Introduction to Signals, Circuits & Systems

A Practical Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Laboratory Manual

u Mehmet C. Oztrk

North Carolina State University Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Raleigh, NC

Table of Contents
Table of Contents 1 Circuits with Resistive Elements 1.1 Resistance Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Resistor Color Coding . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Using a Multimeter to measure Resistance 1.2 Voltage Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Current Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Photocell as a Resistive Element . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 A Simple LED Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 A Night Light Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Design Your Own Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Capacitors and RC Circuits 2.1 Charging a Capacitor . . . 2.2 Discharging a Capacitor . 2.3 Stored Charge and Parallel 2.4 Analog Timer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 1 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 11 11 13 15 16 19 19 21 22 25 28 31 31 34

3 Periodic Signals in Time Domain 3.1 Function Generator and Oscilloscope . 3.2 Music Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Voltage Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Half-Wave Rectier . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 RC Circuit with a Square Wave Input .

4 Electric Power 4.1 AC Supply Voltage in the Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Power Dissipated by a Light Bulb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4.3 4.4

Power dissipated by an AC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light Bulb with Adjustable Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36 37 43 44 46 47 48 54 57 57 60 63 63 64 66 67 68 69 71 71 71 73 74 78 83 83 85 86 87

5 Periodic Signals in Frequency Domain 5.1 Power Spectrum of a Sinusoid . . . . . 5.2 Power Spectrum of a Square Wave . . 5.3 Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Low Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Low Pass Filtering of Music Signals . .

6 Audio Amplier 6.1 Testing the Microphone Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Measuring the Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Frequency Response of an Audio Amplier . . . . . . 6.4 Clipping and Maximum Peak-to-Peak Output Voltage 6.5 Measuring the Power Gain in Frequency Domain . . . 6.6 Distortion in Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Listening to Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Amplifying Music Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Audio Amplier with Tone Control . . . . . . . . . . 7 Circuits with Operational Ampliers 7.1 Transfer Characteristic of an Amplier 7.1.1 Transistor Amplier . . . . . . 7.1.2 Operational Amplier . . . . . 7.2 Ultrasonic Proximity Detector . . . . . 7.3 Measuring the Speed of a DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 Transmission and Reception of RF Signals 8.1 AM Signal in Time and Frequency Domains 8.2 Using An External Modulating Signal . . . . 8.3 Function Generator as a Transmitter . . . . 8.4 AM Reception Using an Envelope Detector .

Experiment 1 Circuits with Resistive Elements

In this experiment, we shall experiment with circuits consisting of resistive elements such as resistors, photocells and light emitting diodes. We shall learn how to use a multimeter to measure resistance, voltage and current.

1.1
1.1.1

Resistance Measurement
Resistor Color Coding

Resistors used in electronic circuits use a standard color code, which consists of four color bands. The rst two bands are used to determine the rst and the second signicant gures of the resistance value. The third band is the multiplier, which gives the number of zeros we shall add to the resistance value. The fourth band is the percent tolerance of the resistance value. The color code used for resistors with four bands is given in Table 1.1 For special applications, precision resistors with tolerance values as low as 0.001% are available. Such resistors use a fth color band, not included in the above table. As an example, lets nd the resistance value of a resistor with four color bands of brown, black, orange and gold. The rst color band is brown, so the rst digit is 1. The second color band is black, so the second digit is 0. The third color band is orange, so the multiplier is 1000. The resistance value is then 10 1000 = 10000 or 10k. The fourth band is gold, so the resistor has a tolerance of 5%. Therefore, the resistance is between 9.5 k and 10.5 k. 1

Band 1 Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Band 2 Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Band 3 Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Silver Gold

Multiplier 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 0.01 0.1

Band 4 Silver Gold Red None

Tolerance 10% 5% 2% 20%

Table 1.1: Resistor color coding scheme

1.1.2

Using a Multimeter to measure Resistance

To measure resistance using a multimeter you need to connect the resistor between the leads of the multimeter as shown in Figure 1.1 and press the resistance button on the multimeter. The Agilent multimeter has dierent inputs for measuring voltage, current and resistance. Be sure to connect your test leads to the inputs for resistance measurement.

0.000 R

Figure 1.1: Measuring resistance using a multimeter.

Measurements & Questions: 1. Use the color coding scheme to determine the resistance and tolerance of the resistors in your kit. 2. Use your multimeter to measure the resistance of the same resistors. Create a table comparing the measured resistance values with those you obtained using the color coding. 3. Verify that the measured resistance values are within the tolerance limits.

4. Choose two resistors you have measured before and use your experiment board to connect them rst in series then in parallel. Measure the equivalent resistance of the connections with your multimeter. Compare your measured values with those you would expect from calculations of the equivalent resistance.

1.2

Voltage Measurement

We can measure the voltage across a circuit element by connecting the multimeter in parallel with the element. For instance, the multimeter shown in Figure 1.2 measures the voltage between the points A and B. In the laboratory, the voltage source shown in Figure 1.2 is an electronic power supply, which generates a constant voltage just like a battery. It is a good practice to set up the power supply to generate the desired voltage before connecting it to your circuit. To set up the Agilent power supply, do the following: Turn on the power supply. Enable the power supply output. Set the output voltage to the desired value. Disable the voltage output. You will enable the voltage output after you nish constructing the circuit and set up your multimeter for voltage measurement.

0.00 V

A Vs

B R1 R2

Figure 1.2: Measuring voltage using a multimeter. To measure voltage using a multimeter:

Construct your circuit. Press the DC Voltage measurement button on the multimeter. This is a very important step since you can cause permanent damage to the multimeter if you try to measure voltage while your multimeter is set to measure resistance. The Agilent multimeter has dierent inputs for measuring voltage, current and resistance. Connect your test leads to the inputs for voltage measurement. Connect the test leads to the points on the circuit across which the voltage has to be determined. Check your circuit one last time. Enable the voltage output of the power supply. Read the voltage o the multimeter display. You can now move the multimeter leads to make other measurements. When you complete all your measurements, disable the voltage output. You do not have to turn o the power supply. Measurements & Questions: 1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.3. Measure the voltage across each resistor. 2. Verify Kirchos voltage law using the measured voltages. 3. Every voltmeter has an internal resistance. Would you expect a good voltmeter to have a low or high internal resistance? Why?

3.9 k 1k 5V
Figure 1.3: Resistors connected in series.

1.3

Current Measurement

Before you make any changes to your circuit check to make sure that the power supply output is disabled. You do not have to turn o the power supply. We can measure the current owing through a circuit element by connecting the multimeter in series with the element. For example, the multimeter shown in Figure 1.4 measures the current owing through the resistor, R1 . To measure current using your multimeter do the following: Construct your circuit. Connect the test leads in series with the element through which the current has to be determined. Press the DC Current measurement button on the multimeter. The Agilent multimeter has dierent inputs for measuring voltage, current and resistance. Connect your test leads to the inputs for current measurement. Enable the power supply output. Disable the power supply output if you have to change your connections for other current measurements.

A Vs

B R1

Figure 1.4: Measuring current using a multimeter.

Measurements & Questions: 1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.5.

2. Measure the currents Is , I1 and I2 . 3. Verify Kirchos current law. 4. Every current meter has an internal resistance. Would you expect a good current meter to have a low or high internal resistance? Why?

Is

I1

5V

3.9 k

I2

1k

Figure 1.5: Resistors connected in parallel.

1.4

Photocell as a Resistive Element

In this part of the experiment, we shall construct a simple circuit consisting of a resistor and a photocell. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.6.

3.9 k

Photocell

5V

Figure 1.6: Resistor and photocell in series.

Measurements & Questions: 1. Measure the voltage across the photocell and the 3.9 k resistor under ambient light. Be sure not to block the ambient light incident on the photocell during this measurement. Use your measurement results to calculate the photocell resistance under ambient light. 2. Repeat the previous measurement after covering the photocell completely with the black plastic box in your kit. Use your measurement results to calculate the photocell resistance in dark.

3. Use Ohms law and your measurement results from previous steps to calculate the current ow through the photocell in dark and under ambient light. 4. Measure the current owing through the photocell using your multimeter in dark and under ambient light. Compare your measurement results with the calculated values obtained in the previous step.

1.5

A Simple LED Circuit

In this part of the experiment we will experiment with a light emitting diode (LED). Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.7. Be sure to connect the LED such that it is forward biased.

Resistance Box 3.9 k LED 5V

Figure 1.7: Resistor and LED in series with a decade box. Measurements & Questions: 1. Set your decade box resistance to zero ohm such that the only resistor in series with the LED is the xed, 3.9 k resistor. If you connected the circuit correctly, your LED should be on producing a bright red light. Measure the voltage across the LED using the multimeter. 2. Measure the current owing through the LED using your multimeter. 3. Increase the resistance of the box as you observe the changes occurring in the loop current and the brightness of the LED. 4. Record the total series resistance and resulting current for ve dierent settings of the decade box. Use these measurements to calculate the voltage across the LED. 5. Use your measurement results, to estimate the turn-on voltage of the LED.

1.6

A Night Light Circuit

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.8. The circuit makes use of the photocell to sense the intensity of the ambient light. If the light level is not sucient, it turns on the LED, which produces a bright red light.

3.9 k LED 5V

Photocell

Figure 1.8: A Night light circuit. Operation of the Circuit First, we see that the photocell and the LED are connected in parallel. Therefore, the voltages across the two components should be exactly the same at all times. We can also see that the current going through the resistor will be shared by the photocell and the LED. When the ambient light level is low, the photocell resistance is very large. A good photocell may have a dark resistance on the order of several megaohms. Then, a larger portion of the current entering the top node ows through the LED. As we have seen in the previous experiment, the intensity of the light produced by an LED increases with a larger current. When the ambient light level is suciently high, the photocell resistance becomes very small and more current begins to ow through the photocell leaving a small current to ow through the LED and the LED turns o. The value of the series resistance is critical and determines the sensitivity of the circuit to dierent light conditions. For instance, if a smaller resistor is used in the circuit, a larger current would ow into the node and this would make the LED brighter. At the same time, it would be more dicult to turn o the LED requiring a very low photocell resistance under ambient light. Preparation: Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.8. Be sure to orient the LED polarity correctly. If the ambient light is sucient, the LED should be o. If the ambient light is not sucient, your desk lamp should be able to provide this light

to the photocell. If the LED remains on even with the light from the desk lamp, check your circuit. Use the black box to block the light incident on the photocell. Does the LED turn on when you do this? If it does not, check your circuit. Measurements & Questions: 1. Using your multimeter as a DC voltmeter, measure the supply voltage, voltage across the LED and the 3.9k resistor under ambient light (If the ambient light is insucient you can use a desk lamp). Be sure not to block the incident light with your arms during the measurements. 2. Repeat the measurements in dark using the black box to cover the photocell. 3. Tabulate your measurements. The table could look like Table 1.2. 4. Verify Kirchos voltage law using the measurement results. 5. Use the measured voltages to calculate the current owing through the LED in dark and under ambient light. For these calculations you will need to use Ohms law and Kirchos current law. 6. Measure the LED current under ambient light using the multimeter. Be sure not to block the incident light with your arms during the measurements. 7. Repeat the measurement in dark using the black box to cover the photocell. 8. Tabulate and compare the LED current values obtained using both methods.

1.7

Design Your Own Circuit

Design a new circuit, which turns on the LED when the ambient light level is sucient and turns it o when the light level is low. In your circuit, be sure to have a resistor in series with the diode to limit the current ow. Show your circuit to the teaching assistant before connecting it to the power supply. Measurements & Questions:

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1. Verify that your circuit is working. 2. Measure the critical voltages and currents in your circuit for the best component values. 3. Write a brief technical report for your circuit. In your report, include the following items: Circuit diagram Theory of operation, analysis of the circuit Measurement results Critique of the circuit, considering its advantages as well as its shortcomings. Potential uses for the circuit. Cost estimate - how much will the components cost if it is manufactured in thousands? For pricing of the components you can refer to online stores including Radio Shack, Jameco and Digi-Key.

Power Supply Voltage(in dark) Voltage(in light) Current(in dark) Current(in light)

Resistance

LED

Photocell

Table 1.2: Voltages and Currents in the circuit.

Experiment 2 Capacitors and RC Circuits

In this experiment, we shall study circuits with resistive elements and capacitors. Our focus will be on the RC time constant and how it aects capacitor charging and discharging. We shall work on several practical circuits including an analog timer with a light emitting diode signaling the end of a set time period.

2.1

Charging a Capacitor

In this part of the experiment, we shall construct an RC circuit and measure the time required to charge the capacitor to the desired voltage level. Preparation: Turn on the power supply and set the output voltage level to 3 V. Disable the voltage output. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.1 using a 2200 F electrolytic capacitor and the resistor decade box. Be sure to connect the polarity of the capacitor correctly. Since it is an electrolytic capacitor it may explode if the polarity of the applied voltage is not correct. Set the resistance of the resistor box to 10 k Set your multimeter to work as a DC voltmeter and connect your probes to measure the voltage across the capacitor as shown in the gure. Close the switch to short and completely discharge the capacitor. Keep the switch closed until you are ready to charge the capacitor. When you 11

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1.200 mV

Resistor Decade Box

Figure 2.1: RC Circuit with a DC voltage source. The capacitor begins to charge when the switch is opened at t = 0. open the switch, the capacitor will begin to charge through the series resistor. Enable the voltage output of the power supply. Now you should have current owing through the resistor. Since the capacitor is shorted, it remains uncharged. The current bypasses the capacitor through the closed switch. Measurements & Questions: 1. Open the switch shorting the capacitor. The capacitor voltage should begin to increase. Measure the maximum voltage the capacitor can charge to. 2. Close the switch to discharge the capacitor, increase the power supply voltage to 5 V. Open the switch and repeat the previous step. What did you learn from these two measurements about the maximum voltage the capacitor can charge to in an RC circuit? 3. Close the switch again to discharge the capacitor. We shall now measure how fast the capacitor is charging. You will need a stop-watch for this measurement. If you do not have one, you can use your computers clock. 4. The power supply voltage should still be set to 5 V. Measure the amount of time needed to charge the capacitor to 3 V after you open the switch.

t=0

13

Use the measured time to calculate the time constant of your RC circuit. Recall that the capacitor charges according to: vc (t) = Vs (1 et/RC ) 5. Repeat the previous step with dierent resistance values. You can try the resistance values of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20 k, ... etc. Calculate the time constant for each resistance value. 6. Generate a plot of time constant versus resistance. Use this plot to determine the capacitance. 7. Note that the experimentally determined capacitance may not match the capacitance value written on the capacitor. 8. Write a short paragraph on potential experimental errors that may have aected the measured capacitance. Example: How accurate was your time measurement? Can the capacitance written on the casing be exact?

2.2

Discharging a Capacitor

Preparation: Set the power supply voltage to 5 V. Disable the voltage output. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.2 with R = 1 k and C = 4700 F. Set the decade box resistance to 10 k. Measurements & Questions: 1. Open both switches S1 and S2. The capacitor will begin to charge through the xed resistor. Wait long enough to fully charge the capacitor. Monitor the capacitor voltage with your multimeter during charging.

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1.200 mV

Fixed Resistor

t=0

S2 S1 Resistor Decade Box

Figure 2.2: Switch S1 is used to charge the capacitor while the switch S2 is open. After charging the capacitor, the voltage source is disconnected and S2 is closed to discharge the capacitor. The time constants for charging and discharging are dierent because the capacitor charges through the xed resistor but discharges through the resistor decade box. 2. Disconnect the power supply leads, disable the voltage output. Theoretically, the capacitor should hold the voltage because there is not a discharge path. However, because the electrolytic capacitors are typically very leaky, you should try to make your measurements promptly after disconnecting the voltage source. Measure the capacitor voltage after disconnecting the voltage source and observe the decrease in the capacitor voltage due to the leakage between the capacitor plates. 3. Now, you will measure the time required to discharge the capacitor. You will again need your stop watch for the measurement. When you are ready, close switch 2. This will put the decade box in parallel with the capacitor and the capacitor will begin to discharge. Measure the time required to discharge the capacitor to 10% of its original charge. 4. Repeat the previous step with ve dierent resistance values. For each resistance, calculate the time constant of the circuit. Recall that the capacitor discharges according to vc (t) = Vo et/RC where Vo is the initial voltage before discharging begins.

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1.200 mV

Fixed Resistor

C1

C2

Figure 2.3: In this circuit, C1 is rst charged to the maximum possible voltage, then the power supply is disconnected and C2 is connected in parallel with the rst capacitor. The stored charge is distributed between the two capacitors. 5. Plot the RC time constant as a function of the resistance. Use your plot to calculate the capacitance. 6. Write a patagraph commenting on potential experimental errors that can aect the measured capacitance value.

2.3

Stored Charge and Parallel Capacitors

In this experiment, we will study how the charge stored on a capacitor is distributed among two capacitors when a second, uncharged capacitor is connected in parallel with the rst capacitor. To do this, we will charge the rst capacitor to a certain voltage level. When the charging is complete, we will disconnect the voltage source and connect a second, uncharged capacitor in parallel with the rst capacitor. Preparation: Turn on the power supply and set the output voltage level to 5 V. Disable the voltage output. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.3 with R = 1k and C1 = 2200 F without the second capacitor. Remember to connect the polarity of the capacitor correctly.

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Close the switch to short and completely discharge the capacitor. Enable the voltage output. Measurements & Questions: 1. Open the switch and wait long enough to charge the capacitor to the maximum possible voltage level. Use your multimeter to measure the capacitor voltage to verify charging. 2. Disconnect the power supply. This will create an open-circuit and stop the charging process. You need to proceed with the measurements quickly because the internal leakage of the capacitor causes the capacitor to discharge slowly even without a complete loop for discharge. The charge stored on the capacitor is given by Q1 = V1 C1 . Use the capacitance and the measured voltage to nd Q1 . 3. C1 connect another capacitor, C2 = 1000F in parallel with C1 . Measure the voltage drops across C1 and C2 . Are they equal? 4. Verify your voltage measurement using theory by calculating the charge distribution between the two capacitors. To do this, we need to use the fact that the charge is conserved and hence, the charge stored in the rst capacitor is the charge available to both capacitors. 5. Calculate Q1 and Q2 when the two capacitors are connected in parallel. Is Q1 + Q2 equal to the charge stored on C1 before connecting the second capacitor? 6. Does it appear to you like the charged is conserved?

2.4

Analog Timer

An electronic timer circuit either signals the end of a time period or turns on another device by closing a switch. A typical timer circuit charges a capacitor and the time period is determined by the RC time constant of the circuit. Shown in Figure 2.4 is the circuit diagram of the timer we shall use in this experiment. The operation of the circuit is quite simple. When the switch is

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10 kohm 5V LED +
t=0

1000 uF

Figure 2.4: Analog Timer closed, the capacitor is shorted, hence, the capacitor voltage is zero. Since the capacitor is in parallel with the LED, the voltage across the LED is also zero and the LED is o. When the switch is opened, current starts owing through the capacitor and it begins to charge. However, since the capacitor voltage can not change instantaneously, its voltage remains zero at the instant the switch is opened. When the voltage across the capacitor reaches the turn-on voltage of the LED, the LED lights up indicating the end of the time period. By changing the RC time constant of the circuit, we can set the time period to any value desired. When the switch is closed, the capacitor is shorted and it discharges almost instantly since the resistance of the switch is practically zero. Preparation: Turn on your power supply and set the output voltage level to 5 V. Disable the voltage output. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.4. Be sure to connect the polarity of the capacitor correctly. Since it is an electrolytic capacitor, which may explode if the polarity of the applied voltage is not correct. Set your multimeter to work as a DC voltmeter mode and connect your probes to measure the voltage across the LED. Close the switch and keep it closed until you are ready to test your timer circuit. Apply voltage to the circuit. The LED should remain o since the LED voltage is forced to be zero by the closed switch. Measurements & Questions:

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1. Open the switch and measure the amount of time required to turn on the LED. You will need a watch with a second arm or a digital watch. 2. Use your multimeter to measure the maximum voltage the capacitor charges to. 3. Repeat the previous steps for other capacitors in your kit, tabulate your measurement results. 4. Plot the maximum capacitor voltage as a function of capacitance. Use your plot to determine the turn-on voltage of the LED. 5. Use your measurement results to plot the time required to turn-on the LED as a function of the capacitance values used. 6. Use the RC charging equation to verify your measurement results by calculating the time for dierent capacitance values used. Compare your calculated and measured values on the same plot. 7. Imagine yourself as an engineer working for the company manufacturing this timer and generate a one page document describing the timer. Include in your document the circuit diagram, theory of operation, measurement results and the maximum timing error anticipated.

Experiment 3 Periodic Signals in Time Domain

In this experiment, you will experiment with AC signals and learn how to use the function generator and the oscilloscope, which are both standard test instruments for electrical and computer engineers.

3.1

Function Generator and Oscilloscope

We will begin the experiment by generating dierent waveforms with the function generator and learn how to display them on the oscilloscope. Your rst objective is to familiarize yourself with the basic controls of both instruments. Turn on the instruments and connect the function generator output to one of the oscilloscope input channels using a BNC cable (g. 3.1). Generate many dierent waveforms and display them using the oscilloscope. Take as much time as you want until you feel fairly comfortable about both instruments. Be sure to learn how to do the following on the function generator:

Figure 3.1: BNC-to-BNC cable. 19

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waveform type - learn how to select the waveform you want (i.e. sinusoid, square, triangular, sawtooth waveforms) frequency, peak-to-peak value, duty-cycle and DC oset - learn how to change these parameters for dierent waveforms. The Oscilloscope is a sophisticated instrument and it will take time to master all of its features. In this experiment, we shall limit our learning to the basic features of the instrument. Be patient and do not let the number of knobs intimidate you. Be sure to understand the features listed below before you begin the experiment. Autoscale - This is your rst aid when you are lost. It sets the vertical and horizontal grid spacing automatically for the waveform you are trying to display. Vertical/Horizontal Grid Spacing - After you display the signal using autoscale, you may want to change the grid spacing such that you can use the display to make a more accurate measurement. Ground Level - This is your 0 V reference. You can move it up and down as you like. AC and DC Coupling - AC coupling ignores the DC value of a signal. We use this feature when we are interested in studying a small AC signal superimposed on a large DC signal. Probe Factor - Most oscilloscopes have probes that can reduce the voltage before it is applied to the oscilloscope. For instance, a 10:1 probe reduces any waveform by a factor of ten. Throughout this laboratory, we will be using standard BNC or banana cables. Therefore, before you start any experiment you should verify that your probe factor is set to 1:1. Triggering - This is usually the least understood feature of an oscilloscope. Without proper triggering an oscilloscope cannot display a stable waveform. Try dierent triggering modes (auto, normal, etc.) and learn how the triggering level aects your display. Also learn how to locate the triggering level on the display. Measurements & Questions: When you feel reasonably comfortable with both instruments, generate and display the following waveforms. Save the display to an image le for each

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waveform. Use the oscilloscope display to measure the waveform parameters (i.e. frequency, minimum and maximum peak values, peak-to-peak value, DC values and duty cycle) 1. sine wave 500 mV < Vpp < 1.0 V 10 Hz < f < 100 Hz 1 V < VDC < 2 V 2. square wave Low-level Voltage = 0 V 500 mV < Vpp < 1.0 V 1000 Hz < f < 5000 Hz Duty Cycle: 60 70% 3. triangular wave Minimum Peak Voltage = - 0.25 V 500 mV < Vpp < 1.0 V 10000 Hz < f < 50000 Hz 4. sawtooth wave Minimum Peak Voltage = + 1.5 V 2 V < Vpp < 3 V 1450 Hz < f < 1475 Hz Write your report as if you are trying to teach a new student how to use the oscilloscope display to measure the properties of the waveforms. Imagine you are the application engineer working for the oscilloscope company writing the instructions manual.

3.2

Music Signals

In this part of the experiment we shall study signals generated by dierent musical instruments. We will use the computers audio output as our signal source. Preparation:

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Connect the audio output of your computer to one of the oscilloscope channels using the proper adapter cable. Go to the ECE200 web site. Click on the link sounds under laboratory resources. You will nd four dierent sounds listed. The rst three belong to a wooden ute, nylon stringed classical guitar and a simple drum. The fourth one is a guitar solo with drum accompaniment. Try playing the sounds by clicking on their links. Measurements & Questions: 1. Play the drum sound as you watch the signal on the oscilloscope screen. Is this a periodic signal? If so, can you measure its frequency? 2. Repeat the previous step for dierent musical instruments. Capture several waveforms using the RUN/STOP button and save them to image les to use in your lab report. 3. Based on your experimental results, can you derive any conclusions about dierent musical instruments and their waveforms? Discuss your ndings in your lab report.

3.3

Voltage Divider

In this part of the experiment, we will use the oscilloscope to examine the behavior of a simple circuit. In practice, we often work with two signals. One of these signals is generated by a function generator an it is applied to the circuit under test. The second signal is obtained from the output of the circuit. In this example, we will use a simple voltage divider circuit consisting of two resistors. Preparation: Connect a BNC-T adapter (g.3.2) to the function generator. Use a BNC-to-BNC cable to connect one end of the BNC-T adapter to the Channel 1 of your oscilloscope. Construct the voltage divider circuit shown in Figure 3.4 on your experiment box. The resistor, R2 is a resistor decade box.

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Use a BNC-to-Banana (g. 3.3) adapter connected to the other end of the BNC-T to apply the test signal to your circuit. Use a second BNC-to-Banana adapter to apply the voltage across R2 to the other channel of your oscilloscope as shown in Figure 3.4. Set the function generator to generate a 200 Hz sine wave with an amplitude of 2 V and a DC value of 1 V. Set the input coupling on both oscilloscope channels to DC so that you can see the DC values of the signals.

Figure 3.2: BNC-T adapter

Figure 3.3: BNC-to-banana adapter

Measurements & Questions:

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Oscilloscope Function Generator

200.00 Hz

R1 = 3.9 k

R2

Figure 3.4: Channel 1 displays the input signal to the circuit. Channel 2 displays the voltage across the resistor, R2 .

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1. Set R2 = 3900 . Optimize the oscilloscope controls to display both signals simultaneously. Measure the frequency, peak-to-peak value and DC value of both waveforms. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your lab report. 2. Repeat the previous step for R2 = 1000 and R2 = 100 . You can change the decade box resistance without turning o the function generator. 3. Determine the following : Does the frequency of the output signal change when you change R2 ? Is there a phase dierence between the two input and output waveforms? How is the peak-to-peak value of the voltage across R2 aected by its resistance? Verify the measured values using Ohms law and Kirchos laws. How is the DC value of the voltage across R2 aected by its resistance? R2 ? Verify the measured values using Ohms law and Kirchos laws. 4. Set R2 = 3900 . Use your multimeter to measure the DC value of the voltage across R2 . Recall from the previous experiment that you must connect the multimeter in parallel with R2 to measure its voltage. Does the multimeter reading match the DC value obtained from the oscilloscope display? Repeat for R2 = 1000 and R2 = 100 . 5. Use your multimeter to measure the DC value of the current owing through R2 for the three resistance values used above. Recall from the previous experiment that the multimeter has to be in series with R2 to measure its current. Verify the measured values using Ohms law and Kirchos laws.

3.4

Half-Wave Rectier

Preparation: Construct the half-wave rectier circuit shown in Figure 3.5.

26

Oscilloscope Function Generator

200.00 Hz

2.2 k

Figure 3.5: The diode and the resistor form a half-wave rectier circuit. The input sinusoid is displayed on Channel 1 and the output signal is displayed on Channel 2.

27

Set the function generator to generate a 200 Hz sinusoidal waveform with a peak-to-peak value of 5 V and a DC value of 0 V . The input coupling on Channel 1 does not matter since the input signal does not have a DC value. However, channel 2 coupling must be set to DC to display the waveform as is. Measurements & Questions: 1. Verify that your circuit is functioning as a half-wave rectier. Optimize your oscilloscope controls to display both waveforms simultaneously. Save your display to an image le. 2. Use your oscilloscope display to measure the peak-to-peak value of both waveforms. 3. Use your measurement results to determine the turn-on voltage of the diode. 4. Use the oscilloscope display to measure the duration of time the diode remains on during each period. You may have to reduce the horizontal grid size for an accurate measurement. Is the measured time equal to half the period? Is it less? 5. Calculate the DC value of the waveform using VDC 1 = T
t2

(Vo cos 2f t V )dt

t1

(3.4.1)

Hint: You need to determine the limits of integration from the measurements performed in previous steps. 6. Use your multimeter to measure the DC value of the waveform across the resistor. Does it match the DC value you have calculated in the previous step? If it is very dierent, try changing the range of the multimeter using the up and down arrow buttons. 7. Increase the frequency of the input sinusoid to 1000 Hz. Measure the DC value of the voltage waveform across the resistor using the multimeter. Repeat your measurement at 5000 Hz. Tabulate your results and plot the DC value of the half-wave rectied signal as a function of frequency. Do you see a dependence?

28

8. Switch the places of the diode and the resistor in the circuit. Display the test signal and the voltage across the diode simultaneously. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le. In your report, explain the operation of the circuit and how the output signal is created. Can you use the output signal to determine the turn-on voltage of the diode?

3.5

RC Circuit with a Square Wave Input

In this part of the experiment we shall apply a square wave to an RC circuit. The behavior of the circuit can be explained using the equations derived for RC circuits with DC voltage sources. When the square wave switches from 0 V to its high voltage level, the capacitor begins to charge to this voltage just as it would do with a DC voltage source. At the end of the pulse, the input voltage goes back to zero (or a lower voltage) and the capacitor begins to discharge. Note that applying 0 V to the circuit is electrically equivalent to short circuiting the voltage source. Preparation: Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.6. Generate a square wave with the following specications: f = 500 mHz Duty Cycle = 25 % Vpp = 5 V DC oset = 2.5 V

Display the input signal on Channel 1 and the capacitor voltage on Channel 2 of your oscilloscope. Measurements & Questions: 1. Optimize your oscilloscope settings and save the display to an image le to include in your report. 2. Use the quick measurement feature of your oscilloscope to measure the peak-to-peak voltage and the DC value of the output signal. 3. Use your measurement results to explain the shape of the output signal. Use the RC charging and discharging equations to verify the critical voltage levels of the output signal.

29

Function Generator
5.00 Hz

1 kohm vin (t) + 220 uF vout (t)

Figure 3.6: RC Circuit with an input voltage

30

Experiment 4 Electric Power

The objective of this experiment is to learn to use the oscilloscope to measure various forms of power including instantaneous, real and apparent power. The hardware box we will use in this experiment is shown in Figure 4.1. The box features electrical outlets for measuring the voltage, a wire loop for measuring the current by a special probe and a triac based electronic circuit, which can be used to control the amount of power dissipated on a load connected to the box. Light dimmers that are readily available at hardware stores use a very similar circuit. The experiment box also has a selector switch for bypassing the triac circuit when needed. The schematic of the box is shown in Figure 4.2. We will be using the 120 V/60 Hz household supply voltage throughout this experiment. Please note that this voltage can be extremely dangerous. We have made every eort to make the hardware safe. However, exercise extreme caution during measurements. Please consult your teaching assistant whenever you are not absolutely sure of any step.

4.1

AC Supply Voltage in the Laboratory

Preparation: We shall begin the experiment by measuring the properties of the AC supply voltage in the laboratory. Follow the procedure given below to set-up your circuit. Do not connect the 120 volt power cable until you nish the set-up procedure. 31

32

Figure 4.1: AC Power Experiment Box

TRIAC

120 V / 60 Hz

Figure 4.2: Experiment box schematic. A three position switch determines the voltage applied to the load. The AC input is disconnected from the load when the switch is in the center position. When it is down, the input voltage is applied directly across the load. When it is up the input voltage has to go through the triac switching circuit before reaching the load.

33

Put the selector switch in the center position (see Figure 4.2). When the switch is in the center position, the load is disconnected from the AC supply. Connect the BNC end of the BNC-to-120 VAC adapter cable to channel 1 of the oscilloscope and plug the three-prong plug into the AC outlet on the left side of the board. This outlet is connected directly to the AC input voltage as indicated on the board. A 100:1 attenuator is built into the probe to reduce the voltage by a factor of 100 before it is applied to the oscilloscope. Thus, the probe factor on the oscilloscope must be set to 100:1. Connect the 120V power cable to the board. You should see the AC power signal displayed on your oscilloscope.

Measurements & Questions: 1. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your laboratory report. Measure the following parameters of the AC input signal using the quick measurement feature of your oscilloscope. (a) frequency (b) DC value (c) Peak-to-Peak voltage (d) Amplitude (e) RMS Voltage 2. You have probably found out that your voltage waveform is not a perfect sinusoid. Therefore, we should expect an error when we use the equation, VRM S = Vo 20.5 (4.1.1)

to calculate the RMS voltage. Find this error.

34

4.2

Power Dissipated by a Light Bulb

In this part of the experiment, we shall apply the 120 V supply voltage to an ordinary light bulb. We will use the oscilloscope to display the voltage across the bulb as well as the current owing in the loop. We have learned in previous experiments that an oscilloscope can only display voltage signals. To view a current signal on an oscilloscope, we use a current probe (see Figure 4.1, which consists of a ring that clamps around a current carrying wire. The probe works without making an electrical connection to the wire. The generated voltage is proportional to the current ow with a proportionality constant. For instance, a current probe with a conversion factor of 100 mV/A generates a voltage of 100 mV when the current is 1 A. Preparation: Disconnect the 120 Volt power cord. Do not connect it until you nish the setup procedure below. Put the selector switch in the center position (o). Plug the desk lamp into the AC Outlet on the right side of the board. Connect the 100:1 oscilloscope voltage to the AC outlet on the right side of the board to apply the bulb voltage to Channel 1 of your oscilloscope. Verify that the probe factor for channel 1 is set to 100:1. Connect the current probe to Channel 2 of your oscilloscope. Verify that the probe factor for channel 2 is set to 1:1. Clamp the current probe on the insulated wire on the board. The current probe is a directional device, which senses the direction of the current ow. The standard direction for current is from the power source to the load. Find the arrow on the current probe. Place the probe around the wire such that the arrow points to the load. Set the conversion switch on the current probe to 100 mV/A. This means that the probe will generate 100 mV when the current ow is 1.0 A. Connect the 120V power cable to the board. Since the switch is in the center position, nothing should happen at this point.

35

Measurements & Questions: 1. Apply the AC input voltage to the light bulb by ipping the three-way switch down (xed). In this position, the full AC input is applied to the light bulb as illustrated in Figure 4.2. 2. Display the voltage and current waveforms simultaneously. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your laboratory report. 3. Is there a phase dierence between the voltage and current waveforms. Since the light bulb is a resistive load, the phase dierence should be very small if any. 4. Measure the RMS value of the voltage, VRM S applied to the light bulb. You can use the quick measurement feature of your oscilloscope for this measurement. 5. Measure the RMS value of the current, IRM S owing through the light bulb. You can use the quick measurement feature of your oscilloscope for this measurement. 6. Use your measurement results in P = VRM S IRM S to calculate the real power. 7. Your oscilloscope can multiply the signals applied to the two input channels and display the resulting waveform. We will use this feature to obtain the instantaneous power, p(t) = v(t)i(t) since channels 1 and 2 display the voltage and current waveforms respectively. To perform this task, Press the Math button. Press the 1 2 soft key. Note that the displayed waveform is not quite p(t) yet. Instead, it is the product of two voltage waveforms, v1 (t) and v2 (t). We will have to convert v2 (t) to i(t) manually using the conversion factor of the current probe. If you have not changed it, we previously set it to 100 mV/A. This means that if the bulb current is 1 A, the current probe will produce 100 mV or 0.1 V. Therefore, to convert the observed waveform to p(t) we need to multiply the waveform by a factor of 10 so that we have the product, volt ampere = watts.

36

8. Find the real power by measuring the average value of the instantaneous power waveform, p(t). You can use the quick measurement feature for this purpose. Dont forget to use the probe correction in your nal result. 9. We have used two dierent approaches to measure the real power. Are the experimental results obtained using the two techniques in agreement? 10. Do the measured values of real power match the power rating printed on the light bulb? 11. Use the RMS value of the AC input voltage and the real power measured above to calculate the lament resistance of the light bulb. Remember that the lament is an ordinary linear resistor obeying Ohms law, hence, 2 the real power is given by P = VRM S /R where R is the lament resistance.

4.3

Power dissipated by an AC Motor

In this section, we will use an electric fan as our load. Unlike the light bulb, the fan motor is not a resistive load. Unplug the desk lamp and plug in the electric fan. Measurements & Questions: 1. Display the voltage and current waveforms. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your lab report. 2. Measure the RMS value of the AC voltage applied to the electric fan, VRM S . 3. Measure the RMS value of the AC current owing through the electric fan, IRM S . 4. Use the above measurement results to calculate the apparent power, S = VRM S IRM S . Remember that this is how we calculated the real power for a resistive load. 5. Measure the phase dierence between the voltage and current waveforms in radians. Use your phase angle to calculate the power factor, cos . 6. Use the above measurement results to calculate the real power, P = S cos .

37

7. Multiply the voltage and current waveforms to obtain the instantaneous power, p(t) and save the display to an image le to include in your lab report. Measure the average value of this waveform to determine the Real Power. Compare your result with the real power you have obtained using the previous method. 8. Calculate the minutes that the fan has to operate to consume the same amount of electricity (real power)that the light bulb consumes in one hour.

4.4

Light Bulb with Adjustable Power

Before performing the experiment in this section, we need to learn a few things about methods of controlling the power delivered to a load. Examples include using a light dimmer to adjust the brightness of a light bulb and a controller to adjust the speed of an electric motor. A simple approach in power control is to adjust the voltage applied to the device. And, the simplest way of controlling the voltage is putting an adjustable resistor between the load and the source, as illustrated in Figure 4.3. Unfortunately, this is not a very ecient procedure because appreciable power will be lost on the resistor.

supply is(t)
A

variable resistor
B

iL(t)

load

vs(t)

vL(t)

Figure 4.3: The use of a series, variable resistor to reduce the power consumed by a light bulb - an inecient light dimmer.

38

Now suppose we replace the series resistor in Figure 4.3 by a clever, electronic switch as shown in Figure 4.4. When the switch is closed, the AC source voltage is applied to the load and current ows in the loop. When the switch is open, the load is disconnected from the source. Thus, if the load is a light bulb, it turns o each time the switch opens. The real power consumed by the bulb will be less because there will be moments of zero power. But what is the use of this approach if the result is a ickering light bulb? Fortunately, this does not happen because 60 Hz is a fairly high frequency for our eyes. In other words, it happens but we can not see it! The big advantage of this new approach is the power dissipated on the series switch is always zero. When the switch is closed, the voltage across the switch terminals is zero. When the switch is open, the source voltage appears across the switch terminals but this time the current is zero. Hence, for each case we satisfy p(t) = v(t)i(t) = 0 eliminating the power loss on the controller at all times.

supply is(t)
A

switch
B

iL(t)

load

vs(t)

vL(t)

Figure 4.4: Power control using a switch. The ecient control scheme described above is possible using a commercial light dimmer, which employs a semiconductor device called TRIAC. Other power conversion instruments such as motor controllers also use the same device. Essentially, TRIAC operates like a switch whose actions can be controlled by voltage pulses applied to a third terminal called the gate.

39

supply is(t) A
gate gate triggering circuit TRIAC B

iL(t)

load

vs(t)

vL(t)

controller

Figure 4.5: Using a triac to construct a highly ecient light dimmer.

The new circuit is shown in Figure 4.5, where the TRIAC is connected between the points A and B. The relevant voltage and current waveforms corresponding to the circuit are shown in Figure 4.6. The TRIAC is turned on (i.e. switch is closed) when a voltage pulse vg is applied to its gate. These voltage pulses are generated by a gate triggering circuit, shown as a box in Figure 4.5. The triggering circuit senses the zero crossings of the AC source voltage, vs (t) and initiates a timer at each zero crossing. A rectangular voltage pulse is generated and sent to the gate at the end of the time period set by the user typically by turning an external knob. This delay is called the firing-angle . Note that, for convenience , we use angle rather than time, since they are interchangeable = t. When the TRIAC is on (i.e. the switch is closed), the source voltage appears across the terminals of the load and the load draws current from the source. When the current, iL (t) goes to zero, the TRIAC opens. With a resistive load, the load current will inevitably be zero at the zero crossings of the input voltage waveform. Note that by changing the ring angle , we change the duration of the zero power period; the higher the , the smaller the real power becomes. Thus, by changing , we can control the amount of power supplied to the light bulb and hence, dim the light.

40

a/w vs (t) (V)

200 0

timer circuit begins to work at the zero-crossing of the input voltage waveform

-200 5 10 15 20

time (ms) vL (t) (V)

200 0
TRIAC turns on with the voltage pulse generated at the end of the period, a/w

-200 5 10
at the zero crossing of the current waveform TRIAC opens

15

20

time (ms) iL (t) (A)

10 0 -10 5 10 15 20

time (ms) vg (t) (V)

2 1 0 5 10 15 20

time (ms)

Figure 4.6: Waveforms at dierent stages of the light dimmer circuit. Measuring and quantifying the power supplied to the load is a little challenging in this case since both the voltage and current waveforms are not purely sinusoidal, hence, the equations developed in the textbook for sinusoidal signals will no longer be applicable. However, we must note that the voltage and current waveforms are still periodic (although not sinusoidal), therefore, we

41

can still determine the real power supplied to the load according to 1 P = T Experiment Unplug the electric fan and plug in the desk lamp. Switch the red power selector to the up position to control the brightness of the light bulb with the triac circuit. Note that the controller also has an internal switch activated by pressing the adjustment knob. Turn on the controller and turn the control knob slowly and observe how the light produced by the bulb varies. Watch how the voltage and current waveforms change on the oscilloscope screen. Measurements & Questions: 1. Reduce the amount of light produced by the light bulb to a relatively low level. Display the voltage and current waveforms simultaneously. Using the displayed waveforms, measure the following parameters. You can use the quick measurement feature of your oscilloscope for the measurements. (a) RMS value of the AC voltage applied to the light bulb, VRM S . (b) RMS value of the AC current owing through the light bulb, IRM S . (c) Phase dierence between the voltage and current waveforms in radians. Since the load is resistive, the phase dierence should be very small if any. (d) Duration of time the triac stays on. 2. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your lab report. In your report, label this image to show the time intervals during which the triac is on. 3. Measure the real power dissipated by the light bulb using the two methods employed in the previous sections of this experiment. Those are: (a) Measure the RMS values of the voltage and current waveforms and then substitute in P = VRM S IRM S . (b) Display the instantaneous power, p(t) by multiplying the two input channels, save the image to a le and measure the average value of the product.
T

p(t)dt
0

42

4. Repeat the above measurements for two dierent positions of the dimmer knob. 5. Plot the real power as a function of time the triac stays on and voltage is applied to the light bulb. Use the bulb power measured without the triac as your fourth data point. 6. Calculate the lament resistance of the light bulb for each setting of the 2 dimmer knob using P = VRM S /R. 7. Plot the lament resistance as a function of real power. Is the lament resistance constant or is it changing as the bulb gets hotter?

Experiment 5 Periodic Signals in Frequency Domain

This laboratory is designed to acquaint you with the frequency domain representation of signals and the use of the spectrum analyzer. We will refer to the spectrum analyzer as a separate instrument, however, instructions in this laboratory manual are given for the Agilent oscilloscope with the built-in FFT feature, which essentially gives all the functionality of a spectrum analyzer. In other laboratories and in industry the spectrum analyzer may be a separate piece of hardware, especially for applications for the GHz range. Shown in Figure 5.1 is an example display of a periodic signal in both time and frequency domains. The spectrum analyzer has four parameters the user has to choose: 1. Frequency Span: The dierence between the maximum (far right) and minimum (far left) frequencies displayed. 2. Center Frequency: The frequency at the center of the horizontal axis. 3. Scale: Vertical grid size in dB/division. 4. Oset: The signal power at the center of the vertical axis. In Figure 5.1 both scale and oset are set to 20 dB. The signal power of the rst harmonic is about 7 dBW and the second harmonic is approximately 20 dB below the rst. 43

44

Figure 5.1: An example display showing an arbitrary periodic signal in both time and frequency domains

5.1

Power Spectrum of a Sinusoid

In this part of the experiment, we shall learn how to display the power spectrum of a sinusoidal waveform and then use the spectrum to measure its frequency and signal power. Follow the procedures given below to prepare your instruments for the experiment: Function Generator and Oscilloscope Connect the function generator output to Channel 1 of the oscilloscope using a BNC-to-BNC adapter cable. Set the function generator to produce a sinusoid with the following parameters: Frequency = 1 - 3 kHz Peak-to-Peak Voltage = 2 - 5 V DC Value = 0 Turn on Channel 1 of your oscilloscope. Adjust the oscilloscope controls to display about 5 to 10 cycles of the input signal. Spectrum Analyzer Press the Math button on your oscilloscope.

45

Turn on the spectrum analyzer by pressing the FFT soft-key button. Press the Settings soft-key button and choose the following: FFT Input: Channel 1 - since the spectrum analyzer works for only one channel at a time, you have to select that channel. Frequency Span = 10 kHz Center Frequency = 5 kHz. The above settings will give you a frequency range from 0 Hz to 10 kHz. Unless you are interested in a close-up view of a particular frequency range, the span should be two times the center frequency. Vertical Scale = 5 dB/division dB oset = 0 dB - This is the signal power at the center line of the vertical screen. Note that 0 dB corresponds to an input power of 1 W (10 log 1 = 0 dBW ). Window = Hanning - This is the mathematical routine used by the FFT routine to compute the power spectrum, which aects the way the peaks look. The Hanning window provides the best display for most signals of interest in this laboratory. You should now see the sinusoid displayed in both time and frequency domains. In the frequency domain, you will observe a background noise level in addition to the sinusoid peak; this is normal. Measurements & Questions: 1. Optimize the oscilloscope controls to display the sinusoidal waveform in both time and frequency domains. Save your display to an image le to include in your report. Be sure to record the spectrum analyzer settings not visible on the display. You will need the frequency span, the center frequency, the vertical scale (dB/div) and the dB o-set. 2. Study the power spectrum of the sinusoidal waveform. What is your judgment of the quality of the waveform generated by the function generator? To answer this question, consider the following: Does the spectrum analyzer show any signicant spectral peaks other than the main peak? Note that a peak is considered insignificant if it is more than 40 dB down from the main peak.

46

Is there any obvious random noise on the sinusoid in the time domain? Is there any random noise in the frequency domain? 3. Use the power spectrum display to measure the frequency of the sinusoid. You can make this measurement graphically or using the cursors. Try both. 4. Measure the signal power in dBW. 5. Use the measured signal power in dBW to calculate the signal power in Watts. Recall: PdBW = 10 log10 P 6. Measure the RMS voltage, VRM S of your sinusoid using the time domain signal. 7. Calculate the signal power using the RMS voltage measured above. Re2 call: P = VRM S /R and signal power is the real power dissipated on a 1 resistor. Does it match the signal power you have obtained from the power spectrum?

5.2

Power Spectrum of a Square Wave

Set the function generator to generate a square with the following properties: Frequency = 500 - 1500 Hz Peak-to-Peak Voltage = 3 to 5 V Duty Cycle = 25 Percent DC value = 0 V Use the following settings on the spectrum analyzer: Frequency Span = 10 kHz Center Frequency = 5 kHz Scale = 10 dB/division Oset = 0 dBW Measurements & Questions:

47

1. Optimize the oscilloscope settings if necessary and save the display to an image le include in your report. 2. Measure the frequency of the square wave using the time domain signal. 3. Measure the fundamental frequency of the square wave using the power spectrum. It should match the frequency of the square wave obtained in the previous step. If it does not, look for a source of error. 4. Measure the frequency of the second, third, fourth and fth harmonics. Are they following a frequency pattern? 5. Measure the signal power of the rst ve harmonics in dBW. 6. Calculate the amplitude of each harmonic. To do this, you will rst need to nd the RMS voltage of each harmonic and then use Amplitude = VRM S 2 since they are all sinusoids. 7. Tabulate your results for the rst ve harmonics. 8. Construct a Fourier series for the square wave using frequencies and the amplitudes you have obtained. Since we are unable to measure the phase angles of the harmonics, you can leave them as 1 , 2 , etc in your nal expression. 9. Change the duty cycle of your square wave to 50 %. Save your display to an image le. 10. How did the power spectrum respond to this change? Make necessary measurements to be able to write a paragraph describing the changes.

5.3

Musical Instruments

In this section, we shall study waveforms produced by dierent musical instruments. If you have your own instrument with you, feel free to substitute it for one of them. To display the signals produced by your instrument, just connect your microphone to one of the oscilloscope channels. If you do not have your own instrument, you can use the sound les available at the course web site. The sound les include an Irish ute, a classical guitar and a hand drum. You will need an adapter cable to connect the sound output of your computer to the oscilloscope. Measurements & Questions:

48

1. Observe the changes in the the power spectrum for dierent notes played on the same instrument. Save several example spectra that you can later use to describe the general features of the sound produced by that instrument. You can use the RUN/STOP button to freeze the display. 2. Repeat the previous step for another instrument. 3. In your lab report compare the power spectra produced by the two instruments. Highlight similarities and dierences between the instruments. 4. Use the recorded ute sound to capture a characteristic time/frequency domain display of the instrument.

(a) Measure the frequency of the signal in time domain. (b) Use the power spectrum to measure the fundamental frequency (1st harmonic). (c) Verify that the two frequencies are equal. (d) Measure the frequencies of the rst ve harmonics. (e) Measure the signal power of the rst ve harmonics. (f) Calculate the total signal power. (g) Construct a Fourier series based on the above measurements. Since we are unable to measure the phase of the harmonics, you can leave them as 1 , 2 , etc in your nal equation.

5.4

Low Pass Filter

Low-pass ltering is the process of attenuating the signal power above a cuto frequency. This process is carried out by a device called low-pass lter, which is a two port circuit with input and output ports as shown in Figure 5.2. A low-pass lter can be constructed using just resistors and capacitors. However, resistive losses in RC lters prompted circuit designers to come up with electronic circuits referred to as active lters.

49

vin (t)

2 - Port Circuit

vout (t)

Figure 5.2: Two-port circuit

Vout /Vin 1

fc

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 5.3: Signals below the cut-o frequency, fc of a low-pass lter pass through the lter without any attenuation. Above this frequency, an ideal lter does not allow any signal through. For a real lter, the lter order determines how fast the lter gain drops beyond fc . Shown in Figure 5.3 is the transfer function of a low-pass lter. A transfer function is a plot of the lter gain as a function of the frequency of the input signal. Below the cut-o frequency, fc , the lter gain is unity, so there is no attenuation or Vout = Vin . Beyond fc , the strength of the output signal continually drops with increasing frequency. An ideal lter completely blocks signals above fc . A real lter on the other hand displays a transition region as shown in Figure 5.3. The width of this region is determined by the quality of the lter. The low-pass lter used in this experiment is an active lter with a fairly steep roll-o in the transition region. You will be able to change the cut-o frequency of the lter by turning a potentiometer mounted on the circuit board. The experiment box used in this experiment (Figure 5.4) can be used with three electronic circuits, which can be inserted into the card edge connecters on the front panel, which are connected to each other behind the front panel. The power to the board is supplied externally through the banana inputs. Circuits used on this board require dual () power supply voltages. Test

50

Figure 5.4: Two-Port Circuits experiment box used in this experiment.

51

points are provided on the board to view the signals at dierent nodes of the circuit. The input signal is applied through a 1/4 inch phono jack. You can use the function generator or any signal generating device such as a microphone as your input source. The purpose of the potentiometer on the board is to give the user the ability to reduce the magnitude of the input signal. Recall that a potentiometer is just a voltage divider with two variable resistors. For music signals, this is your volume control. Follow the procedure given below to prepare your hardware for the experiment: Power Supply Turn-on the power supply and enable the output voltage. The experiment box requires both +15 V and -15V supply voltages. Set each voltage individually. Disable the power supply output voltage to construct the circuit. Connect your power supply to the experiment box using three banana cables for the ground and the two supply voltages. Function Generator Connect a BNC T-Adapter (5.5) to the output connector of the function generator. Using one end of the BNC T-Adapter and a BNC-to-BNC cable connect the function generator output to Channel 1 of your oscilloscope. This will allow you to view the input signal on Channel 1 during the experiment. Use a BNC-to-(1/4 phono jack) adapter cable to connect the other end of the BNC T-adapter to the input jack of the experiment box. A 1/4 inch phono plug is shown in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.5: BNC-T adapter Oscilloscope

52

Figure 5.6: 1/4 inch mono phono plug. Use a BNC-to-BNC cable to connect Channel 2 of your oscilloscope to the lter output. You will need to use a BNC-to-RCA adapter (Figure 5.7) to connect the cable to the experiment box. Turn on both channels.

Figure 5.7: BNC-to-RCA adapter plug Low Pass Filter Insert the lter circuit into the rst card edge connector. Open the by-pass switch for the rst card edge connector if it is closed. Open the by-pass switches for the unused card edge connectors. We are ready to test the set up. Enable the power supply output voltage. Generate a square wave with the following properties: Duty Cycle = 30 percent Frequency = 500 - 1000 Hz Vpp = 3 - 5 V DC Value = 0

53

If your connections are correct, you should now see both the input and output signals displayed on the oscilloscope screen. Measurements & Questions: 1. We shall rst analyze the input square wave. We have done this before, so now we are just making sure that we have the correct signal for the new experiment. Turn o Channel 2 of your oscilloscope since we do not need to view the output signal yet. Turn on the spectrum analyzer. Use the following settings for the spectrum analyzer: FFT Input = Channel 1 (to view the power spectrum of the input signal) Frequency Span = 20 kHz Center Frequency = 10 kHz Scale = 5 dB/div Oset = 0 dB You should now see the power spectrum of the input square wave. Optimize your oscilloscope and spectrum analyzer settings to display the signal in both time and frequency domains. Save your display to an image le to include in your lab report. Be sure to record the spectrum analyzer settings that are not on the display. 2. We shall now study the signal at the lter output for dierent cut-o frequencies of the lter. Turn o channel 1. We do not need to view the input signal anymore. Switch the FFT input to Channel 2. You should now have the ltered output signal displayed in both time and frequency domains. Now we are ready for the experiment. Locate the potentiometer on the lter circuit board. You can change the cut-o frequency of the lter by turning the potentiometer knob. Change the cut-o frequency as you watch the time-domain signal and its power spectrum. Can you see how the square wave is distorted as you lter out its harmonics one by one?

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(a) Set the cut-o frequency of the lter to its maximum possible value. Save the display to an image le to include in your report. (b) Repeat the previous step for three more positions of the cut-o frequency knob. (c) Explain your observations referring to the image les you have saved. In your lab report discuss how your experimental observations relate to Fourier Series.

5.5

Low Pass Filtering of Music Signals

In this part of the experiment, we will pass a music signal through the low-pass lter and hear the impact of changing the cut-o frequency on the quality of the output signal. In addition to the low-pass lter, we will use an amplier to boost the output signal power. Audio Amplier Locate the audio amplier printed circuit board. The amplier has a voltage gain of 20. That is, if the RMS value of the signal applied to the input port of this amplier is 1 mV, the output signal will have an RMS value of 1mV 20 = 20mV . Ideally, the output signal will just be a larger version of the input signal without any distortion or added noise. Insert the audio amplier board into the second or third card edge connector on your experiment box. Open the switch bypassing the audio amplier. Close the by-pass switch of the unused card edge connector. Music Input/Output Use a 1/8 to 1/4 Audio Jack adapter cable to connect the sound output jack of your computer to the input jack of the experiment box. Connect the audio speaker to the output port (1/4 Audio Jack) of the experiment box. Oscilloscope Apply the lter input signal to Channel 1.

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Apply the experiment box output signal to channel 2. Spectrum Analyzer (FFT) Center Frequency = 5 kHz Frequency Span = 10 kHz Now we are ready to test the hardware: Enable the power supply output. Start playing one of the sound les. You should now hear the music coming from the audio speaker and your oscilloscope should be displaying the input and output signals. Set the music volume to a comfortable level by turning the volume control knob. Measurements & Questions: 1. Play a music as you slowly change the cut-o frequency of the lter. Pay attention to the changes occurring in the sound quality of the signal and its power spectrum. 2. Save several power spectra to include in your lab report as examples. In doing this, try capturing the power spectrum of the music with dierent cut-o frequencies of the lter. 3. Write a paragraph describing your observations referring to the oscilloscope displays you have saved during the experiment.

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Experiment 6 Audio Amplier

In this experiment, we shall construct an audio amplier and measure its specications. This is the rst part of a two week experiment. Try to nish the experiment during the regular lab period, however, if you cannot, you will be able to continue the experiment during the next lab period. Shown in Figure 6.1 is the Two-Port Circuits experiment board you will use in this laboratory. Input connectors can accept signals from a microphone, a music source such as a CD player or the function generator. The output connector can be used with an 8 ohm speaker or standard headphones with an impedance less than 50 . Phono connectors are provided for making measurements at dierent nodes of the circuit.

6.1

Testing the Microphone Amplier

We shall begin the experiment by testing the amplier using signals generated by a microphone. Connect the 25 V and ground (COM) outputs of your power supply to the experiment board. Turn on your power supply and press the output on/o button to activate the output. Set the two supply voltages to 12 V . Deactivate the voltage output by pressing the output on/o button. Insert variable gain amplier board (Figure 6.2) into the rst card edge connector. 57

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Figure 6.1: Two-Port Circuits Experiment Box

Figure 6.2: Amplier with variable voltage gain

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Figure 6.3: Power Amplier The purpose of the switch on the amplier board is to make it inverting or non-inverting. For testing the amplier it can either be up or down. Insert the power amplier board (Figure 6.3) to the third card edge connector. Open the rst and third by-pass switches. Close the second by-pass switch. This will connect the output port of the rst stage to the input port of the next stage. Connect your microphone and audio speaker to the experiment board. You can increase the voltage gain of the op-amp stage by turning the potentiometer on the op-amp board counter-clockwise. Set the voltage gain to its maximum level. Set the volume level to maximum by turning the volume control potentiometer on the experiment board clockwise. Press the output on/o button to activate the power supply output. Turn on the microphone and say a few words. If the amplier is working, you should hear the amplied sound from the audio speaker. If you do not hear anything, call your laboratory instructor for help. If your amplier is working properly, take a few minutes to familiarize yourself with the controls. Do the following:

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Play with the potentiometers on the experiment board and the gain stage to understand their functions. Try ipping the switch on the PC up and down and see if you can hear a dierence in the sound output. Under normal circumstances you should not. Borrow a second amplier stage from another lab group and use it as the second stage of your multi-stage amplier by inserting it in the empty card-edge connector between the rst gain stage and the power amplier. Now you should have a larger voltage gain and a higher sound level.

6.2

Measuring the Voltage Gain

In this section, we will measure the voltage gain of the amplier using a sinusoidal input signal from the function generator. Follow the instructions given below to prepare for the measurements. Preparation: Experiment Board: Disconnect the microphone and the audio speaker. Remove the power amplier stage from the experiment board. Function Generator: Connect the function generator output to the experiment board input. Use a BNC cable with a BNC-to-Phono adapter as shown in Figure 6.4. Generate a sinusoid with the following specications: Vpp = 1 2 V f = 1 - 5 kHz VDC = 0 Oscilloscope Refer to Figure 6.5 for connecting the oscilloscope channels to the experiment board. Connect the amplier input at the Test Point 1 to Channel 1. We want to display the input signal applied to the amplier after it goes through the volume control potentiometer.

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Figure 6.4: A BNC-to-phono adapter is used to connect the function generator output to the experiment box.

Figure 6.5: Oscilloscope connections for voltage gain measurement.

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Connect the amplier output at the Test Point 2 to Channel 2. Use the following settings on both channels: Probe Attenuation Factor = 1:1 Input Coupling = DC Activate the power supply output. If you made your connections correctly you should now see the input and output signals displayed on the oscilloscope screen. Verify that the volume control on the experiment board and the gain control on the amplier are both set to their maximum levels. You can do this while viewing the output signal on the oscilloscope. Measurements & Questions: 1. Set the volume level to maximum by turning the knob on the experiment board clockwise. 2. Flip the switch on the amplier to the up (non-inverting) position. 3. Set the amplier gain to maximum by turning the potentiometer on the amplier counter-clockwise all the way. 4. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your report. 5. Study the input and output signals. Is there a phase dierence between them? Is the voltage gain positive? 6. Measure the peak-to-peak voltages of the input and output signals. Use Av = vpp (out)/Vpp (in) to determine the voltage gain. 7. Set the amplier gain to minimum by turning the gain potentiometer clockwise and repeat the voltage gain measurement. 8. Flip the switch down to the inverting position and repeat the above steps. 9. Tabulate your measurements.

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6.3

Frequency Response of an Audio Amplier

The frequency response of an Audio Amplier is a graph, which shows the power gain,G plotted as a function of input frequency. We hear audio frequencies in the range of 20 Hz - 20 kHz. Ideally, we expect an amplier to treat all frequencies in this range equally, which is usually not true unless the amplier is intended for high-delity applications. To obtain the frequency response of an amplier we measure the voltage gain at dierent frequencies and then calculate the power gain using G = 20 log Av Preparation: Adjust the input signal level on the function generator such that the output signal is not clipped. If you see any deviation from a sinusoid (i.e. distortion), reduce the input signal level. Measurements & Questions: 1. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal at the following frequencies:5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 50, 100, 1000, 5000, 10000, 20000, 30000, 40000 and 50000 Hz. Verify that the peak-to-peak voltage of the input signal remains constant during the entire measurement. 2. Calculate the voltage gain at each frequency. 3. Calculate the power gain at each frequency. 4. Tabulate your measurements and calculations. 5. Plot the power gain as a function of frequency using logarithmic axes for both.

6.4

Clipping and Maximum Peak-to-Peak Output Voltage

In this section we will measure the maximum peak-to-peak output voltage the amplier can produce without clipping. Verify that the voltage gain of the amplier is set to the maximum level.

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1. Flip the switch on the amplier to the up position. 2. Increase the peak-to-peak voltage of the sinusoid produced by the function generator until the output signal is clipped at both ends. Measure the output voltage levels where the signal is clipped. Save the display showing the clipped output signal to an image le to include in your report. 3. Play with the input signal level and determine the maximum output peak-to-peak voltage the amplier can produce without clipping. 4. Measure the maximum input peak-to-peak voltage the amplier can amplify without clipping. 5. Flip the switch down and repeat the above measurements. 6. Tabulate your results. 7. Construct the transfer characteristic of the amplier for both switch positions. You will need the clipping voltage levels and the voltage gains you have measured in the previous section. 8. Obtain a clipped output signal. Decrease the positive power supply voltage from 12 V to 9 V as you watch how the output signal is responding to this change. 9. Decrease the negative supply voltage to - 9 V as you watch the output signal. Save the oscilloscope to an image le. 10. How is the DC value of the output signal changing as you change the power supply voltages? What happens when you set the negative supply voltage to zero? Does the amplier stop working? 11. Make necessary measurements based on what you have learned above to construct the transfer characteristic of the amplier for 9 V power supply.

6.5

Measuring the Power Gain in Frequency Domain

Preparation:

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Power Supply: Set the power supply voltages back to 12 V Function Generator: Generate a 1 - 2 kHz sinusoid with a peak-to-peak voltage of 1 - 2 V. Spectrum Analyzer: Turn on the spectrum analyzer by pressing on the Math button and clicking on the FFT softkey. Select Channel 2 to display the power spectrum of the output signal. Set the frequency span to 10 kHz. Set the center frequency to 5 kHz. Set the scale to 10 dBW/division. Set the Oset to - 20 dBW. You should now have a display of the output power spectrum as well as the input and output signals in time domain. Since the output signal is just a sinusoid, the power spectrum should consist of a single peak at the frequency of the sinusoid unless the output has distortion. Measurements & Questions: 1. Turn o Channel 1. You should now have the output signal displayed in both time and frequency domains. Optimize your display and save it to an image le. 2. Measure the output signal power in dBW. 3. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal. 4. Turn Channel 1 back on and turn o Channel 2. Switch your spectrum analyzer to Channel 1. You should now have the input signal displayed in both time and frequency domains. Optimize your display and save it to an image le. 1. Note that when you switch channels you will have to set the frequency span, center frequency, scale and oset again. 5. Measure the input signal power in dBW. 6. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal.

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7. Calculate the power gain of the amplier from G = PdBW out PdBW (in) 8. Calculate the voltage gain of the amplier using the measured peak-topeak voltages. 9. Calculate the power gain using G = 20 log Av and compare with the value obtained above. Are they the same?

6.6

Distortion in Frequency Domain

Preparation: Turn o channel 1 and turn on channel 2. switch the spectrum analyzer back to channel 2. Use the following settings to display the power spectrum of the output signal: Frequency Span = 20 kHz Center Frequency = 10 kHz Scale = 10 dBW/division Oset = - 20 dBW Measurements & Questions: 1. Increase the peak-to-peak voltage of the input sinusoid as you watch the changes in the power spectrum. How does the output power spectrum change when the output signal is clipped? Do you see any harmonics? 2. Set the peak-to-peak voltage of the input signal to 5 V. You should now have a visibly clipped output signal. Optimize your display and save it to an image le. You may prefer to save the time domain display and the power spectrum separately to avoid a crowded display. 3. Write a paragraph describing the changes in the power spectrum with clipping. Where are the harmonics located on the frequency axis? What can you say about the signal power of each harmonic? 4. Determine the percent distortion in the output signal following the procedure described in the textbook. Note: You are encouraged to do the calculations after the laboratory to save time.

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Figure 6.6: Test points 1 and 4 are used to display the input and output signals of the overall amplier.

6.7

Listening to Distortion

In this section, we will listen to the changes in the output sound when clipping occurs. Preparation: Disable the power supply output until you nish your connections. Experiment Board: Refer to Figure 6.6 for the changes on the experiment board: Insert the power amplier board in the third card edge connector. Close the by-pass switch 2 and open the by-pass switch 3. Set the volume level to maximum. Connect the audio speaker. Oscilloscope: Connect the Test Point 4 to Channel 2 to display the signal applied to the audio speaker. Function Generator: Set the frequency of your sinusoid to 100 Hz.

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Figure 6.7: Connectors needed for music signals The overall gain of the amplier is larger with the addition of the power amplier, which has its own voltage gain of approximately 20. Adjust the peak-to-peak value of the input sinusoid to a small value close to 100 mV such that the output signal is near clipping. Measurements & Questions: Decrease the positive power supply voltage until the output signal is clipped on top. Listen to the changes in the sound produced when it is clipped. Pay attention to the following when the signal is clipped: Does the sound volume change? Does the frequency of the sound change? Write a paragraph describing your observations.

6.8

Amplifying Music Signals

In this section, we will listen to music. We will use the same set-up used in the previous section except that input source will be the computer. We will use the sound les available at the laboratory web site. Preparation: Open your web browser and go to the web page containing the sound les.

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Connect the computers headphone output to your experiment board input using a BNC cable. You will need a 1/8 audio-to-phono adapter cable (already connected to the headphone output) and a phono-to-BNC adapter as shown in Figure 6.7. Play one of the sound les. If you made your connections correctly you should hear the amplied sound from the speaker. You may have the adjust the volume control if the output is too loud or distorted. Measurements & Questions: 1. Display the input and output signals in time domain. You may wish to turn o the spectrum analyzer for a cleaner display. 2. Since the music will be continuously changing we will need to stop the display for making measurements. Start playing the music and press the Single button to freeze the display. Each time you press this button you will capture a new display. Try using this button to obtain a nice display of the input and the amplied output signals. Save your display to an image le to include in your report. You can use the Run/Stop button to go back to the continuous mode. 3. Use the saved display to nd the voltage gain of the amplier. 4. Is the output signal a larger replica of the input signal? If not, describe any changes you observe in the signals shape. 5. Increase the volume level to push the amplier to clipping. if you cannot, check the amplier gain, it may be a low level. Try capturing the output signal when you hear distortion. Save your display to an image le to include in your report. Can you identify clipping in time domain? How much clipping has to occur before you can hear the distortion? How does the nature of the sound change when clipping occurs?

6.9

Audio Amplier with Tone Control

The low-pass lter used in the previous experiment can serve as the tone control of your amplier. Deactivate the power supply output. Open the by-pass switch 2

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Insert the Bessel Filter into the second card edge connector. Now you have a lter with a variable cut-o frequency. Reactivate the power supply output. Measurements & Questions: 1. Play one of the sound les available at the web site. Change the cut-o frequency of the lter as you listen to the changes in the output signal. Can you hear the impact of the lter on the sound? 2. How does ltering impact the shape of the output signal in time domain? 3. Does ltering change the voltage gain of the amplier? 4. Turn on the spectrum analyzer and try observing the changes in the power spectrum as you change the cut-o frequency of the lter.

Experiment 7 Circuits with Operational Ampliers

In this experiment, we shall look at four dierent ampliers including a transistor amplier with a non-linear characteristic. We shall also amplify for the rst time periodic signals generated by transducers other than a microphone.

7.1

Transfer Characteristic of an Amplier

In this part of the experiment we will obtain the transfer characteristics of two dierent ampliers. We will rst test a simple transistor amplier and then repeat the measurement with a higher quality operational amplier we have used in the previous experiment.

7.1.1

Transistor Amplier

Preparation: Power Supply: Set your power supply to generate a single output voltage voltage of 15 V, connect the power supply to the experiment board. Note that due to an internal protection circuit inside the experiment board the actual voltage supplied to the amplier is approximately 14.3 V. We will not use the negative supply voltage terminal on the experiment board. Function Generator Generate a sinusoid with the following properties: f = 1 kHz 71

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Vpp = 100 mV VDC = 0 V Use a BNC cable and a BNC-to-phono adapter to connect the function generator output to the experiment board input. Experiment Board: Insert the transistor amplier board into the rst card edge connector. Set the volume control to maximum. Oscilloscope: Connect amplier input (test point 1) to oscilloscope channel 1. Connect the amplier output (test point 2) to oscilloscope channel 2. Set the input coupling to DC for both input channels. Activate the power supply output. You should now have the input and output signals displayed simultaneously. Optimize the oscilloscope controls for the best display of the two signals. Measurements & Questions: 1. Set the function generator to produce a sinusoid with a peak-to -peak voltage of 100 mV. 2. Adjust the volume control to reduce the peak-to-peak input voltage of the amplier (test point 1) to 20 mV 3. Measure the peak-to-peak output voltage at peak-to-peak input voltage increments of 20 mV (at test point 1) until clipping. 4. Measure the positive and negative peak (maximum) levels of the output signal. Note that the two voltage levels may be dierent due to a DC oset at the amplier output. You can use the cursors to measure the two levels accurately. These measurements will give you two output and two input voltage levels. By repeating the same measurement at dierent input voltage levels we will collect data to construct the transfer characteristic of the amplier

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5. Repeat the above measurements for dierent input peak-to-peak voltages. Increase the peak-to-peak voltage by 20 mV for each measurement. Continue taking measurements until you are well into output clipping. 6. Tabulate your results, then plot the transfer characteristic of the amplier. 7. Use the transfer characteristic to determine the input voltage range where the transfer characteristic can be approximated by a straight line with a single slope. We will refer to this region as the the linear region of the amplier. 8. Now adjust the peak-to-peak voltage of the input signal such that it is larger than the linear range of the amplier but not large enough for clipping. Observe the output signal. Can you detect any distortion? Does the sinusoid look slightly out of shape? Save the display to an image le to include in your lab report. 9. We shall now study the output power spectrum of the amplier for different input voltage levels. Turn on the spectrum analyzer. Set the frequency span to 10 kHz and the center frequency to 5 kHz. Do you see any harmonics? If you do not, play with the input signal level. Due to the non-linear behavior of the amplier, you should be able to see some harmonics without output clipping. 10. Determine the input peak-to-peak voltage above which the harmonics are clearly visible. Compare this voltage with the linear range of the transfer characteristic. 11. Adjust the input peak-to-peak voltage such that one or two harmonics are clearly visible. Save the output signal and its spectrum to an image le. 12. Use the spectrum to calculate the total harmonic distortion. 13. Write a paragraph on the relationship between the transfer characteristic and harmonic distortion.

7.1.2

Operational Amplier

In this part of the experiment we will repeat the above experiment with a better amplier utilizing an operational amplier.

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Preparation: Power Supply: Deactivate the power supply output and remove the transistor amplier board from the experiment board. Set the power supply to produce 8V such that the dierence is equivalent to the single power supply voltage used for the transistor amplier. Note that the actual voltages applied to the amplier are 7.3 V . Insert the operational amplier circuit into the rst card edge connector and ip the switch on the board to the inverting amplier position. Activate the power supply. You should see the input and output signals displayed simultaneously. Measurements & Questions: 1. Obtain the transfer characteristic of the amplier following the procedure you have used for the transistor amplier. Be sure to use DC coupling and record both positive and negative peak levels of the output signal. Since the operational amplier has a lower voltage gain, it has a larger input range. Therefore, you may choose to increase the input voltage in steps larger than 20 mV. 2. Measure the input voltage range in which the amplier behaves linearly. 3. Try to generate some harmonic distortion before output clipping. How dicult is this? 4. Write a paragraph comparing the transfer characteristics of the two ampliers. Which characteristic do you prefer? Why? Consider linearity, voltage gain, DC oset, input voltage range.

7.2

Ultrasonic Proximity Detector

In this experiment, we shall use an ultrasonic transmitter/receiver pair as a proximity detector (Figure 7.1). The signals generated by the receiver will be amplied by an operational amplier. The ultrasonic transmitter is a transducer that converts electrical signals to sound waves. In this experiment, the function generator will be used to produce the input signal to the transducer. The signal needed for this application is a periodic burst signal. Each burst will be a sinusoid at a frequency above

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Figure 7.1: Ultrasonic transmitter and receiver

Figure 7.2: A burst signal with ve cycles in each burst.

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20 kHz, that is, outside the audible range. An example is shown in Figure 7.2. Preparation: Function Generator: Connect a BNC-T adapter to the function generator output. Connect one end of the connector to the oscilloscope Channel 1 in order to monitor the input signal. We will use the other end of the adapter to apply the signal to the experiment board. Set the function generator to produce a sinusoidal waveform with the following parameters: f = 40 kHz Vpp = 10 V VDC = 0 Turn on the burst mode: Press Shift and then Burst. The display will show Burst under the frequency of the signal. Set the burst count: Press Shift and MENU. The display should show A: MOD MENU. Press the down arrow. You should see 1: AM SHAPE on display. Press the right arrow until you see 4: BURST CNT. Press the down arrow. The display should show the number of cycles of the sine wave in each burst. Set the cycle count to 10 by turning the knob. Press ENTER to save the cycle count. Set the burst rate. Press Shift and MENU to set the burst settings. The display should show A: MOD MENU. Press the down arrow. You should see 1: AM SHAPE on display. Press the right arrow until you see 5: BURST RATE.

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Figure 7.3: Ultrasound and amplier boards on the experiment board. Press the down arrow. The display should show the burst rate in Hz. Set the burst rate to 20 Hz by turning the knob. Press ENTER to save the burst rate. Experiment Board: Refer to Figure 7.3 for connections. Insert the ultrasonic transmitter/receiver pair into the rst card edge connector. Insert the operational amplier board into the second card edge connector. Connect the function generator output to Test Point 1 using a BNC cable between the experiment board and the BNC-T adapter on the function generator. You will also need a BNC-to-phono adapter. In this experiment we use the test point 1 as the input node instead of the regular input of the board not to have the input cable in the path of the ultrasonic transmitter/receiver pair. Connect the amplier output to Channel 2 of the oscilloscope. Measurements & Questions:

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1. Use a ruler to place the cardboard 5 cm away from the transmitter/receiver pair. 2. Set the oscilloscope horizontal scale to 200 s/division to display a single burst. 3. You should now see the incident burst and the received signal on display. Save the display to an image le to include in your report. 4. Set the amplier voltage gain to maximum. 5. Measure the time delay between the starting point of the incident burst and the starting point of the received burst. The delay indicates the time, t required for the sound to travel from the transmitter to the cardboard and back. 6. Since the sound wave has to travel a total distance of x = 10 cm we can use the time delay to calculate the speed of sound using v = x/ t. 7. Repeat the measurement for 10, 15 and 20 cm. Tabulate your results. Find the average value of your measurements to determine the speed of sound. Look up the speed of sound in air and compare with your measured value. 8. Connect the amplier input signal to Channel 1. Now you should have the amplier input and output signals displayed simultaneously. Save the display to an image le. Use the two signals to calculate the voltage gain of the amplier.

7.3

Measuring the Speed of a DC Motor

In this part of the experiment we shall use an infrared LED/detector pair to measure the speed of a motor (Figure 7.4). The transducer is located at the edge of the printed circuit board. The LED emits an infrared beam which bounces o the propeller connected to the motor. The reected beam is picked up by the detector, which produces a voltage output proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The potentiometer on the motor board is used to change the speed of the motor. In this application the amplier works a signal conditioner circuit. The periodic signal generated by the infrared emitter/detector pair is suciently large for frequency measurement using the oscilloscope display. However, in a practical application, a digital circuit will mostly likely be used for the measurement and the circuit may need a periodic

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Figure 7.4: The infrared LED/detector package located at the edge of the printed circuit board facing the propeller signal with a larger peak-to-peak voltage. In such a case, an amplier with a modest gain may be used to increase the voltage level. In this section, we will also see how a low-pass lter can be useful in a signal processing application. Preparation: Power Supply: Deactivate the power supply output and remove the boards from the experiment board. Set the power supply to generate 7.5 V . Experiment Board: Insert the motor printed circuit board into the rst card edge connector. Insert the operational amplier board into the second card edge connector (Figure 7.5). The output signal of the motor board is generated by the infrared detector. Connect the test point to oscilloscope channel 1. Connect Channel 2 to the amplier output. Measurements & Questions:

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Figure 7.5: The motor and the amplier boards connected to the card edge connectors. 1. Activate the power supply output. The propeller should start spinning. If it does not play with the potentiometer on the motor board or tap the propeller to give an initial torque. 2. When the motor begins to work you should see the detector output and the amplied signal displayed simultaneously. Optimize the oscilloscope controls and save your display to an image le. 3. Measure the frequency of the amplied signal using the horizontal scale. Do not use the quick measurement feature of the oscilloscope. Use the frequency to calculate the speed of the motor. 4. Repeat the above measurement for two more speeds. Watch for the following as you change the motor speed. (a) How is the shape of the signal changing as you increase the speed of the motor? (b) How clean is the output signal? Is the signal noisy? Are there any unexpected voltage spikes? 5. Now try measuring the frequency of the output signal using the quick measurement feature of the oscilloscope. Note the stability of the measurement. Can the oscilloscope lock to a single frequency or is the frequency constantly changing?

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6. In this step, we shall pass the output signal through a low-pass lter and retry the quick measurement feature. Deactivate the power supply output. Connect the Bessel low-pass lter into the third card edge connector. Connect oscilloscope channel 2 to the lter output. Activate the power supply output. You should now see the signals from the detector and the lter output displayed simultaneously. 7. Play with the cut-o frequency of the low-pass lter by turning the potentiometer on the lter board. Watch how the output signal is changing as you change the cut-o frequency. Choose the best position for the lter potentiometer and save your display to an image le. 8. Use the quick measurement feature again to measure the frequency. Do you see an improvement in its performance? 9. Turn on the spectrum analyzer and display the power spectrum of the lter output. Play with the cut-o frequency of the lter and watch how the lter output is changing in both time and frequency domains. Note your observations. 10. Save the spectrum for two dierent settings of the cut-o frequency. 11. Write a paragraph explaining the function of the lter in this application. Consider both time and frequency domains in your paragraph.

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Experiment 8 Transmission and Reception of RF Signals

In this experiment, we shall set up our own radio station, broadcast music and construct an AM radio to receive the transmitted signals.

8.1

AM Signal in Time and Frequency Domains

In this part of the experiment, we shall learn how to use the function generator to generate an AM signal. We shall rst consider signal frequencies, which are much lower than those used in radio frequency communications. This will allow us to display the carrier and its envelope nicely. Preparation: Follow the instructions given below to generate the AM signal: Connect the function generator to the oscilloscope channel 1 and set it to generate a 50 kHz sinusoid with a peak-to-peak voltage of 1 V. Now, we shall choose AM as our modulation scheme and generate a sinusoidal waveform as the modulating signal. Press SHIFT, then press AM. The AM indicator will show on the lighted display. Press SHIFT, then press Menu. A: MOD MENU is displayed. Press the Down Arrow button, A: AM SHAPE is displayed. Press the Down Arrow button, verify SINE is set (this indicates that the modulating signal is a sinusoid). 83

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Set the function generator to generate the modulating signal internally. Press the Up Arrow button to return to the above menu. Press the Right Arrow button, AM SOURCE is displayed; Choose the internal modulating signal, EXT/INT using the Right Arrow button.Remember how you set this. Press ENTER Set the modulation frequency to 1 kHz: press SHIFT, then press FREQ. Set the frequency to 1 kHz. Note that you can use the Enter Number button to set exact frequencies without using the knob. Set the index of modulation: press SHIFT, then press LEVEL Set the level to 0 Measurements & Questions: 1. In the setup procedure above we have set the modulation index to zero. This means that the carrier sinusoid is not modulated. Optimize the oscilloscope settings to display the signal and measure its amplitude. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your report. 2. Set the modulation index to 0.5 by setting the modulation level to 50 percent. (a) Adjust the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope so that you can see several cycles of the envelope of the AM waveform. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your laboratory report. (b) Measure the maximum and minimum voltage levels of the AM envelope. Calculate the modulation index from m= Verify that it is around 0.5. Vmax Vmin Vmax + Vmin (8.1.1)

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(c) Use the FFT capability of your oscilloscope to display the AM signal in the frequency domain. Set the center frequency to the carrier frequency and the frequency span to 10 kHz. Save the power spectrum to an image le to include in your lab report. (d) Measure the frequency and power (in dBW), of the three major peaks of the spectrum. (e) How many peaks did you expect to see and where did you expect to see them on the frequency axis. Refer to the discussion on the power spectrum of the AM signal. (f) Change the frequency of the modulating signal and observe how the spectrum is changing. Note your observations. (g) Change the frequency of the carrier signal and observe how the spectrum is changing. Note your observations. 3. Repeat the measurements and calculations above for a modulation index between 0.1 and 0.2. 4. Repeat the measurements and calculations above for a modulation index between 0.7 and 0.9. 5. Repeat the measurements and calculations above for a modulation index between 1.0 and 1.2 6. Calculate the percentage of the total power used to transmit the carrier sinusoid for the four modulation indices used in the experiment. Plot this percentage as a function of the modulation index. 7. Write a paragraph on how we should choose the modulating index.

8.2

Using An External Modulating Signal

In this section, we shall use the external modulation input of the the function generator in order to modulate the carrier sinusoid by a music signal generated by the CD player on your computer. Preparation: Continue using the 50 kHz carrier frequency. Set the function generator to External AM modulation. External modulation input is located on the back panel of the function generator.

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Connect the sound output of your personal computer to the external modulation input of the function generator. Set the computer volume to maximum. Optimize your oscilloscope settings to display the music modulated AM signal in both time and frequency domains. Measurements & Questions: 1. Try nding a music segment which spans a wide range of audio frequencies. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your laboratory report. 2. Answer the following questions referring to the oscilloscope display: (a) What are the frequency ranges of the two sidebands? (b) Are the sidebands mirror images of each other?

8.3

Function Generator as a Transmitter

In this part of the experiment, we shall set up our own radio station and broadcast music. The broadcasting range of the station will not exceed 3 ft! However, this will allow us to operate several radio stations within a few feet from each other in the same room! Preparation: Set the carrier frequency on the function generator to a frequency in the AM band (55 - 160 kHz). If there is another radio station within 3 ft, be sure not to use the same carrier frequency. Set the peak-to-peak value of the carrier sinusoid to 1.5 V. This is a very small signal but we will see that it is sucient. If you encounter problems, you might try a larger value later. Connect a BNC-to-Banana adapter to the output of the function generator. Connect a 3 ft banana cable to the positive terminal of the BNC adapter. Leave the ground terminal unconnected. This is your broadcasting antenna.

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Start playing your favorite music. Measurements & Questions: 1. Tune your portable AM radio to your broadcasting station. Adjust the position of your broadcasting antenna to maximize the reception. Record the carrier frequency. 2. Once you start receiving the music from your own station, move away from the transmitter as you listen to the radio. How far can you move away from the transmitter and still recognize the music signal from your station? 3. Ask your partner to change the peak-to-peak value of the carrier signal. (a) Did the strength of the received signal change? (b) Did the delity of the received signal change?

8.4

AM Reception Using an Envelope Detector

In this part of the experiment, we shall attempt to detect the music signal broadcasted by the radio station we set up in the previous section by our own AM radio. The experiment board we shall use in this section is shown in Figure 8.1. The board has two card edge connectors, which we shall refer to as the AM Demodulator and the Audio Amplier. The AM demodulator is shown in Figure 8.2. It consists of three stages including a resonant circuit, an RF amplier, and the envelope detector described below. The Resonant Circuitis made up of an inductor and a capacitor. Its function is to tune the radio to a specic carrier frequency. The inductor is a 10 turn coil connected to the PC board with two screws. If your PC board does not have one, you will have to make your own inductor. The inductor is in parallel with a 20 pF capacitor on the PC board adjacent to the inductor. The resonant frequency of the LC circuit is f= 1 12 15M Hz 2 LC (8.4.1)

The RF amplier increases the strength of the received signal before it is sent to the envelope detector. The envelope detector used to demodulate the

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AM signal is a half-wave rectier with a lter capacitor. The demodulated signal is further amplied by an Audio Amplier, which has a voltage gain of approximately 20. This is the same amplier we used for the audio amplier. You can refer to Figure 8.3 for help with the connections for this part of the experiment. Preparation: Insert the AM demodulator and the audio amplier boards into the appropriate slots provided on the AM Radio box. The component sides of the boards should be facing the antenna jack, to the left. Connect a 3 ft banana cable to the banana binding post labeled antenna on your experiment board. This will be our receiver antenna. Connect the audio speaker to the output of the board. Connect the power supply to the AM Radio board. Set the positive (+) voltage to +15 V, and the negative (-) voltage to -15 V. Since our radio receiver does not have the capability to tune to dierent stations, we shall tune the broadcasting station to our receiver. The resonant frequency of most of the receivers in the laboratory is between 12 MHz and 15 MHz. Set the carrier frequency to 12 MHz on the function generator and change it slowly until you receive the signal from your radio station. Adjust the carrier frequency until the signal is loudest. Measurements & Questions: 1. Adjust the oscilloscope settings in order to display two to three periods of the AM envelope. Save the oscilloscope display to an image le to include in your laboratory report. 2. Record the carrier frequency of your radio station from the function generator display. 3. Change the carrier frequency on the function generator slowly as you listen to the radio. What is the range of carrier frequencies in which you can still recognize the radio signals from your radio station? 4. Repeat the previous step using a shorter banana cable as the antenna of your AM radio.

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Figure 8.1: AM Radio used in this experiment.

Figure 8.2: The AM Demodulator Circuit.

Figure 8.3: Setup used to test the AM Transmitter/Receiver.