Chapter 5
Infancy
Object Permanence - Problem: There is no differentiation between the self and the world; objects have no separate, permanent existence - By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent - Object Permanence: understand that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched EVALUATING PIAGETS SENSORIMOTOR STAGE The A-not-B Error - Error that occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 (coordination of secondary circular reactions) in Piagets sensorimotor stage - Only when the concept of object permanence is more complete, A-not-B error is not likely to be made - A-not-B error might be due to a failure in memory Perceptual Development and Expectations - Infants develop the ability to understand how the world works at a very early age - By 3 months old, they develop expectations about future events - 4 months: they expect objects to be solid and continuous - Expects object to be substantial (that other objects cant move through them) and permanent (object continues to exist even if hidden) - Infants see objects as bounded, unitary, solid and separate from their background much earlier than Piaget envisioned
Infancy
Criticisms: -Infants in the number experiments are merely responding to changes in the display that violated their expectations -Infants that Spelke looked at have already accumulated thousands of experiences *Most developmentalists today agree that Piaget underestimated the early cognitive accomplishments of infants and that both nature and nurture are involved in infants cognitive development
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4. Language Development
DEFINING LANGUAGE -Form of communication -Infinite Generativity: ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words of rules
LANGUAGES RULE SYSTEMS Phonology -Sound system of the language -Provides a basis for constructing a large and expandable set of words out of two or three dozen phonemes -Phoneme is the basic unit of sound in language Morphology -Refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation -Morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning, word or part of a word that cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts - -erone who -Not all morphemes are words by themselves (pre-, -tion, -ing) -Morphemes have many jobs in grammar; marking tense and number Syntax -Involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences Semantics -Meaning of words and sentences -Some words like woman and girl may have same semantic features but differ in age -Semantic restrictions on how words can be used in sentences Pragmatics -The appropriate use of language in different contexts -Formal vs. informal
Infancy
4. Language Development
HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPS
Recognizing Language Sounds -Long before infants begin to learn words, infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of languages -Infants would need to fish out words from the nonstop stream of sound that makes up ordinary speech -Infants listen to familiar words for a second longer than new words Babbling and Other Vocalizations -Functions of these early vocalizations are to practice making sounds, to communicate, and to attract attention -Crying: signal distress and others -Cooing: usually express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver -Babbling: produce strings of consonant-vowel combinations Gestures -Some early gestures are symbolic -Pointing is considered by language experts as an important index of social aspects of language -Lack of pointing is a significant indicator of problems in the infants communication system -Parents in high socioeconomic status (SES) families were more likely to use gestures when communicating with their infants -14 months infants in high SES families are linked to larger vocabulary at 54 months First Words -Children understand their first word before they speak them -In infancy, receptive vocabulary (words that child understands)considerably exceeds spoken vocabulary (words the child uses) -Children often express various intentions with single words -Infants spoken vocabulary rapidly increases once the first word is spoken -18 month vocabulary spurt -Overextension: tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the words meaning, dada to address father and all male figures -Underextension: tendency to apply a word too narrowly
Infancy
4. Language Development
Two-Word Utterances -Convey meaning with just two words, child relies heavily on gesture, tone and context
Telegraphic Speech: use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives Mommy give ice cream
BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES Biological Influences -Ability to speak and understand language requires a certain vocal apparatus and nervous system with certain capabilities -Particular regions of the brain are predispoed to be used for language Brocas area: left frontal lobe: produce words Wernickes area: brains left hemisphere involved in language comprehension -Damages to either of the above produces APHASIA: loss of impairment of language prccessing Noam Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device (LAD) biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax and sematics Environmental Influences -Language represents nothing more than chains of responses acquired through reinforcement -Behaviorists view of language has several problems: 1. Does not explain how people create novel sentences 2. Children learn the syntax of their native language even if they are not reinforced for doing so - Therefore behavioral view is no longer considered a viable explanation of how children acquire language - BUT childrens environmental experiences influence their language skills - The support and involvement of caregivers and teachers greatly facilitate a childs language learning - Young children are intensely interested in their social world and their development , they can understand the intentions of other people - Michael Tomasello: Interaction View of language emphasize that children learn language in specific contexts - Maternal language and literacy skills + diversity in vocabulary is used to best predict childrens vocabulary development
Infancy
4. Language Development
-Child-directed Speech: language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentences (when we talk to baby) -Important function of capturing the infants attention and maintaining communication Other strategies: 1. Recasting: rephrasing something the child has said and turning it into a question or restating the sentence 2. Expanding: restating in a linguistically sophisticated form 3. Labeling: identifying the names of objects Children usually benefit when parents follow the childs lead, talking about things the child is interested in at the moment and when parents provide information that children can process
Storybook reading is beneficial to children when parents extend the meaning of the text by discussing it with children and encouraging them to ask and answer questions
AN INTERACTIONIST VIEW - Environmental influences are also very important in development competence in language - Emphasizes that both biology and experience contribute to language development How Parents can facilitate infants and toddlers language development INFANTS 1. Be an active conversational partner 2. Talk as if the infant understands what you are saying 3. Use a language style you are comfortable with TODDLERS 1. Continue to be an active conversational partner 2. Remember to listen 3. Use language style you are comfortable with but consider ways of expanding childs language abilities 4. Adjust to your childs idiosyncrasies instead of working against them 5. Avoid sexual stereotypes
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