Introduction......................................................................................................................................2 Stress range histories........................................................................................................................3 General .........................................................................................................................................3 Characterization of irregular fatigue loading ...............................................................................4 Stress range histogram .................................................................................................................5 Long-term exceedance diagram ...................................................................................................5 Stochastic processes.....................................................................................................................7 Rain flow counting...........................................................................................................................9 Cycle counting .............................................................................................................................9 Basic principle in Rain Flow Counting......................................................................................10 References......................................................................................................................................12
(1)
where SCFmacro is the stress concentration from macro-geometric effects. When we use the hot spot stress approach, we determine a local stress at the hot spot that considers the influence of the structural discontinuities due to the geometry of the joint, but excludes the stress raising effects (notch) from the weld itself. Hot spot stresses are in principle structural stresses (geometric stresses) based on the theory of shells determined on the surface at the hot spot of the component which is to be assessed. When the stress concentration is captured in simple tubular joints using parametric stress concentration formulas we apply the relationship given in Equation (2) taking nom as the beam stresses in the brace considered.
(2)
where SCF par is the stress concentration from parametric stress concentration formulas. Alternatively, we may determine the hot spot stress using FE analysis, based on shell or solid elements. The nominal stresses in Equation (2) are then the stresses without considering the stress raising effect due to the joint geometry, e.g. the rightmost stresses in Figure 1. Since the SCF in Equation (2) in case of membrane stress m differs from the SCF in case of bending stress b , the total stress is in principle given by a combination of stresses as indicated in Equation (3).
(3)
Figure 1
For some structural details with pronounced plate bending, load shedding may justify a reduction in the contribution from the bending stresses to the hot spot stresses in Equation (3). Typically the hot spot stresses (Figure 1) will be taken as either the extrapolated principal stresses, or the extrapolated resulting normal to weld stresses found from the FE analysis. In the above considerations we have assumed that a relevant stress history for the fatigue design was available. In the following sections we will focus on the details of establishing a representative stress history and use the Rain Flow Counting Method as a basis for the calculation of the fatigue damage.
Figure 2
Reversal Peak
the derivative of the load-time history changes sign. the derivative of the load-time history changes from positive to negative sign. the derivative of the load-time history changes from negative to positive sign. is the algebraic difference between successive valley and peak loads (positive range) or between successive peak and valley loads (negative range). Sometimes the range may have different definitions depending on the counting method used. or zero crossing, is the number of times that the load-time history crosses the mean load level during a given duration of the history. Normally only crossings with positive slopes are counted.
Range
Mean crossing
Figure 3
The damage induced by each stress range block is determined as its contribution to the Miners sum and is found from
n Di = N i
(4)
Wave height
H100
log N
log N100
Figure 4 Simplified long-term exceedance diagram for wave heights
In Figure 4, H100 is a wave height with a return period of 100 years, which means that H100 on average is only exceeded once every 100 years. N100 is the total number of waves in 100 years. The relationship between H and N can be found to be
H=
Alternatively the following relationships apply H H100 = H100 log N log N100
N = N100
H 1 H100
(6)
In Equation (6) above N is thus the number of waves exceeding a given wave height H during 100 years. If we now assume that the wave force is proportional to the wave height (true for inertia load dominated wave load), and the corresponding wave induced stress is proportional to the wave force, then the distribution in Figure 4 could be turned into a long term exceedance diagram for wave load induced stress range simply by scaling the values of the Y-axis to produce instead of H. These
considerations may be generalized to consider a general long-term exceedance diagram for stress range , as shown in Figure 5.
ref is a stress range only exceeded once during the reference period, and N ref is the total number
of stress ranges during the reference period. In analogy with Equations (5) and (6) the following relations apply
log N = ref 1 log N ref N = N ref
1 ref
(7)
(8)
In Equation (8) N is the number of stress ranges exceeding a given stress range during the reference period. Stress range ref
40 20
log N
0 N= 1 1
1
2
2
N 40
N 20
log N ref
10 10
Figure 5
From Figure 5 it can be seen, as an example, that N 20 stress range values exceed a stress range of 20, while only N 40 stress range values exceed a stress range of 40. We can therefore conclude that there are ( N 20 N 40 ) stress range values between a stress range of 20 and 40. Continuing along these lines, we can turn the information given in Figure 5 into an equivalent stress range histogram with blocks similar to Figure 3.
Stochastic processes
In practical design work the stress history is often found to be irregular and in some cases also random. The stress range history can therefore be considered a stochastic process, where we describe the process by its statistical properties, i.e. mean value and standard deviation.
A process is said to be stationary if the statistical properties do not vary with time. Many processes may be considered stationary provided the time period considered is short enough. This is e.g. true for the sea surface elevation, which normally is considered stationary within time intervals of three to six hours. In the following we only consider stationary processes, and the value of the process at time t is denoted x(t). The probability density function p(x) is given by
p( x ) dx = prob( x x (t ) x + dx )
(9)
p( x) dx
(10)
(11)
The expected value of the process is equal to the mean value of the process. Often the coordinate system is chosen so that the mean value is equal to zero. An example would be measuring the sea surface variation relative to the mean sea water level. The energy spectrum of the process S ( ) can be found directly from sampled values of the process using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). When performing FFT on a time signal we transform the process given by x(t) in the time domain into its equivalent representation in the frequency domain X ( ) , from which we can derive the energy spectrum S ( ) . It is normal to distinguish between narrow band processes and broad band processes, and to characterize a process with its energy spectrum S ( ) as shown in Figure 6. S ( ) S ( )
A stationary stochastic process may be considered composed of infinitely many harmonic components, each of different frequency. Let us as an example consider a wave spectrum derived from the surface elevation x (t ) . The energy of a harmonic wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude, and the energy spectrum (wave spectrum) shows how this energy is distributed on the various frequency components as given below. It should be noted that the energy within a frequency band is equal to that of a sine wave with amplitude ai as indicated on Figure 7. x (t )
S ( )
1 2
ai2 = S (i )
ai
Ti =
i
Figure 7 A stochastic process x(t ) and its energy spectrum S ( )
unambiguous way breaks the stress history down into individual cycles which can be summed up into a stress range distribution.
(t )
(t )
t a) Narrow band process Figure 8 Time series from stochastic processes b) Broad band proces
Several methods have been proposed for general cycle counting of broad band processes, generally leading to different results in terms of accumulated fatigue damage. Cycle counting procedures that give the most correct physical representation of the fatigue process are therefore often preferred. For narrow band time series the choice of counting method seems less critical, and most generally accepted methods lead to quite similar results. For high cycle fatigue the most frequently used cycle counting methods are the Reservoir Counting Method and the Rain Flow Counting Method. As the Rain Flow Counting Method is the most frequently used cycle counting method in the industry, the following will focus on the details of this method.
4
2
2
3
4
2
1 Figure 9
10
The strain history in Figure 9 consists of a large stress range 1-4, with a small closed cycle 2-3-2 embedded. A basic principle in rain flow counting is to count a cycle each time a hysteresis loop is closed. Thus, the total count in Figure 9 is a half cycle with stress range 1-4 plus a full cycle with stress range 2-3. To illustrate the principle further a more complicated stress history is considered in Figure 10. This example is an extension of the strain history given in Figure 9.
Figure 10
The rain flow method has originally obtained its name from an analogy of rain falling down a pagoda roof. The time series considered X (t ) is converted to a point process of peaks and troughs as shown in Figure 11, and the process is considered a sequence of roofs with rain falling on them.
1. A rain flow is started at each peak and trough. 2. When a rain flow path started at a trough comes to a tip of the roof, the flow stops if the opposite trough is more negative than the one the flow started from. 3. For a flow started at a peak it is stopped by a peak which is more positive than the one the flow started from. 4. If the rain flowing down a roof intercepts flow from an earlier path, the present path is stopped.
Figure 11
11
The rain flow count applied to the process in Figure 11 results in half cycles of trough generated stress ranges half cycles of peak generated stress ranges
In both cases the stress ranges are found as the projected distances on the stress axis. Figure 12 shows the details of the rain flow count of the process from Figure 11.
Total count
Full cycles: 2-3-3a, 4-5-5a, 6-7-7a, 9-10-12b(9) and 11-12-12a(11) Half cycles: 1-8, 8-13 and 13-14
Figure 12
It should be noted that for X (t ) sufficiently long, it can be shown, Ref. /3/, that any trough originated half cycle will be followed by another peak originated half cycle for the same range. This is also the case for short stress histories if the stress history starts and ends at the same stress value. Although the rain flow counting method widely is considered superior to other counting methods for fatigue calculation, a basic criticism of the method as used above has been that the fatigue damage procedure cannot account for the sequence of the stress ranges. This criticism is justified especially since fatigue tests have revealed that the sequence of the stress ranges in some cases is of importance. However, the effect of sequence has been found to even out in fatigue calculations where many time histories are considered, and currently no better procedures are available.
References
Ref. /1/ Ref. /2/ Wgter, J.: Fatigue design based on S-N data. Ramboll Oil & Gas, Denmark. 2009. Almar-Nss et. al.: Fatigue Handbook Offshore Steel Structures. 1985. Tapir, Norway.
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Ref. /3/
Wirsching, P. H., Mohsen Shehata, A.: Fatigue Under Wide Band Random Stresses Using the Rain-Flow Method. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology. July 1977. ESDEP WG 12 Fatigue. Lecture 12.1: Basic Introduction to Fatigue. http://www.kuleuven.ac.be/bwk/materials/Teaching/master/toc.htm.
Ref. /4/
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