Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 9:95115, 2009 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN:

: 1528-3488 print/1532-706X online DOI: 10.1080/15283480802669101

Identity Processing and Personal Wisdom: An Information-Oriented Identity Style Predicts Self-Actualization and Self-Transcendence
Sherry L. Beaumont
University of Northern British Columbia

This study was designed to investigate whether individual differences in young adults identity processing styles predict aspects of personal wisdom (self-actualization and self-transcendence) and related outcomes (meaning in life and subjective happiness). Fifty-three men and 105 women completed self-report questionnaires measuring: identity commitment; identity processing styles (informational, normative, diffuse-avoidant); self-actualization (via autonomy, adaptation, and psychological functioning); self-transcendence (decreasing reliance on externals for self-definition, increasing interiority, and spirituality); meaning in life; and subjective happiness. Both identity commitment and an informational identity style were positively correlated with self-actualization and self-transcendence. When levels of identity commitment were controlled via hierarchical regression, self-actualization and self-transcendence were positively predicted by the informational identity style. Structural equation modeling further revealed that the use of an informational style positively predicts self-actualization and self-transcendence, which in turn positively predicts the presence of meaning and subjective happiness. This path model was not found for either the normative or diffuse-avoidant identity styles.

Since the seminal work of Erikson (1968), considerable research has investigated the correlates and outcomes associated with the formation and maintenance of ego identity during adolescence and early adulthood. Erikson proposed that developCorrespondence should be addressed to Sherry L. Beaumont, University of Northern British Columbia, Psychology Department, 3333 University Way, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada V2L 4Z9. E-mail: beaumont@unbc.ca

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ing a clear sense of identity by late adolescence is a necessary antecedent for future psychosocial adjustment in the form of intimacy/love in early adulthood, generativity/care in middle adulthood, and integrity/wisdom in late adulthood. This supposition has been supported by research demonstrating that identity achievement positively predicts intimacy during early adulthood (e.g., Orlofsky, Marcia, & Lesser, 1973) and generativity in middle adulthood (e.g., Stewart, Ostrove, & Helson, 2001). However, research examining the predictive relationship between identity and wisdom is almost nonexistent. The goal of this research was to examine whether individual differences in styles of identity processing predict aspects of wisdom during early adulthood. This objective was grounded in two bodies of literature. First, in support of Eriksons (1968) epigenetic principle, research has demonstrated that the seeds of wisdom develop as early as adolescence (e.g., Pasupathi, Staudinger, & Baltes, 2001), with wise individuals displaying such characteristics as advanced self-development or self-actualization and self-transcendence (Orwoll & Perlmutter, 1990). Second, research has revealed that individual differences in social-cognitive identity processing styles predict differential patterns of psychosocial adjustment (e.g., Berzonsky & Kuk, 2005). Given that wisdom represents one form of psychosocial balance, and that identity processing differences are related to patterns of adjustment, it is important to investigate whether certain identity styles predict aspects of wisdom during early adulthood. The present research addressed this issue by examining predictive links between identity styles (informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) and aspects of personal wisdom (self-actualization and self-transcendence), as well as related well-being outcomes (meaning in life and subjective happiness). The primary hypothesis investigated was that an open and self-reflective, information-oriented identity style is uniquely associated with aspects of personal wisdom, which in turn predict meaning and happiness. Identity Processing and Commitment The concept of identity has been defined as a self-constructed cognitive representation of oneself that is used to interpret self-relevant information and to cope with personal problems and life events (Berzonsky, 1990, p. 156). Berzonsky has identified individual differences in social-cognitive styles of identity processing that support different self-constructed identities. According to Berzonsky, scientific self-theorists achieve balance in assimilation and accommodation processes by relying on an information-oriented identity style. Dogmatic self-theorists overuse assimilation processes by relying on a norm-oriented identity style. Finally, ad hoc self-theorists use an overabundance of accommodation processes by employing a diffuse-avoidant identity style. Individuals who prefer to use an informational identity style are characterized as highly committed self-explorers in that they address identity-relevant issues

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by being skeptical of their self-views, questioning their assumptions and beliefs, and exploring and evaluating information that is relevant to their self-constructions (Berzonsky, 1992a; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992). The use of an informational style is positively associated with strategic planning, vigilant decision making, and the use of proactive and problem-focused coping (Berzonsky & Ferrari, 1996; Berzonsky, Nurmi, Kinney, & Tammi, 1999; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992; Seaton & Beaumont, in press). The informational style is also associated with such personal and cognitive attributes as autonomy, openness to experience, introspectiveness, self-reflection, empathy, a high need for cognition, and a high level of cognitive complexity (e.g., Berzonsky, 1993; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992; Berzonsky et al., 1999; Soenens, Berzonsky, Vansteenkiste, Beyers, & Goossens, 2005). Individuals who use a normative identity style address identity-relevant issues by conforming to the prescriptions and expectations of significant others (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000, p. 83). Normative individuals report high levels of identity commitment as well as dispositional characteristics such as agreeableness, extraversion, and conscientiousness (Dollinger, 1995). However, they also report low levels of openness and introspectiveness, and they have been found to employ avoidant coping strategies, to procrastinate in the face of decisions, to have a high need for structure and a low tolerance for ambiguity, and to be conservative, authoritarian, and racist in their sociocultural views (Berzonsky, 1992a; Berzonsky & Ferrari, 1996; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992; Dollinger, 1995; Soenens, Duriez, & Goossens, 2005). Individuals who are low in identity commitment tend to use a diffuse-avoidant identity style; these individuals are reluctant to face up to and confront personal problems and decisions (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000, p. 83). The use of a diffuse-avoidant style is characterized by low agreeableness, conscientiousness, introspectiveness, and cognitive complexity, and high neuroticism (Berzonsky, 1993; Berzonsky et al., 1999; Dollinger, 1995). A diffuse-avoidant style is also associated with less adaptive cognitive and behavioral strategies, such as using avoidant coping strategies, engaging in task-irrelevant behaviors, expecting to fail, having a low feeling of mastery, and performing less strategic planning (Berzonsky, 1992a; Berzonsky & Ferrari, 1996; Nurmi, Berzonsky, Tammi, & Kinney, 1997). Identity style has been found to be an important predictor for adjustment, with the normative and informational styles associated with better adjustment than the diffuse-avoidant style. Diffuse-avoidant individuals score higher on depression, delinquency, conduct disorder, and hyperactivity than do informational or normative individuals (Adams et al., 2001; Adams, Munro, Munro, Doherty-Poirer, & Edwards, 2005; Nurmi et al., 1997). However, when maturity of adjustment is considered, subtle differences emerge for the informational and normative styles. For example, among entering university students both the normative and informational styles were found to positively predict educational purpose, but only the informa-

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tional style positively predicted academic autonomy and mature interpersonal relationships (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000). Informational individuals scored higher than normative individuals on life management and emotional autonomy as resources for dealing with the challenges of university life (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2005). Similarly, Vleioras and Bosma (2005) found that, although both the normative and the informational styles were positively related to environmental mastery, the informational style was uniquely associated with well-being in the form of having positive relationships with others, autonomy, personal growth, and a purpose in life. Overall then, there appear to be both similar and different forms of adjustment associated with the normative and informational identity styles. Berzonsky (2003) has proposed that similarities in outcomes associated with these two styles may be due to the confounding influence of high identity commitment. Thus, Berzonsky (2003) advocated the approach of isolating the unique contribution of the identity styles in predicting adjustment via hierarchical regression controlling for identity commitment. Using this approach, several studies have shown that the informational style is uniquely associated with mature adjustment, such as proactive coping, psychological hardiness, resilience, and personal growth, whereas the normative style is not associated with these forms of positive adjustment (Beaumont & Seaton, 2008; Berzonsky, 2003; Seaton & Beaumont, 2008). The purpose of this study was to add to the literature demonstrating the unique and positive contribution of the informational identity style to mature psychosocial adjustment by examining the potential link with personal wisdom. The Construct of Personal Wisdom Researchers consider wisdom as a multidimensional construct involving a balanced perspective that includes mature understanding, judgment, and general social-cognitive competence (e.g., Baltes, Glck, & Kunzmann, 2005; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Wisdom has been considered in two different ways in the literature: (a) general wisdom involves insights about life in general based primarily on knowledge- or intelligence-related facets, and (b) personal wisdom encompasses a persons insight or perspective into his or her own life that involves a particular pattern of dispositional characteristics (Staudinger, Drner, & Mickler, 2005). Based in part on Eriksons (1968) theory, personal wisdom is believed to involve an interface between self- or identity-related facets as well as aspects of social-cognitive and psychosocial processes (e.g., Orwoll & Perlmutter, 1990) and, thus, it is the approach to wisdom considered in this research. According to Erikson (1982), the maturity required for the development of personal wisdom requires advanced age; however, he also stressed that wisdom is grounded in the resolution of previous psychosocial crises (e.g., identity) and in manifestations of wisdom in previous developmental stages. Thus, although full

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personality integration is the hallmark of aging, adolescents and young adults can develop the antecedents of personal wisdom via the attainment of fidelity following the resolution of the identity crisis (Erikson, 1982). This supposition has been supported by research showing that the underlying dispositional and social-cognitive qualities that are considered to be important facets of personal wisdom are often present as early as adolescence (e.g., self-reflection; Pasupathi et al., 2001), although they do seem to increase with maturity (Richardson & Pasupathi, 2005). Thus, a focus on aspects of personal wisdom in early adulthood, which is the age period considered in this research, is certainly warranted. Based on a synthesis of early theoretical writings by Jung (1959), Erikson (1968), and Maslow (1954/1987), several researchers have suggested that advanced self-development and self-transcendence are the critical components of personal wisdom. Orwoll and Perlmutter (1990) claimed that, together, these attributes denote an unusually integrated and mature personality structure that transcends preoccupation with self-referent thoughts and feelings (p. 160). The two attributes are either framed as encompassing personal wisdom or as forming a developmental pathway to wisdom, with advanced self-development preceding self-transcendence.

Advanced self-development. Advanced self-development is characterized by mature self-awareness, self-insight, openness to experience, open-mindedness, comfort with ambiguity, and cognitive complexity in terms of self and others (Holliday & Chandler, 1986; Orwoll & Perlmutter, 1990; Richardson & Pasupathi, 2005; Staudinger et al., 2005). These personal qualities represent an integrated type of self-development that is considered to be a form of actualization tendency (Takahashi & Overton, 2005). Thus, in this study, the advanced self-development component of personal wisdom is conceptualized and measured as selfactualization. The concept of self-actualization was coined by Maslow (1954/1987) to refer to a developmental process that involves the actualization or full use of ones abilities or potential. Research by Lefranois, Leclerc, Dub, Hbert, and Gaulin (1997) and Leclerc, Lefranois, Dub, Hbert, and Gaulin (1998) was directed toward more precisely defining the construct of self-actualization by using the Delphi technique to assess its essential attributes. Consistent with Maslows original writings, the most agreed upon attributes of self-actualization by both experts and lay persons included: meaning in life, positive self-esteem, personal responsibility, self-awareness, intimacy, empathy, realistic perceptions, insight, and resistance to undue social pressure (Lefranois et al., 1997). In the process of developing a self-report measure based on these key attributes, these authors found that the construct of self-actualization was represented by two essential traits: openness to experience and self-reference or centeredness. The first depicts interest in varied experiences for its own sake (interest or pleasure) whereas the second describes

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awareness and consciousness of what is taking place in ones personal experience (Lefranois et al., 1997, p. 356). Thus, Lefranois et al. (1997) redefined self-actualization as a process through which ones potential is developed in congruence with ones self-perception and ones experience (p. 79).

Self-transcendence. Self-transcendence is the ability to see oneself and the world in a way that is not hindered by the boundaries of ones ego identity (Erikson, 1982) and, thus, it involves a heightened sense of meaning and connectedness with others and with the world (Frankl, 2000; Tornstam, 1994). Being able to detach from the external definitions of the self and dissolving rigid boundaries between self and other allows for self-transcendence (Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005, p. 129). Self-transcendence is considered by wisdom researchers to be a consequence of advanced self-development or self-actualization (e.g., Orwoll & Perlmutter, 1990). Nevertheless, Erikson (1982) posited that the capacity for self-transcendence is an aspect of ego growth that is motivating during each developmental period and, thus, it can be realized at any age through practice and mature coping (Tornstam, 1994). The key, according to Maslow (1954/1987), is having a strong identity (p. 157). In summary, self-actualization involves advanced self-development or actuation of growth, whereas self-transcendence involves an ability to expand or transcend the boundaries of ones ego identity. Together, self-actualization and self-transcendence include a rich form of self-knowledge and awareness that is characterized by openness, self-reflection, and insight based in a mature identity that is not hampered by ego preoccupation. Thus, these two attributes encompass or provide a pathway to personal wisdom.
Identity Style and Personal Wisdom Both theoretical and empirical links can be drawn between the constructs of identity style and personal wisdom. Theoretically, Erikson (1968) proposed strong developmental links between identity development and later psychosocial attainments, including the development of wisdom. Empirically, research has revealed a striking similarity between the qualities that are believed to encompass both personal wisdom and the informational identity style. Table 1 provides a summary of the parallel characteristics, and it is readily apparent that there are similar reflective, cognitive, and affective components of both attributes. The importance of identity issues such as personal meaning and self-reflectiveness are often discussed in the literature on personal wisdom; however, the potential link between the two has not been fully examined. Only one previous study has considered this issue (Helson & Srivastava, 2001); yet, that study examined differences in identity statuses rather than considering possible individual differences in identity processing that may be associated with wisdom. Similarly, despite the ap-

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TABLE 1 Similarities Between Characteristics Associated With the Informational Identity Style and With Personal Wisdom Informational Identity Style Openness, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness (Dollinger, 1995) Openness to experience (Berzonsky, 1993; Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992) Introspectiveness (Berzonsky, 1993) Self-reflection (Berzonsky et al., 1999) Personal identity emphasis (Berzonsky & Sullivan, 1992) Personal growth well-being (Vleioras & Bosma, 2005) Inverse relationship with need for closure (Soenens & Duriez, 2005) Relativism (Berzonsky, 1994) Lack of conservatism (Soenens & Duriez, 2005) Emotional intelligence (Seaton & Beaumont, 2008) Personal Wisdom Openness, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness (re: self-transcendence; Wink & Helson, 1997) Openness to experience (Staudinger, Maciel, Smith, & Baltes, 1998) Self-insight (Holliday & Chandler, 1986) Self-reflective thinking (Richardson & Pasupathi, 2005) Motivated to pursue personality growth (Staudinger et al., 1998) Personal growth (Staudinger et al., 2005) Comfort with uncertainty (Richardson & Pasupathi, 2005) Comfort with ambiguity (Sternberg, 1990) Lack of conservatism (Staudinger et al., 2005) Social intelligence (Staudinger & Pasupathi, 2003)

parent potency of social-cognitive identity processing for psychological adjustment, no previous research has examined aspects of personal wisdom as a function of individual differences in identity styles. The goal of this study was to address these limitations by investigating the identity correlates of the two aspects of personal wisdom highlighted by Orwoll and Perlmutter (1990): advanced self-development (considered in this study as self-actualization) and self-transcendence. Patterns of predictive relationships between identity styles, identity commitment, self-actualization, and self-transcendence, and personal well-being outcomes (meaning in life and subjective happiness) were examined. Meaning and subjective happiness were included because they are believed to be associated with wisdom (e.g., Frankl, 2000). It was hypothesized that the informational style would be positively correlated with self-actualization and self-transcendence. Following from Berzonskys (2003) hypothesis regarding the potential confounding influence of identity commitment, it was also expected that the informational style would make a unique positive contribution to the personal wisdom variables over and above the influence of identity commitment. Due to the normative style being associated with a lack of openness and tolerance, and the diffuse-avoidant style being associated with a lack of self-reflection, it was expected that both of these styles would be negatively related to both personal wisdom variables.

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FIGURE 1 Hypothetical path model of the predictive relationships between the informational identity style, self-actualization, self-transcendence, the presence of meaning, and subjective happiness.

No specific hypotheses were put forth with regard to simple relationships between identity styles and the meaning and subjective happiness variables because the analyses of these simple relationships were considered exploratory. These well-being outcomes were included primarily as part of a hypothesized path model. Specifically, the final hypothesis was that the informational style would positively predict self-actualization and self-transcendence, and both in turn would predict the presence of meaning and subjective happiness (as depicted in Figure 1). The predictive links between the wisdom and personal well-being variables can be supported by previous theories on wisdom that posit a link between personal wisdom and meaning and fulfillment (e.g., Erikson, 1982; Frankl, 2000) as well as by previous research showing positive associations between self-transcendence and purpose in life (Piedmont, 2001). Because previous authors have hypothesized that self-actualization precedes self-transcendence, the model also included a positive predictive link from self-actualization to self-transcendence.

METHOD Participants and Procedure First- and second-year undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses at a small Canadian university were recruited. Students volunteered to complete a survey study in exchange for extra course credit. Eight participants were excluded from the final sample because they were extreme outliers in terms of age (range = 4358). The final sample included 158 young adults (53 men, 105 women), ranging in age from 18 to 35 (M = 20.87, SD = 3.87), who were predominately single (84%) and Caucasian (77%). Following the completion of an informed consent

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form and a demographic questionnaire, participants completed several self-report, paper-and-pencil questionnaires (order counterbalanced) as described below. Measures

Identity Style Inventory, Revised. The Identity Style Inventory, Revised (ISI3) is a 40-item inventory designed by Berzonsky (1992b) to measure three styles of identity processing orientation: Informational (11 items; e.g., Ive spent a lot of time and talked to a lot of people trying to develop a set of values that make sense to me); Normative (9 items; e.g., Ive more-or-less always operated according to the values with which I was brought up); and Diffuse-Avoidant (10 items; e.g., It doesnt pay to worry about values in advance; I decide things as they happen). The ISI3 also includes an additional subscale that provides an index of level of commitment to ones identity (10 items; e.g., I know what I want to do with my future). Respondents indicate the degree to which each item is characteristic of himself or herself using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). After reverse scoring negatively worded items, total scores are based on summed responses for items composing each subscale. The ISI3 has good reliability and both convergent and divergent validity (Berzonsky, 1992a). In this study, Cronbachs alphas were .68 for the Informational style, .66 for the Normative style, .68 for the Diffuse-Avoidant style, and .75 for Identity Commitment. Measure of Actualization Potential. The Measure of Actualization Potential ([MAP], Lefranois et al., 1997) includes 27 sentence-completion items that describe various aspects of autonomy, adaptation, and psychological functioning that are characteristic of self-actualizing individuals. Respondents indicate the degree to which each item is characteristic of himself or herself using 5-point Likert scales with descriptors relevant to each item (e.g., I am a person who values him/ herself ; Response set: 1 [very little], 2 [a little], 3 [somewhat], 4 [very much], 5 [enormously]). The final score of the MAP is a number between one and five, derived from the summation of the item scores (after reverse scoring negatively worded items) divided by the number of valid responses. Based on initial factor analysis results conducted by Lefranois et al. (1997), the MAP was found to consist of two main components, Openness to Experience and Self-Reference, which are comprised of five subscales (Openness to Others, Autonomy, Openness to Life, Openness to Self, and Adaptation); however, those authors suggested that the total scale scores or the scores for the two main components be used in analyses. As a result, for this study, a total score reflecting the overall self-actualization was computed and used in analyses, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of self-actualization. This total score approach is further supported by the fact that the two scales (Openness and Self-Reference) were highly intercorrelated (r = .50, p < .001). The MAP has demonstrated good reliability and acceptable criterion

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validity (Leclerc, Lefranois, Dub, Hbert, & Gaulin, 1999; Lefranois, Leclerc, Dub, Hbert, & Gaulin, 1998). The Cronbachs alpha in this study was .80.

Self-Transcendence. The Self-Transcendence subscale from the Adult Self-Transcendence Inventory (ASTI revised; Levenson, Jennings, & Aldwin, 2005) was used to measure the construct of self-transcendence, which is defined as a developmental process that reflects a decreasing reliance on externals for definition of self, increasing interiority and spirituality, and a greater sense of connectedness with past and future generations (Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005, p. 127). The Self-Transcendence subscale of the ASTI revised includes slightly modified instructions and wording of the original 13 items published by Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi (2005). Respondents indicate the extent of their agreement or disagreement with each item as they see themselves presently using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 4 (agree strongly; e.g., I feel that my individual life is a part of a greater whole). Total scores are computed by summing responses. The original ASTI has demonstrated high levels of face validity, moderate convergent validity, and moderate-to-high levels of internal reliability (Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005). In this study, the Cronbachs alpha was .66. Meaning in Life Questionnaire. The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006) includes 10 items designed to measure respondents self-reported meaning in life via two dimensions: the Presence of Meaning subscale (5 items; e.g., I understand my lifes meaning), which measures how full one believes his or her life to be of meaning, and the Search for Meaning subscale (5 items; e.g., I am always looking to find my lifes purpose), which measures ones level of engagement and commitment to find meaning or deepening current levels of meaning. Respondents indicate the degree to which each statement is true for himself or herself using a 7-point Likert scale with scores ranging from 1 (absolutely untrue) to 7 (absolutely true). Scoring requires the summation of responses to items for each of the subscales, after reverse scoring one negatively worded item. The scale has demonstrated good reliability, including testretest reliability, and high convergent validity (Steger et al., 2006). In this study, the Cronbachs alpha was .87 for the Presence of Meaning subscale and .86 for the Search for Meaning subscale. Subjective Happiness Scale. The Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999) includes four items designed to measure global subjective happiness. Two items ask respondents to characterize themselves using both absolute ratings and ratings relative to peers , while the remaining two items provide brief descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals and ask respondents the extent to which each characterization describes them (p. 140). Respondents indicate the de-

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gree of happiness they feel using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not a very a happy person, less happy, or not at all) to 7 (a very happy person, more happy, or a great deal). Scoring requires the summation of responses to the four items, after reverse scoring one negatively worded item. The scale has high reliability and validity (Lyubomirsky & Lepper). In this study, the Cronbachs alpha was .83.

RESULTS Overview of the Analyses Four types of analyses were conducted: (a) preliminary analyses examining gender differences in mean scores and in the strength of correlations among variables; (b) intercorrelations among variables to determine whether the informational style was the only identity style to be positively related to aspects of personal wisdom; (c) hierarchical regressions to determine whether the informational style significantly predicted the self-actualization and self-transcendence over and above identity commitment; and (d) structural equation modeling to examine support for the hypothesized path model of the predictive relationships between the informational identity style, self-actualization, self-transcendence, presence of meaning, and subjective happiness (as depicted in Figure 1). An alpha level of .05 was used for all significance tests. Preliminary Analyses of Gender Differences Descriptive statistics for all variables are presented in Table 2. To examine possible gender differences, a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with gender
TABLE 2 Means and Standard Deviations for All Variables by Gender Total M (SD) Identity commitment Diffuse-avoidant style Normative style Informational style Self-actualization Self-transcendence Search for meaning Presence of meaning Subjective happiness Note. 36.02 (6.38) 26.32 (5.54) 27.53 (5.08) 36.43 (5.59) 3.45 (0.36) 35.78 (4.67) 20.60 (6.88) 23.66 (6.06) 20.03 (4.20) Men M (SD) 35.64 (5.18) 26.96 (4.74) 27.51 (4.74) 36.45 (5.43) 3.40 (0.33) 34.74 (4.90) 21.28 (6.71) 21.84 (6.11) 19.92 (4.54) Women M (SD) 36.21 (6.92) 26.00 (5.89) 27.53 (5.27) 36.41 (5.68) 3.48 (0.37) 36.31 (4.49) 20.26 (6.97) 24.58 (5.85) 20.09 (4.03) Range of Possible Scores 10.0050.00 10.0050.00 9.0045.00 11.0055.00 1.005.00 13.0052.00 5.0035.00 5.0035.00 4.0028.00

N = 53 men, 105 women.

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as a between-subjects factor and with scores on all measures as the dependent variables. However, the multivariate effect of gender was not significant. To further examine patterns of differences as a function of gender, separate intercorrelations among variables were computed for men and for women, and then z test comparisons between the strength of corresponding correlations for men and women were conducted. These analyses resulted in only a chance level of significant gender differences in the strength of correlations, with just 3 out of 36 z tests being significant. Specifically, the z test comparisons between the strength of corresponding correlations for men and women for the normative style and three other variables were significant: normative style and informational style (r = .25, ns, for men; r = .28, p < .01, for women; z = 3.14, p < .01); normative style and self-actualization (r = .13, ns, for men; r = .23, p < .05, for women; z = 2.13, p < .05); and, normative style and self-transcendence (r = .44, p < .01, for men; r = .10, ns, for women; z = 3.30, p < .01). Because few gender differences were observed, particularly with regard to the informational identity style, a decision was made to conduct subsequent analyses with the sample as a whole. Intercorrelations Between Identity Styles and Outcome Variables The intercorrelation matrix for all variables for the entire sample is presented in Table 3. As hypothesized, the informational style was the only identity style that was positively correlated with self-actualization and self-transcendence; yet, identity commitment was also positively correlated with the two personal wisdom variables. In contrast, the diffuse-avoidant style was negatively correlated with self-actualization and unrelated to self-transcendence. Similarly, the normative style was unrelated to both personal wisdom variables.
TABLE 3 Intercorrelations Between All Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Identity commitment 2. Diffuse-avoidant style .45*** 3. Normative style .31*** .09 4. Informational style .36*** .22** .12 5. Self-actualization .47*** .33*** .12 6. Self-transcendence .19* .07 .07 7. Search for meaning .20* .25** .22** 8. Presence of meaning .50*** .29*** .22** 9. Subjective happiness .34*** .09 .05 Note. N = 158. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

.31*** .39*** .48*** .05 .20* .24** .21** .55*** .40*** .34*** .18* .65*** .48*** .27** .47***

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Although no hypotheses were put forth regarding simple relationships with the meaning and happiness variables, it is interesting to note the significant correlations found for these variables. All variables were found to be significantly correlated with the presence of meaning. Identity commitment, the informational style, the normative style, self-actualization, and self-transcendence were all positively correlated with the presence of meaning, whereas the diffuse-avoidant style and the search for meaning were negatively correlated with the presence of meaning. The search for meaning was also found to be negatively correlated with identity commitment and with the personal wisdom variables and was positively correlated with the diffuse-avoidant and normative styles. Finally, subjective happiness was found to be positively correlated with all variables except the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles. Hierarchical Regressions Controlling for Identity Commitment As presented above, zero-order correlations indicated that only the informational identity style was positively related to self-actualization and self-transcendence; however, these variables were also positively correlated with identity commitment. Therefore, in order to test the hypothesis that the informational style positively predicts personal wisdom, hierarchical regressions were conducted to examine the strength of the relationships between the informational style and the personal wisdom variables while also considering the potential overlapping variance accounted for by identity commitment. Separate analyses were performed with informational style as the predictor variable and self-actualization and self-transcendence as the criterion variables. In both regressions, identity commitment scores were entered on Step 1, so that the potential contribution of identity commitment in the relationship between the informational style and criterion variables could be controlled, and then the informational style scores were entered on Step 2 of the analyses.

Self-actualization. The regression equation for Step 1, with only identity commitment as the predictor variable, was significant (R2 = .22; F[1, 156] = 43.41, p < .001). The informational style, included on Step 2, added significantly to the prediction of self-actualization (R2 change = .02; F[1, 155] = 4.56, p = .034) by making a unique positive contribution (b = .16). It is also interesting to note that on Step 2 when informational style scores were entered, identity commitment still significantly predicted self-actualization, with minimal reduction in the strength of the prediction (b = .47 on Step 1, and b = .41 on Step 2). Self-transcendence. The regression equation for Step 1, with only identity commitment as the predictor variable, was significant (R2 = .04; F[1, 156] = 5.94, p = .016). The informational style, included on Step 2, added significantly to the pre-

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diction of self-transcendence (R2 change = .12; F[1, 155] = 21.82, p < .001) by making a unique positive contribution (b = .37). In addition, the informational style completely mediated the positive relationship between identity commitment and self-transcendence as is evident by the fact that the beta weight for identity commitment was no longer significant on Step 2 (b = .19 on Step 1, and b = .06 on Step 2).

Structural Equation Modeling of Predictive Relationships Between the Informational Identity Style, Aspects of Personal Wisdom, and Subjective Well-Being Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine support for the hypothesized model (Figure 1) in which the informational identity style positively predicts self-actualization and self-transcendence, self-actualization positively predicts self-transcendence, and both aspects of personal wisdom in turn positively predict the presence of meaning and subjective happiness. The method used to test the appropriateness of the proposed model was maximum likelihood estimation using Amos 6.0. Following guidelines presented by Kline (2005), the sample size (N = 158) was deemed to be acceptable for analyzing the specified path model. The criteria used for acceptance of a model were an adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) within the parameters of .9 and unity, and a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) with a value less than .08 (Kline). Finally, the significance levels of the standardized coefficients for each path were evaluated at an alpha level of .05. If all of the above criteria were met satisfactorily, the predicted model could be considered as a reasonable approximation of fit. The hypothesized model was found to be a good fit for the data (AGFI = .96, RMSEA = .06). As shown in Figure 2, all hypothesized pathways were significant: The informational style positively predicted self-actualization (b = .31), the infor-

FIGURE 2 Path diagram of the predictive relationships between the informational identity style, self-actualization, self-transcendence, the presence of meaning, and subjective happiness, including the standardized path coefficients. *p < .05. **p < .001.

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mational style positively predicted self-transcendence (b = .27), self-actualization positively predicted self-transcendence (b = .40), self-actualization positively predicted the presence of meaning (b = .47) and subjective happiness (b = .54), and self-transcendence positively predicted the presence of meaning (b = .17) and subjective happiness (b = .22). To further evaluate the appropriateness of accepting the path model displayed in Figure 2, alternative models were tested to determine whether the hypothesized links with the personal wisdom and well-being variables were specific to the informational style alone. First, an expanded model with identity commitment positively predicting the informational style was tested (following the logic behind the previous hierarchical regressions); yet, the results indicated that the data were not an adequate fit to this alternative model (AGFI = .71, RMSEA = .21). Second, an alternative model was tested in which the informational style variable was removed, and this model also was not supported (AGFI = .91; RMSEA = .11). Finally, the original model was tested by replacing the informational style with the diffuse-avoidant style, the normative style, and identity commitment (separately) to determine whether the hypothesized links with self-actualization, self-transcendence, the presence of meaning, and subjective happiness were particular to the informational identity style. All three of these alternative models were not supported (AGFI = .87, RMSEA = .14, for the diffuse-avoidant style; AGFI = .88, RMSEA = .13, for the normative style; and AGFI = .74, RMSEA = .20, for identity commitment). Thus, the results of the SEM procedures indicated that the best-fitting model was the one depicted in Figure 2 in which the informational style alone predicted the hypothesized links with self-actualization, self-transcendence, the presence of meaning, and subjective happiness.

DISCUSSION The hypotheses regarding the informational style were supported; yet, those regarding the normative and diffuse-avoidant styles were only partially supported. The diffuse-avoidant style was negatively related to self-actualization, but was not significantly related to self-transcendence. Contrary to what was expected, the normative identity style was unrelated to either aspect of personal wisdom. It may be that the diffuse-avoidant style hinders self-actualization due to a lack of self-reflectiveness, whereas the normative style does not predict personal wisdom due to a lack of openness and tolerance with regard to others. It was also evident that both the normative and diffuse-avoidant styles were uniquely associated with the search for meaning. The diffuse-avoidant style was positively related to the search for meaning and negatively related to the presence of meaning, whereas the normative style was positively related to both types of meaning in life. In contrast, the informational style was related only to the pres-

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ence of meaning. Because meaning and fulfillment appear to be highly related to personal wisdom (e.g., Frankl, 2000), it may be that the lack of meaning simply accompanies a sense of self that is not particularly concerned with self-advancement. However, what is striking is that normative style users reported greater search for and presence of meaning, when these two variables were negatively related. Thus, it may be that a lack of pursuit of wisdom accounts for the search for meaning, at the same time as high identity commitment affords some sense of the presence of meaning. As hypothesized, the informational style was the only form of identity processing found to be positively related to self-actualization and self-transcendence. Nevertheless, the strength of ones identity commitment was also found to be related to greater self-actualization and self-transcendence. In the regression results, self-actualization was positively predicted by both variables; but, self-transcendence was positively predicted only by the informational style. Thus, self-actualization is predicted by either a strong commitment to ones identity or the use of an informational identity style. However, it may be that the self-reflective, yet self-evaluative, nature of those using an informational style affords them a greater possibility of transcending the potential constraints associated with a strong, but perhaps rigid, commitment to ones identity. The integrated or balanced self-identity that is typical among those using information-oriented processing (Berzonsky, 1990) may allow for the capacity to consider conceptions of self that go beyond typical ego boundaries (i.e., an expansion of self). The results are also consistent with findings regarding the dispositional and social-cognitive qualities associated with self-actualization, self-transcendence, and, more generally, with personal wisdom. For example, self-actualization and self-transcendence are characterized by a curious, open, and flexible form of self-awareness and understanding (Lefranois et al., 1997; Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005). Similarly, as reviewed in the introductory section, there is striking similarity between the qualities that make up personal wisdom and the dispositional characteristics found to be associated with the use of an informational style. The results of this research provide evidence regarding the predictive link between these two constructs. So, should we consider informational style users as wise individuals? Given that most researchers and theorists have claimed that wisdom develops gradually throughout the life span (e.g., Erikson, 1982), it is unlikely that young informational individuals should be considered wise per se. However, the findings regarding the positive relationship between the use of an informational style and aspects of personal wisdom provide further evidence that signs of wisdom are evident during early adulthood. Richardson and Pasupathi (2005) maintained that personality and cognitive characteristics that are developing during adolescence and early adulthood, such as openness, ego integration, and deductive reasoning, provide important building blocks for wisdom. Although they would not call young

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adults wise, there is evidence that certain personality characteristics may provide pathways to wisdom-related performance during late adolescence and early adulthood (e.g., Staudinger & Pasupathi, 2003). The findings of this study suggest that the use of an information-oriented identity style might provide another pathway to the development of wisdom. In addition to predicting both personal wisdom variables, the use of an information-oriented style was related to greater presence of meaning and subjective happiness. When all of these variables were considered together in the SEM analyses, support was found for the hypothesized path model in which the informational style positively predicted self-actualization and self-transcendence, which in turn positively predicted the presence of meaning and subjective happiness. In addition, self-actualization positively predicted self-transcendence, which provides support for Maslows (1954/1987) supposition that self-actualization precedes self-transcendence. It is also interesting to note that, in the correlational analyses, greater identity commitment was related to greater presence of meaning and subjective happiness; however, commitment was not found to be an important factor when considered within a path model that included the personal wisdom variables. The path model findings suggest that young adults who use an informational style may be striving toward personal wisdom because it is personally meaningful to them. This explanation can be supported by Emmons (1999), who proposed that individuals are motivated by personal strivings, with striving toward growth and transcendence being particularly fulfilling. In fact, research has revealed that personal strivings toward self-actualization and self-integration are predicted by an autonomous self-determinism (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995), which is characteristic of individuals who use an informational identity style (Soenens, Berzonsky, et al., 2005). Findings regarding relationships between self-determination and personal strivings are conceptually similar to Watermans (1984) eudaimonist self-discovery theory of identity formation. That is, identity formation is conceptualized as a metaphor of discovery in which a person searches for and realizes his or her true self (or daimon) or unique set of potentials and capabilities. Similar to Maslows (1954/1987) work on self-actualization, identity development is believed to be motivated by self-discovery and, thus, personal expression of an individuals inner daimon should provide a subjective experience of happiness or fulfillment (Waterman, 1993). Watermans self-discovery metaphor has been contrasted with a creation metaphor championed in Berzonskys (1986) paper, in which identity formation was conceptualized as a process involving the creation of a sense of self. Originally, Waterman (1984) and Berzonsky (1986) highlighted differences between the discovery versus creation metaphors, which suggests that the two processes are incompatible. However, the findings of this study regarding the positive associations between the informational identity style, personal wisdom (particularly, self-actu-

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alization), and meaning and happiness support the supposition that self-construction and self-discovery processes may be mutually reinforcing (Soenens, Berzonsky, et al., 2005). These results are also consistent with the findings that the informational style predicts personal expressiveness (Schwartz, 2006), and both predict self-actualization (Schwartz, 2002). The results suggest that the self-constructed informational identity style may be directed toward self-discovery in the form of actualization and transcendence of the self. Thus, for the informational style user, the discovery and construction processes may result in a dynamic self-identity that is continually redefined in a progressively more integrated and wise fashion throughout development.

Limitations and Suggestions This research suffers from a couple of drawbacks that are common to research on individual patterns of identity and psychological adjustment. Namely, the self-report nature of the measures and the single time of measurement design do not provide data that inform questions about performance-based processing or the developmental influence of identity styles. These issues are particularly important for research on the development of personal wisdom and should be addressed by using longitudinal methods. The issue of self-report measures could be addressed by using a performance-based measure of wisdom, but such an approach would involve the investigation of general knowledge-based wisdom rather than personal wisdom, although this too is an important question. Regarding the measurement of wisdom, one further drawback must be acknowledged. This research can be criticized for its use of multiple measures of aspects of personal wisdom rather than relying on a single multidimensional measure of wisdom. However, because the construct of wisdom is generally seen as a heuristic involving multiple characteristics, even multidimensional measures would yield separate scores for various facets of wisdom. Nevertheless, replication studies should be conducted to explore other aspects of wisdom that may be predicted by identity styles. In conclusion, the results of this research add to the literature by indicating that the use of information-oriented identity processing positively predicts mature adjustment in the form of personal wisdom, which predicts greater meaning and happiness.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported by a grant from the University of Northern British Columbia and was presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Psychological

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Association, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, June 2007. I thank Kevin Klassen and Cherisse Seaton for assistance with data collection and entry.

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