1

Introduction and Denitions

1.1

BASIC NOTIONS

1.1.1 Stiffness Stiffness is the capacity of a mechanical system to sustain loads without excessive changes of its geometry (deformations). It is one of the most important design criteria for mechanical components and systems. Although strength is considered the most important design criterion, there are many cases in which stresses in components and their connections are signicantly below the allowable levels, and dimensions as well as performance characteristics of mechanical systems and their components are determined by stiffness requirements. Typical examples of such mechanical systems are aircraft wings, and frames/beds of production machinery (machine tools, presses, etc.), in which stresses frequently do not exceed 37 MPa (5001,000 psi). Another stiffness-critical group of mechanical components is power transmission components, especially shafts, whose deformations may lead to failures of gears and belts while stresses in the shafts caused by the payload are relatively low. Recently, great advances in improving strength of mechanical systems and components were achieved. The main reasons for such advances are development of high strength structural metals and other materials, better understanding of fracture/failure phenomena, and development of better techniques for stress analysis and computation, which resulted in the reduction of safety factors. These advances often result in reduction of cross sections of the structural components. Since the loads in the structures (unless they are weight-induced) do not change, structural deformations in the systems using high strength materials and/or designed with reduced safety factors are becoming more pronounced. It is important

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

to note that while the strength of structural metals can be greatly improved by selection of alloying materials and of heat treatment procedures (as much as 5 7 times for steel and aluminum), modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus) is not very sensitive to alloying and to heat treatment. For example, the Youngs modulus of stainless steels is even 515% lower than that of carbon steels (see Table 1.1). As a result, stiffness can be modied (enhanced) only by proper selection of the component geometry (shape and size) and its interaction with other components. Stiffness effects on performance of mechanical systems are due to inuence of deformations on static and fatigue strength, wear resistance, efciency (friction losses), accuracy, dynamic/vibration stability, and manufacturability. The importance of the stiffness criterion is increasing due to: 1. Increasing accuracy requirements (especially due to increasing speeds and efciency of machines and other mechanical systems) 2. Increasing use of high strength materials resulting in the reduced cross sections and, accordingly, in increasing structural deformations 3. Better analytical techniques resulting in smaller safety factors, which also result in the reduced cross sections and increasing deformations 4. Increasing importance of dynamic characteristics of machines since their increased speed and power, combined with lighter structures, may result in intense resonances and in the development of self-excited vibrations (chatter, stick-slip, etc.) Factors 24 are especially pronounced for surface and ying vehicles (cars, airplanes, rockets, etc.) in which the strength resources of the materials are utilized to the maximum in order to reduce weight. Stiffness is a complex parameter of a system. At each point, there are generally different values of stiffness k xx , k yy , k zz in three orthogonal directions of a selected coordinate frame, three values of interaxial stiffness k xy , k xz , k yz related to deformations along one axis (rst subscript) caused by forces acting along an orthogonal axis (second subscript), and also three values of angular stiffness about the x, y, and z axes. If the interaxial stiffnesses vanish, k xy k xz k yz 0, then x, y, z are the principal stiffness axes. These denitions are important since in some cases several components of the stiffness tensor are important; in special cases, ratios of the stiffness values in the orthogonal directions determine dynamic stability of the system. Such is the case of chatter instability of some machining operations [1]. Chatter stability in these operations increases if the cutting and/or the friction force vector is oriented in a certain way relative to principal stiffness axes x and y. Another case is vibration isolation. Improper stiffness ratios in vibration isolators and machinery mounts may cause undesirable intermodal coupling in vibration isolation systems (see Article 1). Main effects of an inadequate stiffness are absolute deformations of some

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Table 1.1
Material

Youngs Modulus and Density of Structural Materials

E (10 5 MPa)
(a) Homogeneous Materials

(10 3 kg/m 3 )

E/ (10 7 m 2 /s 2 )

Graphite Diamond Boron carbide, BC Silicon carbide, SiC Carbon, C Beryllium, Be Boron, B Sapphire Alumina, Al 2 O 3 Lockalloy (62% Be 38% Al) Kevlar 49 Titanium carbide, TiC Silicone, Si Tungsten carbide, WC Aluminum/Lithium (97% Al 3% Li) Molybdenum, Mo Glass Steel, Fe Titanium, Ti Aluminum, Al (wrought) Aluminum, Al (cast) Steel, stainless (.080.2% C, 17% Cr, 7% Ni) Magnesium, Mg Wood (along ber) Marble Tungsten (W 2 to 4% Ni, Cu) Granite Beryllium copper Polypropylene Nylon Paper

7.5 18.0 4.50 5.6 3.6 2.9 3.8 4.75 3.9 1.90 1.3 4.04.5 1.1 5.50 0.82 3.20 0.7 2.10 1.16 0.72 0.65 1.83 0.45 0.110.15 0.55 3.50 0.48 1.3 0.08 0.04 0.010.02

2.25 5.6 2.4 3.2 2.25 1.9 2.5 4.5 4.0 2.1 1.44 5.76.0 2.3 16.0 2.75 10.2 2.5 7.8 4.4 2.8 2.6 7.7 1.9 0.410.82 2.8 18.0 2.7 8.2 0.9 1.1 0.5

33.4 32 19 17.5 16.0 15.3 15.2 10.1 9.8 9.1 9.0 7.09.1 4.8 3.4 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.61.8 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.6 0.9 0.36 0.20.4

(b) Composite Materials

HTS graphite/5208 epoxy Boron/5505 epoxy Boron/6601 Al Lanxide NX 6201 (Al SiC) T50 graphite/2011 Al Kevlar 49/resin 80% Al 20% Al 2 O 3 powder Melram (80% Mg, 6.5% Zn, 12% SiC) E glass/1002 epoxy 1.72 2.07 2.14 2.0 1.6 0.76 0.97 0.64 0.39 1.55 1.99 2.6 2.95 2.58 1.38 2.93 2.02 1.8 11.1 10.4 8.2 6.8 6.2 5.5 3.3 3.2 2.2

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

components of the system and/or relative displacements between two or several components. Such deformations/displacements can cause: Geometric distortions (inaccuracies) Change of actual loads and friction conditions, which may lead to reduced efciency, accelerated wear, and/or fretting corrosion Dynamic instability (self-excited vibrations) Increased amplitudes of forced vibrations Inadequate stiffness of transmission shafts may cause some specic effects. The resulting linear and angular deformations determine behavior of bearings (angular deformations cause stress concentrations and increased vibrations in antifriction bearings and may distort lubrication and friction conditions in sliding bearings); gears and worm transmissions (angular and linear deformations lead to distortions of the meshing process resulting in stress concentrations and variations in the instantaneous transmission ratios causing increasing dynamic loads); and traction drives (angular deformations cause stress concentrations and changing friction conditions). It is worthwhile to introduce some more denitions related to stiffness: Structural stiffness due to deformations of a part or a component considered as beam, plate, shell, etc. Contact stiffness due to deformations in a connection between two components (contact deformations may exceed structural deformations in precision systems) Compliance e 1/k, dened as a reciprocal parameter to stiffness k (ratio of deformation to force causing this deformation) Linear stiffness vs. nonlinear stiffness (see Ch. 3) Hardening vs. softening nonlinear stiffness (see Ch. 3) Static stiffness k st (stiffness measured during a very slow loading process, such as a periodic loading with a frequency less than 0.5 Hz) vs. dynamic stiffness k dyn , which is measured under faster changing loads. Dynamic stiffness is characterized by a dynamic stiffness coefcient K dyn k dyn /k st . Usually K dyn 1 and depends on frequency and/or amplitude of load and/or amplitude of vibration displacement (see Ch. 3). In many cases, especially for brous and elastomeric materials K dyn is inversely correlated with damping, e.g., see Fig. 3.2 and Table 1 in Article 1. 1.1.2 Damping Damping is the capacity of a mechanical system to reduce intensity of a vibratory process. The damping capacity can be due to interactions with outside systems,

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

or due to internal performance-related interactions. The damping effect for a vibratory process is achieved by transforming (dissipating) mechanical energy of the vibratory motion into other types of energy, most frequently heat, which can be evacuated from the system. If the vibratory process represents self-excited vibrations (e.g., chatter), the advent of the vibratory process can be prevented by an adequate damping capacity of the system. In the equations of motion to vibratory systems (e.g., see Appendix 1), both intensity and character of energy dissipation are characterized by coefcients at the rst derivative (by time) of vibratory displacements. These coefcients can be constant (linear or viscous damping) or dependent on amplitude and/or frequency of the vibratory motion (nonlinear damping). There are various mechanisms of vibratory energy dissipation which can be present in mechanical systems, some of which are briey explored in Appendix 1. Since the constant coefcient at the time-derivative of the vibratory displacement term results in a linear differential equation, which is easy to solve and to analyze, such systems are very popular in textbooks on vibration. However, the constant damping coefcient describes a so-called viscous mechanism of energy dissipation that can be realized, for example, by a piston moving with a relatively slow velocity inside a conforming cylinder with a relatively large clearance between the piston and the cylinder walls, so that the resistance force due to viscous friction has a direction opposite to the velocity vector and is proportional to the relative velocity between the cylinder and the piston. In real-life applications such schematic and conditions are not often materialized. The most frequently observed energy dissipation mechanisms are hysteretic behavior or structural materials; friction conditions similar to coulomb (dry) friction whereas the friction (resistance) force is directionally opposed to the velocity vector but does not depend (or depends weakly) on the vibratory velocity magnitude; damping in joints where the vibratory force is directed perpendicularly to the joint surface and causes squeezing of the lubricating oil through the very thin clearance between the contacting surfaces (thus, with a very high velocity) during one-half of the vibratory cycle and sucking it back during the other half of the cycle; and damping due to impact interactions between the contacting surfaces. Some of these mechanisms are analytically described in Appendix 1. Effects of damping on performance of mechanical systems are due to reduction of intensity of undesirable resonances; acceleration of decay (settling) of transient vibration excited by abrupt changes in motion parameters of mechanical components (start/stop conditions of moving tables in machine tools and of robot links, engagement/disengagement between a cutting tool and the machined part, etc.); prevention or alleviation of self-excited vibrations; prevention of impacts between vibrating parts when their amplitudes are reduced by damping; potential for reduction of heat generation, and thus for increase in efciency due to reduced

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

peak vibratory velocities of components having frictional or microimpacting interactions; reduction of noise generation and of harmful vibrations transmitted to human operators; and more. It is important to note that while damping is associated with transforming mechanical energy of the vibratory component into heat, increase of damping capacity of mechanical system does not necessarily result in a greater heat generation. Damping enhancement is, rst of all, changing the dynamic status of the system and, unless the displacement amplitude is specied (for example, like inside a compensating coupling connecting misaligned shafts; see Section 8.5.2), most probably would cause a reduction in the heat generation. This somewhat paradoxical statement is denitely true in application to mechanical systems prone to development of self-excited vibrations, since enhancement of damping in the system would prevent starting of the vibratory process, and thus the heat generation, which is usually caused by vibratory displacements. This statement is also true for a system subjected to transient vibration. Since the initial displacement of mass m in Fig. A.1.1 and the natural frequency of the system do not signicantly depend on damping in the system, a higher damping would result in smaller second, third, etc. amplitudes of the decaying vibrations, and thus in a lower energy dissipation. Less obvious is the case of forced vibration when force F F0sin t is applied to mass m in Fig. A.1.1. Lets consider the system in which mass m is attached to the frame by a rubber exible element combining both stiffness and damping properties (hysteresis damping, r 1; see Appendix 1). If amplitude of mass m is A, then the maximum potential energy of deformation of the exible element is
V k A2 2
(1.1)

The amount of energy dissipated (transformed into heat) in the damper c or in the rubber exible element is
V V k A2 2
(1.2)

At the resonance, amplitude Ares of mass m is, from formula (A.1.19b) at 0 and from (A1.18)
Ares F0 k
F0 k k
A0
A0 2
(1.3a)

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where A0 F0 /k static ( 0) deection of the exible element, mic decrement, and for not very high damping
2

logarith-

(1.3b)

Thus, the energy dissipation at resonance (or the maximum energy dissipation in the system) is decreasing with increasing damping capacity (increasing Y ). This result, although at the rst sight paradoxical, does not depend on the character (mechanism) of damping in the system and can be easily explained. The resonance amplitude is inversely proportional to the damping parameter (, , etc.) because the increasing damping shifts an equilibrium inside the dynamic system between the excitation (given, constant amplitude), elastic (displacementproportional), inertia (acceleration-proportional), and damping (velocity-proportional) forces. The amount of energy dissipation is a secondary effect of this equilibrium; the energy dissipation is directly proportional to the square of the vibration amplitude. Although this effect of decreasing energy dissipation with increasing damping is especially important at the resonance where vibratory amplitudes are the greatest and energy dissipation is most pronounced, it is not as signicant in the areas outside of the resonance where the amplitudes are not strongly dependent on the damping magnitude (see Fig. A.1.3). Effects of damping on performance of mechanical system are somewhat similar to the effects of stiffness, as presented in Section 1.1.1. Damping inuences, directly or indirectly, the following parameters of mechanical systems, among others: 1. Fatigue strength. Increasing damping leads to reduction of strain and stress amplitudes if the loading regime is close to a resonance. It is even more important for high-frequency components of strain/stress processes, which are frequently intensied due to resonances of inevitable high frequency components of the excitation force(s) and/or nonlinear responses of the system with higher natural frequencies of the system. 2. Wear resistance. High (resonance) vibratory velocities, especially associated with high-frequency parasitic microvibrations, may signicantly accelerate the wear process. High damping in the system alleviates these effects. 3. Efciency (friction losses). Depending on vibration parameters (amplitudes, frequencies, and, especially, directivity), vibrations can increase or reduce friction. In the former case, increasing damping can improve efciency. 4. Accuracy and surface nish of parts machined on machined tools. Although surface nish of the machined surface is directly affected by vibrations, accuracy (both dimensions and macrogeometry) may be directly inuenced by low-frequency vibrations, e.g., transmitted from the environment (see Article 1) or may be indirectly affected by changing geometry of the cutting tool whose sharp edge(s) are fast wearing out under chatter- or microvibrations. The latter

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

are especially dangerous for brittle cutting materials such as ceramic and diamond tools. 5. Dynamic/vibration stability of mechanical systems can be radically enhanced by introducing damping into the system. 6. Manufacturability, especially of low-stiffness parts, can be limited by their dynamic instability, chatter, and resonance vibrations during processing. Damping enhancement of the part and/or of the xtures used in its processing can signicantly improve manufacturability. Importance of the damping criterion is increasing with the increasing importance of the stiffness criterion as discussed in Section 1.1.1 due to: a. Increasing accuracy requirements b, c. Increasing use of high strength materials and decreasing safety factors, which result in lower stiffness and thus higher probability of vibration excitation d. Increasing importance of dynamic characteristics e. Increasing awareness of noise and vibration pollution Main sources of damping in mechanical systems are: a. Energy dissipation in structural materials b. Energy dissipation in joints/contacts between components (both in moving joints, such as guideways, and in stationary joints) c. Energy dissipation in special damping devices (couplings, vibration isolators, dampers, dynamic vibration absorbers, etc.). These devices may employ viscous (or electromagnetic) dampers in which relative vibratory motion between component generates a viscous (velocity dependent) resistance force; special high-damping materials, such as elastomers or shape memory metals (see Table 1.2); specially designed (vibroimpact) mechanisms in which coimpacting between two surfaces results in dissipation of vibratory energy (see Appendix 1); etc.

1.2

INFLUENCE OF STIFFNESS ON STRENGTH AND LENGTH OF SERVICE

This inuence can materialize in several ways: Inadequate or excessive stiffness of parts may lead to overloading of associated parts or to a nonuniform stress distribution Inadequate stiffness may signicantly inuence strength if loss of stability (buckling) of some component occurs Impact/vibratory loads are signicantly dependent on stiffness Excessive stiffness of some elements in statically indeterminate systems may lead to overloading of the associated elements

Copyright 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.