Classified as
Static security
static security evaluation detects any potential
overload of a system branch or an out of limit voltage following a
given list of contingencies
Transient security
transient security evaluation pertains to system
dynamic behaviour in terms of rotor angle stability when
subjected to perturbations
No limit violation
limit violation(s)
operation of protective
devices and switching of the
unit(s)
partial or total loss of
load
Outages of component(s)
Overstress on the other
components
Security Analysis
System
Security
System
Monitoring
Contingency
Analysis
Security
Constrained
OPF
Functions of System Security
SET SYSTEM MODEL TO
INITIAL CONDITIONS
SIMULATE AN OUTAGE OF A
GENERATOR OR A BRANCH
LIMIT VIOLATION
Y
ALARM MESSAGE
LAST OUTAGE
Y
END
N
N
SELECT A
NEW OUTAGE
Contingency Analysis Procedure
START
Real-time applications require fast and reliable computation methods due to the high
number of possible outages in a moderate power system.
However, there is a well-known conflict between the accuracy of the method applied
and the calculation speed.
Exact solution
Full AC power flow
for each outage
Check the limit
violations
not feasible
for real-
time
applications
.
real-time applications
approximate methods to quickly
identify conceivable
contingencies
AC power flows only for
critical contingencies.
Check the limit violations
APPROXIMATE CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
Contingency ranking
contingencies are ranked in an approximate order
of a scalar performance index, PI.
contingencies are tested beginning with the most
severe one and proceeding down to the less
severe ones up to a threshold value.
Masking effect causes false orderings and
misclassifications.
Contingency screening
Explicit contingency screening is performed for all
contingencies, following an approximate solution
(DC load flow, one iteration load flow, linear
distribution or sensitivity factors etc.)
Contingency screening is performed in the near
vicinity of the outages (local solutions)
Hybrid methods utilizing both the ranking and the screening
Security in Restructured Power Systems
'
12
12
12
). / 1 1 (
/ ) 1 / 1 (
/
y a C
a y a B
a y A
Bus Admittance Matrix or Y
bus
+ +
n
v
iv in ik ij i
I I I I I
1
.......
n
j
j ij i
V Y I
1
*
i i i i i
I V jQ P S +
i i i i
I V jQ P
*
Load Flow Equations, Contd.
In polar form,
Separating into real and imaginary parts
( ) ( ) ( )
j
n
j
ij i Di Gi Di Gi i i
V Y V Q Q j P P jQ P
1
*
( ) ( ) ( )
[ ] n i j Y V V
V Y V Q Q j P P jQ P
ij j i ij j i ij j
n
j
i
ij j i j ij
n
j
i Di Gi Di Gi i i
,.... 2 , 1 ) sin( ) cos(
1
1
n i Y V V Q Q Q
n i Y V V P P P
ij j i ij j
n
j
i Di Gi i
ij j i ij j
n
j
i Di Gi i
,..... 2 , 1 ) sin(
,..... 2 , 1 ) cos(
1
1
Classification of Buses
PQ bus PV bus Slack
bus
- Load bus
- Buses to which only
loads are connected
- Real and reactive
powers are specified
- Load flow solution
determines voltage
magnitude and angle
- Generator bus or voltage
controlled bus
- Buses to which generators
or reactive power sources
are connected
- Real power and voltage
magnitude are specified
- Load flow solution
determines reactive power
and angle
- Reference bus or
swing bus
- A generator bus
having largest output
- Real and reactive
powers are specified
- Load flow solution
determines voltage
magnitude and angle
Numerical Solution Techniques
Newton-Raphson method
- Rectangular coordinates
- Polar coordinates
j i ij
n
m
n
n n
m
n
Q
Q
P
P
V
V
Q
N
Q
M
V
V
P
L
P
H
V V
V V
+ +
1
2
1
2
/
/
PX bus model
- the real power is known and the reactive power is calculated
as a function of the magnetizing reactance of the generator
RX bus model
- assumes resistance and reactance of both stator and rotor
as well as the mechanical output power P
m
to be known variables
Steady State Model of Wind Farm, Contd.
An improved PQ bus model has been proposed considering the
steady state properties of the induction generator, such that the
reactive power Q is calculated by
2
2
2
P
V
X
X X
X X
V Q
m c
m c
+
,
_
where, X
c
is capacitive reactance
X
m
is magnetizing reactance
X is sum of stator and rotor reactances
V is terminal voltage
P is real power of the generator
The improved PQ bus model requires that the specified
reactive power Q be updated after each iteration of the load
flow
*
A.E. Feijoo and J. Cidras, Modeling of Wind Farms in the Load Flow Analysis,
IEEE Transactions on Power System, Vol. 15, No. 1, Feb. 2000, pp. 110-115
PX bus model
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
*
N. paensuwan and A. Yokoyama, Risk-based TTC calculation of a power system
with renewable energy resources, IEEE Power Tech Conference, 2009
Contd.
This PX model introduces a new state variable i.e. the rotor
slip. Therefore, another equation is required to enforce P
IG
to its specified value. The power balance equations are
modified as follows.
To enforce P
IGi
to its specified value, the following equation
is added.
The augmented power flow problem is
0 )) , ( ( ) , (
0 ) ( ) , (
i i IGi Di Qi Qi
Di
spec
IGi
Pi Pi
s V Q Q V F f
P P V F f
0 ) , ( ) , (
spec
IGi
i i IGi i i P
P s V P s V f
IGi
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
IG
IG IG IG
P
Q
P
P P P
Q Q Q
P P P
f
f
f
s
V
s
f
V
f f
s
f
V
f f
s
f
V
f f
RX bus model
Equivalent circuit of induction generator
s
s
I R P
m
) 1 (
2
2 2
)] ( ) / [(
2 1 2 1
2
X X j s R R
V
I
t
+ + +
where,
Voltage obtained from each iteration of load flow is used to calculate the slip
Once, the slip is known, power injections can be calculated
( )
2
2 1
2
2 1
2 1 2 1
2
2 1
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
2 1
2
) ( ) / (
) ( ) ( ) / (
) ( ) / (
) / (
X X s R R X
X X X X X s R R
V Q
X X s R R
s R R
V P
m
m
t g
t g
+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+
Solution Techniques of PLF
Numerical Method
time consuming
Analytical Method
complicated mathematical
computation
,
_
,
_
k k
c
v v
c
v v
c
k
v f
0
1
0
exp ) (
where, v is wind speed
v
0
is cut-out speed
k is shape parameter
c is scale parameter
*
L. Dong, W. Cheng, H. Bao and Y. Yang, Probabilistic Load Flow analysis for
power system containing wind farms, IEEE 2010
Probabilistic Model of Wind Farms, Contd.
'
>
+
co
co r r
r ci
r
w
v v
v v v P
v v v k v k
v v
P
0
0
2 1
ci
ci r
r
v k k
v v
P
k
1 2 1
;
,
_
,
_
k
co w
k
co w
w w
v
v
k
k P
v
w
c k
k v k P
c k
k v k P
c k
k
P F P f
dv v f dv v f P F
ci
co
w
ci
1
2 1
1
1
2 1
1
'
exp ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
2
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
k
co w
k
co w
w w
c k
k v k P
c k
k v k P
c k
k
Q f
1
2 1
1
1
2 1
1
exp tan ) (
AC Probabilistic Load Flow Model
Linearized Load Flow Model
Step 1: Input the system data and wind farm data
Step 2: Run the DLF using NR method, so that the
expected values of nodal voltages,line flows,
S
0
, and T
0
are obtained.
Step 3: Compute the cumulants of generation and load
according to their probabilistic distribution
Step 4: Compute the cumulants of the generated active
power, absorbed reactive power, power
injections and state variables (x and z)
Step 5: Obtain the PDF and CDF of x and z
'
'
w T w J G z
w S w J x
x g z
x f w
0
1
0 0
0
1
0
;
) (
) (
Load Flow with AC-DC Systems
Unified method
- solution vector is extended with the dc
variables
- complex to program and hard to combine
with developments in ac power flow solution
techniques such as fast decoupled method
Sequential method
- ac and dc equations are solved separately
in each iteration
- easy to implement, but convergence
problems are there
Model of Photovoltaic Systems
DC part model
0
exp
exp
) (
1 exp
0
0
0
,
_
+
+
,
_
+
+
+
1
]
1
,
_
+
s
s mpp mpp
sh s sh
s mpp mpp
sh
mpp mpp
mpp
mpp mpp
mpp
sh
s cell cell s cell cell
L cell
aR
a
R I V
R R I aR
a
a
R I V
R I
V I
dV
dI
V I
dV
VI d
R
R I V
a
R I V
I I I
where, I
cell
and V
cell
are the current and voltage of PV cell
I
L
and I
0
are the light current and diode reverse saturation
current
R
s
and R
sh
are the series and shunt resistance
a is the ideality factor
(1)
(2)
Model of Photovoltaic Systems, Contd.
PV PV PV
cell pp PV
cell ss s PV
I V P
I N I
V N N V
where, I
PV
, V
PV
, and P
PV
are the current, voltage and power of the
PV array
N
s
is the series number of PV cell in a PV module
N
ss
is the series number of PV modules
N
pp
is the parallel number of PV modules
AC part model
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
+
23
23
12
12
12
12
23
23
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
12
12
12
12
13
13
12
12
sin sin ) sin( 3
cos cos ) cos( 3
) sin( sin sin 3
) cos( cos cos 3
z
V
z
V
z
V
V Q
z
V
z
V
z
V
V P
z
V
z
V
z
V
V Q
z
V
z
V
z
V
V P
g g
g
i
g g
g g
g
i
g g
g
g
i i
i i
g
g
i i
i i
(6)
(9)
(8)
(7)
Operation Modes of Grid-connected PV system
There are nine unknown variables of model and seven
independent equations (1), (4-9)