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0 INSTRUCTIONAL THEORIES AND COMPUTERS

DIRECTED INSTRUCTION Directed instruction also known as objectivism is grounded primarily in behaviorist learning theory and the information processing branch of the cognitive learning theories. According to this view, learning is transmitted knowledge whereby the teaching process should be directed, systematic, and structured. The teacher plays a central role by planning and directing the entire learning process. This view suggests that inquiry approaches are too slow to be practical. Under directed instruction, knowledge has a separate, real existence of its own outside the human mind. Learning happens when this knowledge is transmitted to people and they store it in their minds According to this view, it is absolutely essential for all students to sit and pass the same exams or tests, hence standardization means accountability. Some technology applications such as drill and practice and tutorials are associated only with directed instruction. BEHAVIORAL APPROACH It is based on the behaviorist theory by (B.F.Skinner) According to this approach, learning is regarded as stimulus response chains Learning is an activity that occurs inside the mind and can be inferred only by observed behavior. Behaviors are shaped by contingencies of reinforcement to shape desired responses; hence positive reinforcement (increases desired behaviors with rewards); negative reinforcement (increases desired behavior by withholding rewards); punishment (decreases undesirable behavior with aversive (hostile) stimuli) Learning is inferred from behavior Stimulus-response connections shape behavior Reinforcement strengthens responses Chains of behaviors learned add up to acquired skills

Instruction must provide the right stimuli and reinforcement to achieve desired learned responses Computer programs can provide consistent, reliable stimuli, and reinforcement on an individual basis.

INFORMATION- PROCESSING This view is based on a theory by Atkinson and Shiffrin The mind is seen to behave just like the computer with three main parts: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory Learning takes place by encoding information into the human memory, similar to the way the computer stores information. There are three kinds of stores: sensory registers to receive information; short-term or working memory (STM) to hold it temporarily; and long term memory (LTM) to store information indefinitely. Learning is encoding information into memory Encoding begins with attention Application ensures transfer into memory Practice reinforces retention and aids recall Instruction must gain attention, provide the right kinds of application, and provide sufficient practice to ensure encoding, retention and recall. Computer applications have qualities to attract students attention and provide repetitive application and practice on an individual basis.

CONSTRUCTIVISM According to this approach, knowledge is constructed, not transmitted. It encourages students to do activities that help them generate their own knowledge. It is a student centered and hands-on instruction approach. It advocates for students to show what they have learned in different ways, and not just on written tests. Constructivists support inquiry-based methods based on cognitive, developmental, and generative/discovery theories.
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According to constructivists, humans construct all knowledge in their minds by participating in certain experiences. Learning takes place when one constructs both mechanisms for learning and ones own unique version of the knowledge, coloured by background, experiences and aptitudes.

Learning Theories Underlying constructivist methods

Social Activism Theory: John Dewey Learning as a social experience

Learning is individual growth that comes about through social experiences Growth is fostered through hands-on activities connected to real world issues and problems School curriculum should arise from students interests and be taught as integrated topics, rather than isolated skills. Learning Theory

Learning requires social interaction among students on problems and issues of direct concern to them. Educational Implication

Instruction should emphasize collaborative activities and real-world connections Technology Implications: Technology supports opportunities for collaboration; visual presentations help students connect abstract concepts with real-world applications. Scaffolding Theory: Lev Vygotsky Learning as a Cognitive Building Process (Cognitive Science)

Learning is Cognitive development shaped by individual differences and the influence of culture. Adults (experts) and children (novices) perceive the world differently. The difference between them is the Zone of Proximal Development. Adults support learning through scaffolding, or helping children build on what they already know. Learning Theories:
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Learning works best when students get assistance from experts to build on what they already know. Each learners background shapes how he or she learns. Educational Implication: Instruction should be tailored to each students individual needs and preferences. Technology Implications Technology can support multiple paths to studying the same material and can provide Visual scaffolds to help students understand complex concepts. Child Development Theory: Jean Piaget Stages of Development (Cognitive Science)

Learning is cognitive growth through neurological and social maturation Children go through stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor (exploring the world around them through their senses and motor activity- birth 2yrs, preoperational 2-7 years (develop speech and symbolic activities e.g. drawing objects, pretending, imagining etc..) concrete operational stage -7-11years (increase abstract reasoning, can generalize from concrete experiences) Formal Operations stage- 12-15 years (learn to organize information, reason scientifically, test hypothesis, show results of abstract thinking with symbolic materials e.g. writing, drama).

When they confront unknowns, they experience disequilibrium; they respond with assimilation (fitting it into their views) or accommodation (changing their views). Learning Theories

Learning abilities differ at each developmental stage Children progress through the stages through exploration of their environment Educational Implications Instruction must be matched to students developmental stage and must provide opportunities for exploration. Technology Implications

Technology can provide electronic manipulatives that support exploration activities for various stages of development.

Discovery Learning: Jerome Bruner Instructional Support for Child Development (Cognitive Science)

Learning is cognitive growth through interaction with the environment Children are more likely to understand and remember concepts that they discover during their interaction with the environment. Teachers support discovery learning by providing opportunities for exploring and manipulating objects and doing experiments.

Learning Theory Children understand and remember concepts better when they discover the concepts themselves through exploration Educational Implications Students must be given opportunities for unstructured exploration and self-discovery. Technology Implications Technology can make possible a rich array of information and complex environments for students to explore. Multiple Intelligences Theory: Howard Gardner The Role of Intelligence in Learning Learning is shaped by innate intelligences: Linguistic Uses language effectively, writes clearly and persuasively. Musical- Communicates by writing and playing music. Logical-mathematical- Reasons logically, recognizes patterns; formulates and tests hypotheses; solves problems in math and science. Spatial- Perceives the world visually, can recreate things after seeing them. Bodily- Kinesthetic Uses the body and tools skillfully. Intrapersonal- Is an introspective thinker; has heightened metacognitive abilities. Interpersonal- Notices moods and changes in others, can identify motives in others behavior, relates well with others. Naturalist- Can discriminate among living things.

Learning Theory
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Learning can occur on many levels and be demonstrated in many different ways, depending on a students preferred mode of intelligence. Educational Implications

Instruction must allow for different ways of learning and showing competence in the same topics and materials.

Technology Implications Multimedia supports many channels for learning the same content; students can demonstrate learning by doing different roles in a group technology project.

REALISM- What does it mean? Realism emerged as a direct reaction against idealism Realism accepts the existence of real things which can be comprehended. Reality, Knowledge, and values exist independent of the human mind. For example, Trees, sticks and stones exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them. Swami Ram Tirath: Realism is a theory which looks upon the world as it seems to us to be a mere phenomenon. He also added that, the doctrine of realism asserts that, there is a real world of things beyond and corresponding to the object of our perception

LEADERS OF REALISM Aristotle (383 323 BC) A Greek philosopher and propounder of realism Thomas Aquinas (1225 1274) Sir Francis Bacon (1561 1626) John Locke (1690 1781 AD) An English Philosopher who gave new impetus to realism MAIN FEATURES OF REALISM Nature of reality: Real is the world, we live in. Knowledge is derived from experience Everything that exists is matter or energy or matter in motion Universe is operated by the laws of nature
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Truth can be discovered with the help of scientific methods Material world has independent existence and it does not depend upon a knowing mind.

REALISM AND AIMS OF EDUCATION Preparation for a happy and successful life Education should prepare a child for real life Development of mental and physical faculties (talents, abilities) Development of senses through experience To provide knowledge of both society and external nature A Child should be trained for a vocational (work, employment, job-related) pursuit

REALISM AND CURRICULUM Emphasis on finding out the truth; sciences should be given a prominent place. Opportunities should be provided for the study of physical sciences. Science was a tool for creating new knowledge (Francis Bacon: 1561- 1626). He was also the originator of the expression, Knowledge is power There should be diversification of courses; related to life. Realism suggests the inclusion of contemporary events in the curriculum Realism emphasizes the inclusion of vocational courses in the curriculum.

Realism and the teacher: Realism does not attach much importance to the personality of the teacher. Realism and discipline: Realism believes in giving considerable freedom to the child.

DUAL- CODING THEORY The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing. Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events.

Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors.

The theory assumes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal objects/events (i.e., imagery), and the other specialized for dealing with language.

Paivio also postulates two different types of representational units: "imagens" for mental images and "logogens" for verbal entities which he describes as being similar to "chunks" as described by Miller. Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships.

Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: (1) representational, the direct activation of verbal or non-verbal representations, (2) referential, the activation of the verbal system by the nonverbal system or vice-versa, and (3) associative processing, the activation of representations within the same verbal or nonverbal system. A given task may require any or all of the three kinds of processing.

Scope/Application: Dual coding theory has been applied to many cognitive phenomena including: mnemonics, problem-solving, concept learning and language. Dual coding theory accounts for the significance of spatial abilities in theories of intelligence (e.g., Guilford). Paivio (1986) provides a dual coding explanation of bilingual processing. Clark & Paivio (1991) present dual coding theory as a general framework for educational psychology.

Example: Many experiments reported by Paivio and others support the importance of imagery in cognitive operations. In one experiment, participants saw pairs of items that differed in roundness (e.g., tomato, goblet) and were asked to indicate which member of the pair was rounder. The objects were presented as words, pictures, or word-picture pairs. The response times were slowest for word-word pairs, intermediate for the picture-word pairs, and fastest for the picture-picture pairs.

VISUAL LITERACY Students today live in a multimedia world and appreciate variety in their learning environment. Some forms of literacy they can develop include textual, numerical, visual, audio and multimedia. Visual Literacy can be defined as the ability to understand and produce visual messages. Both teachers and students can benefit by developing their abilities to create, use and evaluate visual resources. Visual literacy includes among other areas - facial expressions, body language, drawing, painting, sculpture, hand signs, street signs, international symbols, layout of the pictures and words in a textbook, the clarity of type fonts, computer images, student produced still pictures, sequences, movies or video, user friendly equipment design, critical analysis of television advertisements and many, many other things Young people learn more than half of what they know from visual information, but few schools have an explicit curriculum to show students how to think critically about visual data" (Mary Alice White, researcher, Columbia Teacher's College) "The majority of information absorbed by human beings is collected with our sense of vision. It seems logical the we emphasize the development of visual skills as a way of preparing for successful and satisfying lives" (page 4, A Guide for International Visual Literacy Association Board Members and Officers)

Some Implications: (1) Visual skills can be learned (2) Visual skills are not usually isolated from other sensory skills (3) Teachers can provide appropriate learning environments and materials (4) Teachers can allow students to create their own visual messages (5) Digital literacies (e.g. computer, visual, audio, print reading, information, multimedia) each require different skills (6) Competency in one literacy does not necessarily transfer to another (7) Visual arts can affect student emotions and aid understanding
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(8) Students need to learn how to recognize and respond to visual and print messages of Humor (funny, comedy, hilarity) irony (mockery, sarcasm) and metaphor (image, simile, symbol) (9) Students require guidance to distinguish between factual and fictional visual representations. Some elements that may contribute to the 'look and feel' of visual resources include: - Colour, proportion, form, shape, texture, emotion, feelings, typography, design and composition. For example - text that includes these elements can be made more visual hence skilled use of typography (design, layout...) is just one way to enhance communication. Curriculum Benefits: - Students can learn better when teachers employ a variety of learning styles - Students can improve reading and writing skills through the use of visual literacy techniques (studies have shown that processing in competent reading involves both phonological and visual information) - Visual literacy can contribute to visual-spatial intelligence (one of the multiple intelligences identified by Howard Gardiner). It can also be involved in other intelligences such as bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, and logical-mathematical. Digital Cameras: Although visual literacy consists of many elements such as color, typography, graphics and photos one technology that can make a significant contribution to visual literacy is digital cameras. Digital cameras are now widespread in schools - they are easy to use, small, cheap and powerful. Teachers and students in any learning area can now readily produce and use digital images. However a photo does not have to just capture an image - it can express feelings, celebrate colour or emphasise shape. Some ways in which digital cameras can assist with visual literacy include:

- enhancing lesson worksheets, teacher overheads, test items, food preparation notes, science reports, etc - email attachments (e.g. sharing photos, global collaborative projects, epals)
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- getting images into web pages quickly and easily (NOTE: duty of care may require parental permission for student photos to be published on the Internet) - self-esteem activities (merit certificates, student of the week, etc.) - Assisting language teaching (e.g. vocabulary) - suitable for LOTE, ESL, NESB and other Programs - providing relevant lesson material to hearing impaired students - taking photos or recording information on excursions or field trips - assisting students in special education and autistic applications - providing close up, macro or micro views of objects, plants or animals - enhancing slideshows or presentations - Encouraging effort through immediate recognition of achievement - Recording student progress (including difficult-to-record evidence for process outcomes) - analyzing physical education activities - taking images that capture different emotions, beauty... - Recording sequences of events in experiments (e.g. life cycles, motion,) - Recording weather, types of clouds, ocean conditions... - taking photos of natural or built environments (e.g. rivers, mountains, buildings, volcanoes etc.)

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