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Respiratory System The primary function of the respiratory system is the supply of oxygen to the blood so this in turn

delivers oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this while breathing is taking place. During the process of breathing we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases takes place at the alveoli. The average adult's lungs contain about 600 million of these spongy, air-filled sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. The inhaled oxygen passes into the alveoli and then diffuses through the capillaries into the arterial blood. Meanwhile, the waste-rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the alveoli. The carbon dioxide follows the same path out of the lungs when you exhale. To put it simply, the principle functions of the respiratory system are:

Ventilate the lungs Extract oxygen from the air and transfer it to the bloodstream Excrete carbon dioxide and water vapour Maintain the acid base of the blood

Inspired Air This contains approx:


79% nitrogen 20% O2 0.04% CO2 Water vapour/Trace Gases

Expired Air This contains approx:


79% nitrogen 16% O2 4% CO2

Water vapour/Trace Gases

Components of the respiratory System (West, S 2007) Respiration takes place with the aid of the mouth, nose, trachea, lungs, diaphragm and intercostal muscles . Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the mouth and the nose. The oxygen then passes through the larynx and the trachea. In the chest cavity, the trachea splits into two bronchi. Each bronchus then divides again forming the bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes lead directly into the lungs where they divide into many smaller tubes which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli. Nose: Olfaction (smelling) Assists in producing sound Warming and Humidifying. Highly vascularized mucus membrane that warms and humidifies inspired air. Without this function the trachea can become dry. Upper one-third of the nasal cavity is lined with olfactory epithelium the lower two-thirds are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. All the way through the respiratory tract there are numerous mucous secreting goblet cells with microvilli on the surface. Cilia plays an important role in propelling mucous and trapped particles in to the pharynx where it is swallowed or spat out. Pharynx: Extends from the base of the skull to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage Continuous anteriorly with the trachea and posteriorly with the oesophagus Divided into 3 parts; Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx. Oro and Laryngopharynx are part of the respiratory and alimentary tract and are lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous (NKSS) Larynx: Inferior end continuous with the trachea. Superior end attached to the hyoid bone and lies

below the epiglottis Protects the trachea from foreign objects and particles. Assists in warming and humidifying incoming air Made of cartilaginous material The larynx is lined with NKSS epithelium as well as pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Includes; Epiglottis, Thyroid, Arytenoid and Cricoid cartilages Vocal cords are housed in this area. Air rushing past these cords cause them to vibrate thus making sound Trachea: 10cm in length, 2.5cm in diameter and constructed of incomplete C-shaped hyaline cartilage. Rings are completed posteriorly by the trachealis muscle Extends from the larynx to the carina; level with 4th and 5th thoracic vertebra Bronchi: Primary bronchi is inferior to the carina; bifurcation of the trachea. The bronchi are similar in structure to that of the trachea and are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium. As the tubes become smaller the cartilages become irregular and also become smaller until the tubes get to 1mm, this is when the cartilage disappears. As there is no cartilage the smooth muscle becomes thicker. Bronchioles: No cartilage as the smooth muscle is thicker to help maintain the structure. The smooth muscle is responsive to autonomic nerve stimulation The internal walls are lined with ciliated columnar mucous membrane but as the walls extend towards the distal bronchiole this membranous layer changes to non-ciliated cuboidal-shaped cells. Terminal Bronchioles: Split into 2 or more respiratory bronchioles Thinner walls and are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium. Do not contain any goblet cells.

Increased numbers of clara cells that line the lumen and secrete an agent similar to surfactant (Waugh & Grant 2004) (GP Notebook 2003) (McGowan, Jefferies, Turley 2004)(West,S 2007)

Air from the atmosphere passes through the conducting airway until it reaches the alveoli. The walls of the alveoli are only one cell thick and this is called the respiratory surface, which is about 70 square metres, where the exchange of gases takes place. Around the alveoli are microscopic capillaries that bring carbon dioxide from the heart via pulmonary artery and delivers oxygen back to the heart via the pulmonary vein. Gas exchange happens when there is a difference in partial pressure at the semi-permeable membrane of the alveoli (diffusion). The diffusion occurs when the higher concentration of a gas moves to the lower concentration until equilibrium is achieved (Waugh & Grant 2004).

Partial Pressure of Gases Gas O2 CO2 Alveolar 105 mmHg 40 mmHg Deoxygenated Blood 40 mmHg 44 mmHg Oxygenated Blood 100 mmHg 40 mmHg

Using the table above, we can see that oxygenated blood from the alveolar will diffuse across the semi-permeable membrane and replace the lower concentration of 02 in the deoxygenated blood. The higher concentration of C02 will diffuse in the same way. This is because Daltons law states each gas exerts its own pressure in proportion to its concentration in a mixture. Inhaled 02 has a higher percentage than exhaled 02, its pressure is higher at 100mmHg compared to the 40mmHg of lower percentage from the

deoxygenated blood. The reverse of this applies to the C02 because the percentage breathed in is lower than that which is exhaled.(Waugh & Grant 2004) (West,S 2007) In connection with the organs involved in the intake air (inspiration) and expenditures air (expiration) the respiratory mechanism divided into two kinds, namely chest breathing and abdominal breathing. Chest and abdominal breathing occur simultaneously. 1. Abdominal breathing In the breathing process, the inspiration phase occurs when the diaphragm muscle (diaphragm) flat and the volume of the chest cavity enlarges, so the air pressure within the chest cavity smaller than the outside air, then the air come in. The expiratory phase occurs when the muscles of the diaphragm contract (contracts) and the volume of the chest cavity smaller, so the air pressure within the chest cavity larger than the air outside. As a result of the air pushed out. 2. Chest breathing When we breathe in the air and threw uses chest breathing, the muscles you use the muscles between bones ribs. This muscle is divided into two forms, a muscular outer ribs between bones and muscles in the ribs between bones. When there is inspiration, outer ribs between bones muscles to contract, so that the ribs to be lifted. As a result, the volume of the chest cavity enlarges. Enlarged volume of the chest cavity makes the air pressure in the chest cavity becomes smaller / reduced, but remains free to air pressure. Thus, air will flow freely into the lungs through the respiratory tract. Meanwhile, during expiration, the ribs between bones muscles to contract (contract / slack), so the ribs and sternum to its original position. As a result, the chest cavity smaller. Because of the chest cavity decreases, pressure in the chest cavity becomes increased, while the air pressure outside anyway. Thus, the air within the cavity of the lungs are pushed out.

The Airway: 1. Air first passes into the nostrils where it is filtered by the nasal hairs and warmed and humidified in the nasal cavity and sinuses. 2. From there, the air passes through the pharynx, which is shared with the digestive tract. Many students have trouble with the pronunciation of this word. It is pronounced fair--inks, and you need to learn how to correctly pronounce it. 3. Air next passes through the larynx, (pronounced as above, but with an l) also called the Adams apple, voice box, or vocal cords. The vocal cords are under tension, and a change in tension causes a change in pitch as air passes over them and they vibrate. An inflammation of the larynx is called laryngitis. 4. The larynx is situated at the top end of the trachea, through which the air passes next. The trachea has rings of cartilage, like the rings in a vacuum cleaner hose, for support. The lining of the trachea is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium which brushes debris up and out. This epithelial tissue is destroyed by smoking, but can regenerate if the person stops smoking. 5. The trachea divides at its bottom end into two bronchi (sing. = bronchus), one to each lung. Recall that the mucus in the bronchi serves to trap and coat dust particles so they dont scratch or infect the delicate tissues in the lungs. 6. The bronchi divide in the lungs into smaller branches called bronchioles. In humans, the lungs are not symmetrical because the heart, while located in the center of the chest (thorax), leans slightly to the left. Thus the right lung has three lobes (sections) and the left lung has two. 7. The tiniest bronchioles branch to the alveoli (sing. = alveolus) which are tiny, multilobed air sacs made of simple squamous cells. Having this thin wall enables air exchange with the equally-thin-walled capillaries of the circulatory system. In order to function properly, the alveoli must always stay moist. Special cells in the alveoli secrete a substance called a surfactant which reduces the surface tension of water, thereby enabling it to better coat the cells of the alveoli to keep them moist and keep them from sticking to each other when the person exhales. There are estimated to be about 300 million of these small air sacs in an average-sized adult. The alveoli constitute the bulk of lung tissue; it is their substance that makes the

lungs soft and spongy. When the lungs expand or contract, it is the alveoli that are expanding or contracting. It is from the alveoli that the blood receives its oxygen. 8. Every alveolus in your lungs is covered with capillaries. Every single red blood cell (RBC) in your bloodstream flows through these pulmonary capillaries so they can pick up an oxygen molecule and give up carbon dioxide. Layers of capillary and alveolar cells lie in direct contact side by side with a double membrane, almost unimaginably thin, with air moving on one side and blood flowing past on the other. The oxygen is soaked into the blood via this virtually transparent wall and snatched up by the hemoglobin in the RBCs, where the iron in the hemoglobin locks the oxygen in a chemical embrace. 9. Swept along in the bloodstream, the oxygen finally arrives at the body's waiting cells to unite with the body's fuel and free the energy in them to be used to enable our body to move and function. 10. The actual quantity of oxygen uptake per minute (the rate of oxygen taken in by the cells) during this process may vary from one minute to another, depending on the rate of breathing and the speed with which blood is being pumped through the arteries. This, in turn, depends on how much energy the body requires at the time. Someone snoozing in a hammock may absorb only half a pint of oxygen a minute, while a person running the mile to beat a world's record may soak up more than five quarts in the same period. 11. The lungs are not only responsible for the delivery of oxygen to the bloodstream. Simultaneously, they draw out of the blood the waste carbon dioxide produced by the utilization and breakdown of carbon compounds (fats and carbohydrates) that provide energy in the cells. The carbon dioxide is picked up from all the cells of the body and carried along by the RBC on its way to obtain oxygen from the lungs. 12. Once inside the lungs, the carbon dioxide is brought alongside the alveolar membrane, where it seeps out of the bloodstream just as the oxygen seeps in. Although the two gases pass through the same membrane, they have absolutely nothing to do with each other. They are like total strangers boarding and leaving a train at a single station.

13. From the lungs, the carbon dioxide makes its way out of the body along the same route the oxygen followed on its way in. This is done during the process of expiration (exhaling).

The act of breathing consists of two phases, inspiration and expiration

Inspiration- Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract. The diaphragm moves downwards. The intercostals muscles make the rib cage move upwards. These two processes increase the volume of the thoracic cavity and also reduces the air pressure to below atmospheric pressure allowing air to rush into the airways then into the alveoli. (Waugh & Grant 2004).

Expiration is the opposite of inspiration as in the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, this allows the diaphragm to move upwards and the intercostal muscles let the rib cage relax to its resting state. The volume within the thoracic cavity now decreases. This decrease in volume now causes an increase in pressure above atmospheric pressure which forces air out up the airway (Waugh & Grant 2004).

Central Control Breathing is clearly an involuntary process (you don't have to think about it), and like many involuntary processes (such as heart rate) it is controlled by a region of the brain called the

medulla. The medulla and its nerves are part of the autonomic nervous system (i.e. involuntary). The region of the medulla that controls breathing is called the respiratory centre. The main centres are the apneustic centre, which enhances inspiration, and the pneumotaxic centre, which terminates inspiration. The respiratory centre transmits regular nerve impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to cause inhalation. Stretch receptors in the alveoli and bronchioles detect inhalation and send inhibitory signals to the respiratory centre to cause exhalation. This negative feedback system in continuous and prevents damage to the lungs Ventilation is also under voluntary control from the cortex, the voluntary part of the brain. This allows you to hold your breath or blow out candles, but it can be overruled by the autonomic system in the event of danger. For example if you hold your breath for a long time, the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood increases so much that the respiratory centre forces you to gasp and take a breath. Peripheral Chemoreceptors A chemoreceptor, is a cell or group of cells that transduce a chemical signal into an action potential Chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries and aorta, detect the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. To do this, they monitor the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood, which increases the pH of the blood, as a direct consequence of the raised carbon dioxide concentration.

The response is that the inspiratory control from the apneustic centre, sends nervous impulses to the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, via the phrenic nerve to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during inhalation. Respiratory Terminology

Total lung capacity (TC), about six litres, is all the air the lungs can hold.

Vital capacity (VC) The maximum volume of air that can be expelled at the normal rate of exhalation after a maximum inspiration

Tidal volume (TV) is the amount of air breathed in or out during normal respiration. It is normally from 450 to 500 mL.

Residual volume (RV) is the amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal exhalation. This averages about 1.5 L.

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) is the amount of additional air that can be breathed out after normal expiration. This is about 1.5 L.

Inspiratory reserve volume similarly, is the additional air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal breath in. About 2.5 more litres can be inhaled.

Functional residual capacity, (ERV + RV), is the amount of air left in the lungs after a tidal breath out.

Inspiratory capacity (IC) is the volume that can be inhaled after a tidal breath out. Anatomical dead space is the volume of the airways.

References GP Notebook, (2003). Terminal Bronchioles. [Online] Available at: http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/cache/-1543110596.htm (Accessed 6 December 2006) McGowan P, Jefferies A, Turley A (2004). Crash Course Respiratory System 2nd Edition. London: Mosby Waugh A, Grant A (2004) Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness 9th Edition. London: Churchill Livingstone West, S refers to myself as this text is from one of my university assignments Website source: http://www.ambulancetechnicianstudy.co.uk/respsystem.html#.UNlPH3ehOPY http://anti-remed.blogspot.com/search/label/blok%203?updated-max=2011-1205T03:44:00-08:00&max-results=20&start=15&by-date=false http://www.nsbri.org/humanphysspace/focus2/respiratory.html

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