.8

15-N 92.3 91.0 90.2 89.6 89.0 88.4 87.8 87.2 86.5 85.9 85.3 84.7 84.0 83.4 82.8 82.0 81.4 80.6 80.0 79.3 78.6 78.0 77.3 76.7 76.1 75.5 75.0 74.4 73.7 73.1 72.5 71.7 70.9 70.3 69.7

Important Metric Prefixes

Prefix Abbre-via- Meaning tion

Typical Examples 1 petayear = 101 years 1 terayear = 1012 years 1 gigahertz (radar frequency) = 109 Hz 1 megaton (equivalent TNT strength of nuclear weapon) = 106 tons 1 kilogram = 1000 g 1 decimeter = 0.1 m 1 centimeter = 0.01 m x10-3 1 milliampere = 0.001 A microvolt = 10-6 V 1 nanosecond = 10-9 second 1 picofarad = 10-12 F 1 femtometer (approximate size of a proton) = 10-15 m

peta tera giga mega kilo deci certi milli micro nano pico femto

P T G M k d c m n p f

x1015 x1012 x109 x106 x103 x10-1 x10-2 x10-6 x10-9 x10-12 x10-15

(110.0) (109.0) (108.5) (108.0) (107.5) (107.0) (106.0) (105.5) (104.5) (104.0) (103.0) (102.0) (101.0) 100.0 99.0 98.2 97.3 96.4 95.5 94.6 93.8 92.8 91.9 90.7 90.0 89.0 87.8 86.8 86.0 85.0 82.9 80.8 78.7 76.4 74.0 72.0 69.8 67.6 65.7

298 288 274 264 252 242 230 219 212 202 193 184 177 170 163 158 152 147 143 139 135 131 128 125 121 118 114 111 109 104 103 100 99 97 94 92 90 89 88 86 84 83 82 80

Hardness values are from SAE-ASM-ASTM Committees on Hardness conversions as printed in ASTM E 140, Table 14. Tensile strength values are from Federal Test Methods Standard No. 151-A - method 241.2 dated January 10, 1961.

18

Table 15
C -50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 F -58 -49 -40 -31 -22 -13 -4 -5 14 23 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95 104 113 112 131 140 149 C 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 F 167 176 185 194 203 212 221 230 239 248 257 266 275 284 293 302 311 320 329 338 347 356 365 374 C 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315

TABLE
F 392 401 410 419 428 437 446 455 464 473 482 491 500 509 518 527 536 545 554 563 572 581 590 599

OF EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURES
C 325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 365 370 375 380 385 390 395 400 405 410 415 420 425 430 435 440 F 617 626 635 644 653 662 671 680 689 698 707 716 725 734 743 752 761 770 779 788 797 806 815 824 C 450 455 460 465 470 475 480 485 490 495 500 505 510 515 520 525 530 535 540 545 550 555 560 565 F 842 851 860 869 878 887 896 905 914 923 932 941 950 959 968 977 986 995 1004 1013 1022 1031 1040 1049 C 575 580 585 590 595 600 605 610 615 620 625 630 635 640 645 650 655 660 665 670 675 680 685 690 F 1067 1076 1085 1094 1103 1112 1121 1130 1139 1148 1157 1166 1175 1184 1193 1202 1211 1220 1229 1238 1247 1256 1265 1274 C 700 705 710 715 720 725 730 735 740 745 750 755 760 765 770 775 780 785 790 795 800 805 810 815 F 1292 1301 1310 1319 1328 1337 1346 1355 1364 1373 1382 1391 1400 1409 1418 1427 1436 1445 1454 1463 1472 1481 1490 1499 C 825 830 835 840 845 850 855 860 865 870 875 880 885 890 895 900 905 910 915 920 925 930 935 940 F 1517 1526 1535 1544 1553 1562 1571 1580 1589 1598 1607 1616 1625 1634 1643 1652 1661 1670 1679 1688 1697 1706 1715 1724

Values for interpolation in above

1C = 1.8F 2C = 3.6F 3C = 5.4F 4C = 7.2F 5C = 9.0F 6C = 10.8F 7C = 12.6F 8C = 14.4F 9C = 16.2F 1F = 0.55C 2F = 1.11C 3F = 1.66C 4F = 2.22C 5F = 2.77C 6F = 3.33C 7F = 3.88C 8F = 4.44C 9F = 5.00C

All decimals are exact Table 16

Applied Voltage
110 115 120 208 220 230 240 277 380 415 440 460 480 550 110 100% 109% 119%

PERCENT

OF RATED WATTAGE FOR VARIOUS APPLIED VOLTAGES

Rated Voltage

115 120 208 91% 84% 28% 100% 92% 31% 109% 100% 33% 300% 100% 112% 122% 133%

220 25% 27% 30% 89% 100% 109% 119%

230 240 23% 21% 25% 23% 27% 25% 82% 75% 91% 84% 100% 92% 109% 100% 133%

277 16% 17% 19% 56% 63% 69% 75% 100% 188%

380 8.4% 9.0% 10% 30% 34% 37% 40% 53% 100% 119%

415 7% 7.6% 8.4% 25% 28% 31% 33% 45% 84% 100% 112% 123%

440 6.2% 6.7% 7.4% 22% 25% 27% 30% 40% 74% 89% 100% 109% 119% 156%

460 5.7% 6.2% 6.8% 20% 23% 25% 27% 36% 68% 81% 91% 100% 109% 143%

480 550 5.2% 4% 5.7% 4.3% 6.3% 4.8% 19% 14% 21% 16% 23% 17% 25% 19% 33% 25% 63% 47% 75% 57% 84% 64% 92% 70% 100% 76% 131% 100%

For voltages not shown above, you can calculate the actual wattage with this formula:
Actual wattage = Rated wattage Applied voltage2 Rated voltage2

K = C + 273

C = Degrees Celsius F = Degrees Fahrenheit K = Degrees Kelvin R = Degrees Rankine

R = F + 460 F = 9/5 C + 32 C = (F-32) X 5/9 3

19

DECIMAL & MILLIMETER EQUIVALENTS

DECIMALS MILLIMETERS DECIMALS MILLIMETERS MM INCHES MM INCHES

1 32 1 16 3 32

1 64 3 64 5 64 7 64 9 64 11 64 13 64 15 64 17 64 19 64 21 64 23 64 25 64 27 64 29 64 31 64

0.015625 .03125 .046875 .0625 .078125 .09375 .109375 .1250 .140625 .15625 .171875 .1875 .203125 .21875 .234375 .2500 .265625 .28125 .296875 .3125 .328125 .34375 .359375 .3750 .390625 .40625 .421875 .4375 .453125 .46875 .484375 .500

0.397 0.794 1.191 1.588 1.984 2.381 2.778 3.175 3.572 3.969 4.366 4.763 5.159 5.556 5.953 6.350 6.747 7.144 7.541 7.938 8.334 8.731 9.128 9.525 9.922 10.319 10.716 11.113 11.509 11.906 12.303 12.700
31 32 15 16 27 32 13 16 23 32 11 16 21 32 19 32 9 16 17 32

33 64 35 64 37 64 39 64 41 64 43 64 45 64 47 64 49 64 51 64 53 64 55 64 57 64 59 64 61 64 63 64

0.515625 .53125 .546875 .5625 .578125 .59375 .609375 .6250 .640625 .65625 .671875 .6875 .703125 .71875 .734375 .7500 .765625 .78125 .796875 .8125 .828125 .84375 .859375 .8750 .890625 .90625 .921875 .9375 .953125 .96875 .984375 1.000

13.097 13.494 13.891 14.288 14.684 15.081 15.478 15.875 16.272 16.669 17.066 17.463 17.859 18.256 18.653 19.050 19.447 19.844 20.241 20.638 21.034 21.431 21.828 22.225 22.622 23.019 23.416 28.813 24.209 24.606 25.003 25.400

1 8
5 32 3 16 7 32

5 8

1 4
9 32 5 16 11 32

3 4
25 32

3 8
13 32 7 16 15 32

7 8
29 32

.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

.0039 .0079 .0118 .0158 .0197 .0236 .0276 .0315 .0354 .0394 .0787 .1181 .1575 .1969 .2362 .2756 .3150 .3543 .3937 .4331 .4724 .5118 .5512 .5906 .6299 .6693 .7087 .7480 .7874 .8268 .8661 .9055 .9449 .9843 1.0236 1.0630 1.1024 1.1417 1.1811 1.2205 1.2598 1.2992 1.3386 1.3780 1.4173 1.4567 1.4961 1.5354 1.5748 1.6142 1.6535 1.6929 1.7323 1.7717

46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 93 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

1.8110 1.8504 1.8898 1.9291 1.9685 2.0079 2.0472 2.0866 2.1260 2.1654 2.2047 2.2441 2.2835 2.3228 2.3622 2.4016 2.4409 2.4803 2.5197 2.5591 2.5984 2.6378 2.6772 2.7165 2.7559 2.7953 2.8346 2.8740 2.9134 2.9528 2.9921 3.0315 3.0709 3.1102 3.1496 3.1890 3.2283 3.2677 3.3071 3.3465 3.3858 3.4252 3.4646 3.5039 3.5433 3.5827 3.6220 3.6614 3.7008 3.7402 3.7795 3.8189 3.8583 3.8976 3.9370

1 2

1mm = .03937

.001 = .0254mm

20

Table 17
WIRE GA.

WIRE CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY TABLE

40C Ambient Temperature
250C NPC 2%-10% 8 amps 10.8 15 20 26 39 54 73 93 117 148 166 191 215 244 273 308 361 398 452 503 540 613 200C TINNED COPPER NPC 2%-10% 7.2 amps 9.6 14 18 24 36 45 60 83 110 125 152 171 197 229 260 297 346 385 436 486 522 593 250C A NICKEL 4 amps 5 7 9.4 12 18 25 34 43 55 69 78 90 101 114 128 144 169 187 212 236 254 288 250C NPI 450C NPC 27% 9 amps 12 18 23 30 45 56 75 104 138 162 182 210 236 268 300 338 397 *** *** *** *** *** 450C A NICKEL 4.3 amps 5.6 8 11 14 21 26 35 49 65 76 85 99 110 126 141 159 186 *** *** *** *** ***

150C TINNED COPPER 6.6 amps 9 13 17 22 34 43 55 76 96 120 143 160 186 215 251 288 332 365 414 461 495 563

24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500

3.3 amps 4.4 6 8 11 16 22 30 39 49 62 69 80 90 102 114 129 151 167 190 211 226 257

Table 18

WIRE TEMPERATURE RATING

Ambient Temp.F 106-122 124-140 142-158 160-176 177-194 195-212 213-248 249-284 285-320 321-356 Ambient Temp.C 181-200 201-225 .226-250 251-275 276-300 301-325 326-350 351-375 376-400 Ambient Temp.F 357-392 393-437 439-482 483-527 528-572 573-617 618-662 663-707 708-752

To calculate temperature correction factors for ambient temperatures other than 40C (104F) multiply the current rating shown above by the factors shown in this table. Ambient Temp.C 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 91-100 101-120 121-140 141-160 161-180 200C 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.87 0.83 0.72 0.71 0.61 0.50 0.35 250C 0.98 0.95 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.79 0.71 0.65 0.58 450C .099 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.84 0.81 200C *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 250C 0.49 0.35 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 450C 0.78 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.49 0.42 0.34

21

Trigonometric Solutions
PYTHAGOREAN THEREOM a + b = c
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
ANGLE A
c A a a sin A = c = cosec A 1 = cot A cos A = cos A tan A sin =

EXAMPLE: a = 3; b =4; c = 5 3 + 4 = 5 9 + 16 = 25

c a b

DEFINITIONS
opposite side hypotenuse b adjacent side = sin A cot A cos = hypotenuse c c

ANGLE B
B sin B = b c

c A b cos A =

b = c a tan A = b =

1 = sec A 1 cot A =

sin A tan A sin A cos A

B a cos B =

a c

a A b

= sin A sec A

opposite side tan = adjacent side b

tan B =

b a

a A b c A b c A

b cot A = a =

1 tan A =

cos A sin A

adjacent side = cos A cosec A cot = opposite side b c

cot B =

a b

c sec A = b =

1 = cos A

tan A sin A

hypotenuse = tan A cosec A sec = adjacent side

B a

sec B =

c a

c cosec A = a =

1 = sin A

cot A cos A

hypotenuse = cot A sec A cosec = opposite side

c b

B cosec B =

c b

TRIGONOMETRIC SOLUTIONS FOR RIGHT ANGLE TRIANGLES

LINE
GIVEN Sides Angles a a b c c c A B a SOUGHT SIDES b
c - a

ANGLES c A
a c = sin A b c = cos A a b = tan A

AREA
B
a 2 b 2 c - a c - b ab 2 c sin A cos A 2 c sin B cos B 2 a cot A 2 a tan B 2 b tan A 2 b cot B 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

b b

c - b

c cos A c sin B a cot A a tan B

a + b

a c = cos B b c = sin B b a = tan B

c c

c sin A c cos B

a a

b b

a sin A a cos B b cos A b sin B

90- B

90 - A

90 - A

b tan A b cot B

90- B

90 - A

90- B

22

Wiring Configurations & Diagrams

Line 1 Line 2 Line 1 Line 2 i(Element AMPS) i (LINE AMPS) R1 R2

R1

ELEMENTS e E

R2

PARALLEL: One or more elements wired across two line wires. Element volts equal line volts. Total power is equal to sum of watts in each element. Line amps equal sum of current of each element.

SERIES: Two or more elements of equal resistance wired together and across line wires. Element volts equal line volts divided by number of elements. Total power is equal to sum of watts of elements. Line amps equal current thru each element.

Line 2 Line 1 Line 3 W E R E Line Volts W E R

DELTA (30): Three elements or groups of elements wired in a triangle(Delta). Total power is: W = 1.73 x I where E is volts between any two lines and I is current in any one line. Power in each side of delta is 1/3 of total. Volts across each element is full line volts. Current thru each elements i = E / R.

STAR or WYE (30): Three elements or groups of elements wired in a wye (Y). Total power is: W = 1.73 x I, where E is volts between any two lines and I is current in any one line. Volts across each element (volts to neutral) is e = E/1.73. Current thru each element is same as each line wire.

IWIRING CONFIGURATIONSW CONFIGURATION

HEATER ELEMENT VALUES (formulas and symbols) VOLTS (e) AMPS (i) line volts (E) element Ohms (Rn) line Amps (I) line Amps (I) 1.73 line Amps (I) WATTS (W) RESISTANCE (R)

Parallel Series Delta Star (Wye)

line volts (E) line volts (E) # of elements line volts (E) E /1.73

Exi exi exi e x i and (E x I)/1.73

E/ i

e/i
E / i and E/1.73 x I e x i and E/1.73 x I

FULL WATTAGE 3-PHASE DELTA CONNECTION

L3 L3

1/3 WATTAGE 3-PHASE WYE CONNECTION

480 V Power source

480 V

480 V

L2

480 V ELEMENTS

480 V Power source

480 V 480 V ELEMENTS

480 V

L2

480 V L1 L1

480 V

Example of re-connecting from 3-phase delta to 3-phase wye for lower wattage.

These wiring configurations are provided to assist in the wiring of the heating elements in parallel, series & 3-phase (Delta or Wye).

23

SUGGESTED WIRING PRACTICES

FOR

ELECTRIC HEATERS

When selecting wiring for electric heater circuits, it should be recognized that wiring may be operating at temperatures above room ambient. These temperatures may be the result of conducted heat from heater terminals, radiation from heater surfaces, or due to high ambient temperatures. In high temperature areas, wiring must employ high-temperature insulation and/or nickel plated copper or high temperature nickel alloy conductors. Outside the heated zone, conventional wiring methods and materials are generally used. The recommendations which follow are only suggestions for minimum good wiring practice and are not to conflict with the National Electric Code or local codes.

The table below lists some of the more common code wire constructions according to their temperature capabilities. A more complete listing may be found in current issues of the National Electric Code on good wiring practice. Selection of type of wire will be dependent upon operating temperature and electric service voltage to be employed.

SELECTING TYPE OF WIRE

EXPLOSION-PROOF WIRING
Where hazardous conditions exist, approved explosion-proof terminal and junction boxes should be used. M1 cable or rigid conduit is mandatory and thread joints should be wrench tight but need not be sealed (refer to NEC).

CENTIGRADE FAHRENHEIT

Maximum Wire Operating Temperature C F

60 75 90 200 140 167 194 392

Line Voltages Up to 300 V Wire Type

Use 600 V wire Use 600 V wire Use 600 V wire

Line Voltages Up to 600 V Wire Type

T TW RHW THWN RHH THHN FEP SRG TGT TGS

Construction
Thermoplastic over copper Moisture resistant thermoplastic over copper Moisture and heat-resist rubber Moisture and heat-resist thermoplastic over copper Heat-resistant rubber over copper Heat-resistant thermoplastic over copper Teflon over copper Silicone rubber & glass braid over copper Teflon tape with teflon impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper Teflon tape with silicone impregnated impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper Mica tape with silicone impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper Mica tape with teflon impregnated glass braid over nickel plated copper

Use 600 V wire Use 600 V wire HighTemperature Applications 250 482 Use 600 V wire

450

842

Use 600 V wire

MGS MGT

594

1100

Bare manganese nickel wire or bus bar with ceramic tube or bead insulation.

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE SELECTION

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE COLOR CODE
Thermocouple wires are color coded (See table below) to aid in their polarity identification and to avoid cross wiring. J type thermocouples have a useful temperature range of 32 to 1382F. K type thermocouple temperature range is from -326 to 2282 F. (+)

FOR

ELECTRIC HEATERS
THERMOCOUPLES

Positive (+) Conductor J K T E R S N

Insulation Color Coded White Yellow Blue Purple Black Black Orange

(-)

Alloys Iron Constantan Chromel/Alumel Copper/Constantan Chromel/Constantan Platinum/Platinum (with 13% Rodium) Platinum/Platinum (with10% Rodium) Nicrosil/Nisil

All negative ( - ) conductors have red color coded insulation.

24

Temperature & Power Controls

MECHANICAL RELAY CONTROL OUTPUT WIRING(SINGLE PHASE)
Sensor TC N.O.
-+

Noise Suppression Heater

COM Line 2 Line 1

Line 1 VAC Power Line 2 Fuse

Operation Of The Mechanical Relay Control Output Wiring

The normally open (N.O.) and common (COM) contacts of the mechanical relay operates as switch contacts. When a temperature controller calls for heat, the contacts will close and there will be continuity. Note: The specified current rating for mechanical relays is at 120/240VAC and can be rated differently at other voltages.

SOLID STATE SWITCH CONTROL OUTPUT WIRING (SINGLE PHASE)

Load power thru an external contractor
Single Phase Solid State Contactor Q01 L1 L2 Switched DC QCD T1 T2 Heater Load

Controller

Fuse L1 L2 VAC Power

Operation Of The Solid State Switch Control Output Wiring

When a heating control calls for temperature rise, the switched DC output (a transistor) turns ON, developing voltage across the output terminal, which turns ON the solid state contactor and then the load.

25

Temperature & Power Controls cont.

3-PHASE DELTA & STAR (WYE) OUTPUT WIRING P Load power thru external contractor
Operation of 3-Phase Control Output Wiring
The controller and 3-phase contactor should be wired for the desired delta or wye configurations. The controller can normally operate at 120/240 vac single-phase with an output signal of 4-2mA. When the heater control calls for temperature rise, the output signal to the controller will send a 4-20mA output signal to the contactor causing it to close thus making power continuity.

3-phase contactor
L1 L2 T1 L1 L2 L3

Vac power

Controller
Internal Power Source Limit T1 4-20mA -+ T2 T2 Inductors Delta

Heater load
L1 L2 T1 L1 L2 L3

Vac power

Controller
Internal Power Source 4-20mA -+ T2 T2 Inductors Limit T1 Wye

Heater load

26

Application Guide for Power Controls

POWER CONTROLS
There are four standard power controls: electromechanical relays, mercury displacement relays, solid state relays and silicon control rectifiers (SCRs). The first two use magnetic devices to activate power switching. The other two use solid state electronics to switch the power.

ELECTROMECHANICAL CONTACTOR
The electromechanical contactor, or mechanical relay is an electrical and mechanical device with moving parts. When power is applied to the relay solenoid, contact closure is created through movement of the relays common contact.

Contacts

Normally Closed Contact N.C.

Normally open contacts (N.O.) Common Contact

Field Coil

MERCURY DISPLACEMENT RELAY (MDR)

Mercury Displacement Relays have completely encapsulated contacts that rely on mechanical movement to function. The contacts do not wear, due to the mercury within the capsule. Mercury does not pit and burn like metal. Mercury displacement relays emit a barely audible noise when switching.

In-put electrode

Plunger

Field Coil Liquid Mercury Out-put Electrode

The Mercury Displacement Relay utilizes the best features of both the electromechanical relay and the solid state relay. The primary advantages of the electromechanical relay is its ability to switch considerable amounts of power at a low cost, coupled with the long life characteristics of a solid state relay. While the electromechanical relay costs less, the MDR will provide the long life desired. The Mercury Displacement Relay is rated to operate at full load for up to fifteen million cycles, giving it extended life comparable to solid state relays.

27

SOLID STATE RELAY (SSR)

AC Output Solid state relays have no moving parts and consequently, no mechanical failures. Solid state switches are resistant to shock and vibration. The absence of moving parts also makes them noise-free. The most important factor affecting its life is the ambient operating temperature. Failure to dissipate the heat generated by the solid state relay will quickly destroy it. Location and heat sinking must be adequate. A typical solid state relay accepts a time proportioned or ON/OFF signal from a PID controller. Solid state relays switch near zero volts, which is zero-cross firing. Solid state relays have disadvantages which include the inability to provide a positive circuit break, the initial cost, and their failure when subjected to overrated conditions. The failure modes include burnout of the switch if the system heater shorts out, reduction in switching capabilities as the ambient temperature rise, and susceptibility to failure caused by line transients and inductive loads. Solid state relay life can be extended by a great degree with proper fusing for overload conditions and increasing the heat sinking for high ambient temperatures. DC Input

SILICONE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

The silicone rectifier is a solid state switching device that can switch up to a 1200 Amp load.

Most power controls can accept two types of input signals: time proportioned (or ON/OFF) and process signals(either 4-20 mA or 1-5VDC) from any temperature control. SCRs accepting time proportioned (or ON/OFF) signals are called power contactors.

SCRs accepting process signals ( 420mA or 1-5VDC ) are called power controls. They control the power by two methods of firing, phase angle and zero cross (burst) firing. The primary advantages of SCR power controls are lack of moving parts, long life, improved controllability, very large current handling capability, and input signal flexibility.

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Glossary
AC -- An electric current that reversed Celsius -- Formerly know as centigrade. DIN -- Deutsche Industrial Norm. A set
its direction of flow at regularly recurring A temperature scale with waters ice point intervals. at 0C and its boiling point at 100C at standard atmospheric pressure. The forAlumel -- An aluminum nickel alloy mula for conversion to the Fahrenheit used in the negative leg of a Type K scale is: F = (1.8 x C) + 32 thermocouple. This a trademark of the Hoskins Manufacture Company. Chromel -- A chromium-nickel alloy which makes up the positive leg of Type K Ambient Temperature -- The tem- and E thermocouples. This is a registered perature of air or other medium sur- trademark of the Hoskins Manufacturing rounding the components of thermal company. system. Pertaining to instruments, it is the temperature they are exposed to Conduction -- The mode of heat transinside the control panel. fer within a substance or by solids in direct contact with each other when a Ampere (amp, current) -- A unit that temperature difference exists. defines the rate of charge flow in a circuit. Amp units are equal to one Constantan -- A copper-nickel alloy coulomb per second. used as the negative lead in Type E, J, and T thermocouples. Annealing -- The process of heating a material just below its heat distortion Convection -- The mode of heat transpoint to relieve stresses. fer associated with conduction in which heat is transferred from a higher temperaANSI -- The American National ture region in a liquid to a lower temperature region as a result of movement of Standard Institute. masses of the fluid. ASME -- The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. C - UL -- Underwriters Laboratory testing certification covering CSA (Canadian ASTM -- The American Society for Standard Association). Testing and Materials. CSA -- Canadian Standard Association. Atmospheric pressure -- The pressure exerted by the atmosphere. DC (Direct Current) -- An electrical curStandard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 rent flowing in one direction. psia ( 1 atmosphere) at sea level and 60F. Delta -- An electrical network where loads are connected directly between the AWG -- American Wire Gauge stan- three phases. dards. Density -- Mass per unit volume of a BTU -- British Thermal Unit. A unit of substance usually expressed in lbs/ft3 or energy defined as the amount of heat grams/cm3. Also known as specific require to raise 1 lb of water form 32F weight. Density remains nearly constant at standard atmospheric pressure. for solids and most liquids under ordinary OneBTU is equal to 0.293 watt-hours. conditions of temperature and pressure. One kilowatt-hour is equal to 3412 Gas density changes with temperature and its reference is taken of standard conBTUs. dition of 60F/15C and standard atmosCalibration -- The act of adjusting an pheric pressure. instrument to a know value. This value may be a physical traceable to an inter- Dielectric -- A material with low electrinational standard. cal conductivity, commonly called an electrical insulator. of technical/scientific and dimensional standards developed by an organization in Germany. Many DIN standards have worldwide recognition.

Emissivity -- The ratio of radiation

emitted form a surface compared to a blackbody at the same temperature with similar spectral and directional conditions (See infrared and radiation.)

Energy -- Power per unit of time. In

the USA, energy is measured in BTU or kWH.

Fahrenheit -- The temperature scale defined with an ice point for water at 32F and a boiling point of 212F at standard atmospheric pressure. The formula for conversion to Celsius is: C = 5/9 (F - 32) Ground -- An electrical line having the
same electrical potential as the surrounding earth. Grounding an electrical system is usually employed to protect people and equipment from shocks due to malfunctions. Also referred as safety ground.

Ground Junction -- A type of thermocouple probe construction where the hot, or measuring junction, is an integral part of the sheath material. No electrical isolation is provided on a grounded junction.

Heat -- Energy transferred between

substances as a result of a temperature difference between them.

Heat Sink -- A finned piece of metal

(usually aluminum) used to dissipate heat generated by a solid state relay or SSR.

Heat Transfer -- The process of heat

energy flowing from one body of higher temperature of one of lower temperature.

Hertz(Hz) -- Frequency, measured in cycles per second.

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Hi-Pot Test -- A test which applies a

Mega -- A prefix meaning million. The high voltage to a conductor to assure symbol is M. the integrity of the surrounding insulation. MgO -- The chemical symbol for magnesium oxide which is a good conductor of Hydroscopic -- Describes a materi- heat and a good electrical insulator. al that absorbs moisture. ID -- Abbreviation for inside diameter.
ampere.

Relay, Electromechanical -- A
power switching device that completes or interrupts a circuit by physically moving electrical contacts into contact with each other. Also called relay.

Relay, Mercury Displacement -- A Milliamp (mA) -- One thousandth of an power switching device using mercury,
when displaced by a plunger, to complete the electric circuit across contacts.

Infrared -- An area in the electromag- Microvolt (V) -- One millionth of a volt. netic spectrum range from 1 to 1000 Relay, Solid State -- A solid state microns. Heat is transferred in this Millivolt (mV) -- One thousandth of a switching device that completes or range. interrupts an electric circuit with no volt. moving parts (see SSR.) Kelvin (K) -- an absolute temperature NEMA -- The National Electrical scale. Zero Kelvin is absolute zero -- Manufacturers Association. Resistance -- Opposition to the flow the temperature where all molecular of electric current measured in ohms. activity stops. No degree symbol () is NPT -- The National Pipe Thread used with the Kelvin scale. (0C = standards. RTD -- Resistive Temperature 273.15 K, 100 = 373.15 K) Detector. A temperature sensor whose OD -- Abbreviation for outside diameter. resistance increases with increasing temperature in a known manner. Kilowatt (KW) -- Electrical unit of power equal to 1000 watts or 3412 PID -- Proportional, Integral, Derivative. A Platinum is the most commonly used in BTUs per hour when the power factor control mode with three functions. RTD material. equals 1.0. Proportional action dampens the system response, integral corrects for droop, SCFM -- Standard volumetric flow rate Kilowatt Hour (KWH) -- Electrical unit derivative seeks to prevent overshoot and in cubic feet per minute. Normally used for gases and vapors, this value is evalof energy, or work, expended by one undershoot. uated at standard condition of kilowatt in one hour. Also expressed as 1000 watt hours. Polarity -- The electrical quality of hav- 60F/15C and standard atmospheric ing two opposite poles, one positive and pressure. Laminar Flow -- A condition where one negative. Polarity determines the the plastic resin moves in continuos direction in which a current tends to flow. SCR -- Silicon Controlled Rectifier. A parallel paths. solid state device, or thyristor, having Positive Temperature Coefficient -- no moving parts, that when used in Linearity -- The deviation in response A resistance increase occurring with a pairs, controls AC voltages within one from an expected or theoretical straight temperature increase (see RTD or cycle. SCRs control voltage from a power source to the load by burst (zero line value for instruments and transduc- Thermistor). cross) or phase angle firing. ers. Pressure -- Force per unit area, usually Load -- The electrical demand expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) Sensor -- A device which detects the (expressed in power [watts], current temperature, pressure or other physical [amps] or resistance [ohms]) of a Pressure Drop -- The difference in property of a controlled media, and proprocess. pressure between any two points of a sys- vides an output signal to an automatic controller or switching mechanism. tem or component. Mass Flow Rate -- the amount of a substance flowing per unit of time past PSIA -- Pounds per square inch Set Point -- The desired value proa given cross-section area within a con- absolute. Pressure expressed in terms of grammed into a control. duit. its actual or absolute value with reference to a perfect vacuum. SI system of units -- A system of measurement adopted by the Eleventh Maximum Operating Temperature -- PSIA = PSIG + 14.7 psi (1 atmosphere) General Conference of Weights and The highest temperature at which a device can operate safely, or with PSIG -- Pounds per square inch gauge. Measures in 1960 and derived from the expected normal service life. Pressure expressed in therms of a value metric system. This system is called Le Systems International dUnites (abbreviread directly from installed gauges. ated SI) Maximum Power Rating -- The PSIG = PSIA - 14.7 psi ( 1 atmosphere) maximum operating power a device can handle without danger or a shortened Radiation -- The process of emitting operating life. radiant energy in the form of waves or particles (see Emissivity and Infrared).

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Soft Start -- A method of using phase Thermocouple -- A temperature sensangle control to gradually increase the output power over a period of several seconds. Used for heaters with a low electrical resistance when cold or for limiting in-rush current to inductive loads. ing device constructed by joining tow dissimilar metals. This junction produces an electrical voltage in proportion to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the lead wire connection to the sensing device (cold junction).

Ungrounded Junction -- A form of

thermocouple probe construction where the measuring junction is fully enclosed in a protective sheath, and is electrically isolated form the sheath.

Viscosity -- The fluid property which

determines the amount of its resistance to sheering forces (flow). High viscosity indicates a tendency for fluid to flow or move slowly. The viscosity for fluids decrease as their temperatures increase. Heating gases will increase their absolute viscosity.

Specific Gravity (sp.gr.) -- Density,

compared to the density of water, which Thermocouple Junction -- The point is given the arbitrary value of 1 to 0C in a thermocouple where the tow dissim(see Density). ilar metals, or legs, are joined. In a typical thermocouple circuit, there is a meaSpecific Heat -- The term used to suring junction and a reference junction. express the capacity of a substance to gain or lose heat energy as its tempera- Thermoplastic Materials -- Become ture changes. It is expressed in units of soft and moldable when heated and BTU/lb -F or Joules/grams - C. change back to solids when allowed to Specific heat varies in most materials cool. Thermoplastic materials that are with changes in temperature and mater- flexible even when cool are know as ial state. elastomer or TPEs. Although the heating/cooling cycle can be repeated, recySSR -- Solid State Relay. A solid state cling reduces mechanical properties and switching device that switches current appearance. ON and OFF. It has no moving parts. Thermostat -- An electro-mechanical Swaging -- A sheathed electrical ele- device which opens or closes a contact ment manufacturing process when the at a specified temperature. The most element sheath is hammered in a die to common forms of thermostat are bulb reduce its diameter and compact its and capillary and bi-metal strip. insulation. Thermowell -- A closed end tube Temperature -- The hotness or cold- designed to protect temperature sensors ness of a body measured on a definitive from hostile environments. scale (normally degrees Fahrenheit, Celsius, Rankine or Kelvin). Transducer -- A device which receives a signal in one form and retransmit it in Thermal Conductivity -- A property another form, i.e. a thermocouple transwhich indicates a materials ability to forms heat energy input into a voltage transfer heat. The higher a materials output. thermal conductivity, the quicker it will transfer heat energy. Its expressed in Turbulent Flow -- A condition where BTU/hr - ft. -F or watts/meter - C. This the plastic resin particles move in ranvalue changes with temperature in most dom paths, rather than in a continuous materials and must be evaluated for the parallel paths. condition given. UL -- Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. Thermal Expansion -- A size 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, Illinois, increase in a material resulting from a 60062-2096, USA. An independent testrise in temperature. Its expressed as ing laboratory that establishes commerthe number of inches/inch/F or cen- cial and industrial standards. It also tests and certifies products against those timeters/cm/C per reference length. standards. Thermistor -- A contraction for Thermally Sensitive Transistor. Its a UL components recognition. temperature sensing device composed of semiconductor material which exhibits a large change in resistance for a small change in temperature. C-UL (CSA equivalent) Thermistors usually have negative temcomponents recognition. perature coefficients.

Volt Amperes -- Represented by the

symbol VA. A measurement of apparent power. The product of voltage and current in a reactive circuit. V (voltage) X I (current) = VA (volt-amperes) The unit volt-ampere is used instead of watts, since the term watt is reserved for real power.

Volt/Voltage (V) -- The unit of electromotive force (EMF), the difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit, Its the push or pressure behind current flow through a circuit. One volt is the difference in potential required to move one coulomb of charge between two points in a circuit consuming one joule of energy. Expressed another way, one volt (V) is equal to one ampere of current (I) flowing through one ohm of resistance (R), or V = IR.

Watt (W) -- A measurement of real

power. The product of voltage and current in a resistive circuit. V (voltage) I (current) = P (power in watts)

Watt Density -- The power produced in watts per unit surface area of heater . It indicates the potential for a surface to transmit heat energy and is expressed in W/in2. Ratings for heating elements and surface heat loss factors are expressed using this value. Wye -- An electrical connection when
one end of three loads is connected together and the other end to one each of the three phases of a power supply.

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C E L E B R AT I N G 5 0

YEARS OF EXCELLENCE

RAMA CORPORATION is the source for all of your industrial heating

element and hot runner system needs. Please ask for our product bulletins with your next order.
!RAMAROD cartridge heater, with extensive stock for off-theshelf deliveries !RAMA COILED NOZZLE heaters, replacement stock and custom manufactured !TUBULAR and IMMERSION heaters !RAMAFLEX - flexible blanket heaters !HOT RUNNER SYSTEM: engineered for the customer !Complete R&D facilities !SPECIAL PRODUCTS development facilities !ASSEMBLY & MACHINING available

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