Surge Tanks

Surge tanks may be considered essentially as a forebay close to the machine. They are essential part of the conveyance pressure conduit whenever such systems are long. Their primary purpose is the protection of the long pressure tunnel in medium- and high-head plants against high water hammer pressures caused by sudden rejection or acceptance of load. The surge tank converts these fast (water hammer) pressure oscillations into much slower and lower pressure fluctuations due to mass oscillation in the surge chamber. The threefold purposes served by surge tanks may be summarized as
(1) flow stabilization to the turbine, (2) water hammer relief or pressure regulation, and (3) storage function.

The surge chamber (see Fig. ) dividing the pressure tunnel into a short high-pressure penstock downstream and a long low-pressure tunnel upstream thus functions as a reservoir for the absorption or delivery of water to meet the requirements of load changes. It quickly establishes the equilibrium of the flow conditions, which greatly assists the speed regulation of the turbine. The surge tank protects the low-pressure conduit/tunnel system from high internal pressures. Due to the surge tank, the entire pressure conduit on the upstream side of the surge tank can be designed as a low pressure system, while the penstocks between the surge tank and the power house will be designed as conduits which can resist high water hammer pressures.

Surges in surge chambers

Sudden changes in load conditions of the turbine cause mass oscillations in surge tanks which are eventually damped out by the hydraulic friction losses of the conveyance. The amplitude of these oscillations is inversely proportional to the area of the surge tank, and if the area provided were very large dead beats would be set in the tank. Although these conditions would be favorable to achieving the new equilibrium state very quickly, the design would be uneconomical. On the other hand, if too small an area is provided the oscillations (surge tank) become unstable; this is unacceptable. It is therefore essential to choose a section in which the oscillations become stable within a short period of time.

The critical section for stability is given by the equation, known as Thoma criteria;

where At and Lt are the tunnel cross-sectional area and length respectively, and the suffix 0 defines the steady state conditions prior to the load variation (see Fig.). A stable tank area is usually chosen with a safety factor of about 1.5.

Hydraulic Design of Simple Surge Tanks

Consider the simple surge tank installation shown below where the initial flow through the control gate is cut off rapidly

It is desired to find the maximum upsurge in the surge tank and the time at which this upsurge occurs. The equations are derived based on the assumptions that hydraulic losses are negligible in the simple surge tank, the velocity head in the pipe can be neglected, and the rigid water column theory of water hammer is sufficient. This is justified if the pressure rise is small and there is neither appreciable stretching of the pipe nor compressing of the water.

Prior to the gate closure, the mass of water which is moving in the tunnel is Lt At /g. Upon gate closure, the unbalanced force acting on this water column is (i) From Newtons 2nd Law of motion, the deceleration of the water column in the tunnel is (ii)

From the condition of continuity of flow, following complete gate closure, the flow of water into the surge tank is the same as that out of the tunnel, that is; (iii) The simultaneous solution of equations (ii) and (iii) is performed with the following boundary conditions:
o when t = 0, Z = 0, and o dZ/dt = Q0/As.

Then, (iv)
From which (v) And the time required to reach the maximum upsurge is;

(vi)

Where
Z = upsurge in surge tank above the static water level, m; Q0 = water discharge in the pipe before gate closure, m3/s; As = cross-sectional area of surge tank, m2; Lt =length of pipe (low-pressure tunnel) from surge tank to the reservoir (open water surface, m; At = cross sectional area of pipe (tunnel), m2; t = instantaneous valve closure time, sec; T = time required to reach the maximum upsurge in the tank, sec.

The last two equations can be useful for preliminary analysis and in cases where the magnitude of hydraulic losses is small in the pipe extending upstream from the surge tank. In actual installations, frictional effects are not negligible. Jaeger has recommended the use of the following approximate formula for the calculation of upsurge in case where friction is taken into account. Hence, for sudden 100% load rejection, maximum upsurge will be; (vii)

Where
Z = maximum upsurge friction taken into account, m; Zmax = maximum upsurge with negligible friction, m; and maximum downsurge,

(viii)
For 100% load demand, the maximum downsurge;

(ix)

where P0 is given by the following relation (x)

= the friction head loss in the steady state condition, m. The maximum upsurge and down surge should be contained within the surge chamber.

The range of surge levels (amplitudes) must not be too large to minimize the governing difficulties. The maximum upsurge and downsurge are computed for extreme conditions, i.e.
the top level of the surge chamber is governed by the maximum upsurge level when the reservoir level is at its maximum, and the bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the maximum downsurge level when the reservoir is at its lowest drawdown level.

Instantaneous 100% demand conditions result in too large a maximum downsurge, as the normal practice is to allow for 010% of full load demand quickly but, thereafter, the unit is brought to full load only gradually. Maximum downsurges are normally calculated against 75100% of full load and, once again, the bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the reservoir at its lowest drawdown level condition. This condition is invariably more critical than the one governed by the maximum downsurge after a load rejection.

Excessive surges may occur if several quick load variations are imposed on the unit (overlapping surges). These may create additional governing difficulties and the top and bottom levels of the surge chamber may have to be modified to accommodate these excessive surges. In order to achieve conservative designs of the surge chamber it is usual to assume
o a lower conduit friction factor than average for calculating the

maximum upsurge, and

o a higher friction factor for the maximum downsurge.

In all cases due consideration of the effect of ageing of the tunnel must be given. Head losses of all types are assumed to be proportional to V2.

Types of surge tanks

1. Simple surge tanks.
The simple surge tank (Fig. (a)) is of uniform cross-section and is open to the atmosphere, acting as a reservoir. It is directly connected to the penstock so that water flows in and out with small head losses when load variations occur. It is usually large in size with expensive proportions and sluggish in responding to damping surges and unstable. These are very rarely used in modern practice except in installations where load changes are either small or very gradual.

2. Throttled tank.
In the throttled tank (restricted orifice type tank) the restricted entry (Fig. (b)) to the surge tank creates retardation and acceleration conditions of flow in the tunnel upstream of it, thus reducing the storage requirement and minimizing the maximum up and downsurges. This improves the stability damping quality of the surge tank oscillations. Although this type of surge tank is economical (because of its smaller size) compared with the simple tank section, the rapid creation of retarding and accelerating heads complicates the governing mechanism, requiring additional inertia in the turbogenerator units

3. Surge tank with expansion chambers.

This type of surge tank (Fig. (c)) consists of a narrow riser (main surge shaft); attached to it at either end are large expansion chambers. The narrow riser reacts quickly, creating accelerating or decelerating heads, and at the same time the expansion chambers minimize the maximum up- and downsurge levels, thus limiting the range of surge levels (i.e. easier governing). In order to reduce the costs of the structure, spilling arrangements may sometimes be provided either to wastage (if water is not scarce) or back to the penstock.

4. Differential surge tank.

This type (also known as Johnsons differential tank Fig. (d)) consists of an internal narrow riser shaft with an orifice entry to the larger outer shaft at the bottom. As the central riser is narrow it responds instantaneously during the upward phase; at the same time the maximum amplitude is restricted to its top level, any excess water spilling back into the outer chamber. Similarly, during the downward phase water spills into the narrow riser while the riser itself responds quickly to maintaining the desired level. The differential tank with an extended penstock, which acts as a central riser, is shown in Fig. (e).

5. Surge tanks with venturi mounting.

Considering the velocity energy under the surge tank (V2/2g = E0), Thomas critical section can be written as

More economical sections may result by providing a venturi contraction (Fig. (f)) under the surge tank (thus increasing the velocity head, E0.

Examples Example 1. Given: H0 = 152 m, As = 29 m2, Dt = 3.0 m, Lt = 915 m, and Q0 = 23.9 m3/s Required: Zmax and T Solution: At=p/4 x32 = 9p/4 m2

Example 2. In a hydropower project, water is delivered from an impounding reservoir through a low-pressure tunnel and four high-pressure penstocks to the four turbine units. The elevation of the reservoir water level is 1500 m a.m.s.l, and the elevation of the tailwater is 1200 m a.m.s.l. The maximum reservoir storage which can be utilized

continuously for a period of 48 hours is 15 x 106 m3.

The low-pressure tunnel is constructed as follows: Length, Lt = 4 km Diameter, Dt = 8 m Friction factor, f =0.028 The high-pressure penstocks (4 in no.) are constructed as follows: Length of each penstock, Lp = 500 m Diameter of each penstock, Dp = 2.0 m Friction factor, f = 0.016 Turbine efficiency, t = 90% Generator efficiency, g =90%

i.

Determine the maximum power output from the installation;

ii.

If a simple surge tank 6 m in diameter is provided at the end of the low-pressure tunnel, estimate
a)

The maximum upsurge and downsurge in the surge tank for a sudden rejection of one unit, and

b)

The maximum downsurge for a sudden demand of one unit

Solution
The discharge available, Q = 15 x 106/48 x 60 x 60 = 86.8 m3/s

i.

Power output Velocity in tunnel, Therefore, head loss in tunnel,

Discharge per penstock, Qp = 86.8/4 = 21.7 m3/s Velocity in penstock, Vp = 21.7x4/4 = 6.91 m/s

Head loss in penstock,

Gross head at the turbine = 1500 1200 = 300 m Hence, net head, H = 300 2.13 9.73 = 288.14 m Power output per turbine,

Total power output, Ptot = 4 x 55.20 = 220.80 MW The net output of the generator Pnet= 0.90 x 220.80 = 198.72 MW

ii. Surge Tank

Area of surge tank, As = x 62/4 = 28.27 m2 Area of tunnel, At = p x 82/4 = 50.27 m2 Length of tunnel, Lt = 4000 m
a) Sudden rejection of one unit

Therefore, maximum upsurge, Z, will be,

Hence, Z = Zmax x 0.8817 = 11.62 x 0.8817 = 10.25 m Maximum downsurge, Z,

Z(min.) = 11.62 x (- 0.70) = - 8.14 m

b) Maximum downsurge for sudden demand of one unit,

Z(min.) = 11.62 x (-1.023) = -11.9 m

Exercise 1. A power station is fed through a 10,000m long concrete
lined tunnel of 5.0 m diameter operating under a gross head of 200 m. The discharge through the tunnel is 30m3/s. A surge tank of 300 m2area has been provided at the end of the tunnel. Calculate: a) The maximum upsurge in the tank, b) The minimum downsurge in the tank. Assume a friction factor f for the concrete lined tunnel as 0.016.

Penstocks
The penstocks are pipes of large diameter, usually of steel or concrete, used for conveying water from the source (reservoir or forebay) to the power house. They are usually high-pressure pipelines designed to withstand stresses developed because of static and water hammer pressures created by sudden changes in power demands (i.e. valve closures and openings according to power rejection and demand). The provision of such a high-pressure line is very uneconomical if it is too long, in which case it can be divided into two parts,
a long low-pressure conveyance (tunnel) followed by short highpressure pipeline (penstock) close to the turbine unit, separated by a surge chamber which absorbs the water hammer pressure rises and converts them into mass oscillations.

Figure Components of a penstock

Classification of penstock Classification may be based on:

1) The material of fabrication/construction 2) Method of support. 3) Rigidity of connection and support 4) Number of penstocks

Material of fabrication/construction Factors for the choice of material are:

1.
the head to which the penstock is subjected, the topography of the terrain, and the discharge to be handled.

Various materials used are steel, R.C., PVC, wood stave pipes, banded steel, etc. Steel penstock has become the most common type of installation due to simplicity in fabrication, strength and assurance that they can perform in a wide variety of circumstances. The penstocks required to withstand high pressures because of very high heads, are fabricated usually as banded steel pipes. Banded steel pipes are thin-walled but strengthened with the help of hoops of high-strength steel slipped over them.

Very large diameters of precast or cat-in-place R.C. penstocks are impractical. They are usually limited to heads of less than 30 m and working pressures of the order of 5 to 15 kg/cm2 (500 to 1500 kPa). Diameters may vary from 0.3 m to 3.0 m, and in 3 m to 7 m sections.

The following factors have to be considered when deciding which material to use for a particular project:
o o o o o o o o

Required operating pressure, Diameter and friction loss, Weight and ease of installation, Accessibility of site, Cost of the penstock, Design life, Availability, Weather conditions.

2. Method of support
A penstock may be either buried or embedded

underground (or inside dams) or exposed above ground surface & supported on piers. Buried penstocks: are supported on the soil in a trench at a depth of 1 to 1.5m and backfilled. For buried penstocks the general topography of the land should be gently sloping and of loose material.

Burried Penstocks
Advantages Disadvantages

Continuity of support given by the Difficulty of inspection soil provides better structural stability Protection of the pipe against Difficulty of maintenance temperature fluctuations with the help of small overburden Conservation of natural landscape Possibility of sliding on steep slopes Protection from slides, storms & Expensive for large diameter in sabotage rocky soils

Exposed penstocks: Exposed to view and supported on piers or saddles. Advantages Ease of inspection of faults Disadvantages

Direct exposure to weather effect Economy in rocky terrain & large Development of longitudinal diameters stress due to support and anchorage, thus requiring expansion joints Stability is ensured with proper anchorage When the situation warrants, partly buried system, may be adopted that combines the advantages of both system.

3. Rigidity of connection & Support

There are three possible methods of support,
a) Rigid pipe support: Here every support is an anchorage so

that any movement is checked completely. This type is suitable when the temperature condition is moderate.
b) Semi-rigid pipes: Here each member of the pipe line is fixed

at one and leaving the possibility of movement over the other support.
c) Flexible support (Flexible or loose-coupled pipes): Here

expansion joint are introduced between each adjacent section

4)

Number of Penstocks
The number of penstocks used at any particular installation can be single or multiple. The general trend at older power stations was to use as many penstocks between the forebay/surge tank and the powerhouse as the number of units installed. The recent trend is to use a single penstock, unless the size or thickness of the penstock involves manufacturing difficulties. When a single penstock feeds a number of turbines, special sections called manifolds are used at the lower end of the penstock to direct flow to individual units. The design of such sections is an intricate job and has to be analyzed carefully.

The advantages of using a single penstock over the use of multiple penstocks are:
o

The amount of material required to manufacture is less, making it economical. The cost of civil engineering components such as penstock supports and anchors is less.

On the other hand, the use of a single penstock means reduced safety of operation and complete shutdown will become necessary in case of repair. Furthermore, significant losses are usually experienced at the manifolds.

In general, the use of multiple penstocks is preferably employed for low-head plants with short penstocks; whereas for high-head plants requiring long penstocks, provision of a single penstock with manifold at the end usually proves economical. Design Criteria for Penstocks For the purpose of engineering feasibility and preliminary design, there are three major considerations that need engineering attention:
1. 2. 3.

The head loss through the penstock, The safe thickness of the penstock shell (wall), and The economical size of the penstock.

Head Losses The head losses consist of

o Trash rack losses, o Entrance losses, o Friction losses in the pipe, o Bend losses, and o Stop log, gate slot, and transition losses

Thickness of Penstock According to ASME wall thickness may be computed using the following formula

Where
t = wall thickness, cm P = pressure, kg/cm2 R = internal radius, cm S = design stress, kg/cm2 = joint efficiency factor and 0.15 cm is allowance for corrosion.

Under normal flow, the penstock is subjected to only internal hydrostatic pressure. But when turbine gates at the end of penstock are closed suddenly, there is a sudden pressure rise, i.e. water hammer pressure. In this case the following steps are followed to compute the wall thickness.

1. Calculate the pressure wave velocity, a, as;

Where a = pressure wave velocity, m/s =mass density of water, kg/m3 k = bulk modulus of water 2 x 109 N/m2 D = internal diameter of penstock, m E = modulus of elasticity of penstock material = 200 x 109 N/m2 t = thickness of the penstock wall, m

2.

Calculate velocity, surge head (h), and total head (htot)

1.

For steel penstock, if it is subjected to corrosion and welding and rolling defects, the effective thickness is less than the nominal thickness quoted by the manufacturer.

Therefore, to find the effective thickness (teff), Welding divide t by 1.1 Flat-rolled divide by 1,2 Corrosion subtract 1mm for 10 years life Subtract 2mm for 20 years life 4. Calculate factor of safety (F.S.) as follows:

Where teff = effective wall thickness, m S = ultimate tensile strength of penstock material, N/m2 D = diameter of penstock, m 5. If safety factor is less than 3.5, reject the penstock option and repeat the above steps for stronger wall option

Economic Diameter of a Penstock For successful operation, the size of the pipe for a given discharge may vary between wide limits, but usually there is one size that will make for the greater economy in design. The diameter of the penstock is determined from economic consideration and then checked to see that acceptable velocities are not exceeded. The following two methods are used to determine the size/diameter of a penstock
o Empirical equations o Graphical (economic analysis)

Empirical Relations These are over-simplified rule of the thumb relations based on available experience. 1) USBR Formula

V = optimum velocity The formula generally applies up to middle range of heads. 2) Sarkaria developed an empirical approach for determining steel penstock diameter by using data from large hydro projects with heads varying from 57 m to 313 m and power capacities ranging from 154 MW to 730 MW.

He reported that the economical diameter of the penstock is given by the equation

D = Penstock diameter (m) P =rated hp (metric) of the turbines, H = Net head at the end of the penstock, m.

3. Donalds formula

4. Gordon and Penman: for steel penstocks used in

small hydropower installations;

5. Fahlbusch reformulated the objective of the economic

analysis in terms of the amount of the invested capital and the capitalized value of the lost energy, and arrived at the conclusion that the most economical diameter can be computed within an accuracy of about 10% from

where P is the rated capacity of the plant (kW), H is the rated head (m), and D is the diameter (m).

Graphical Method There are various combinations of V and D which would give the same discharge. The frictional loss in the penstock, the penstock pipe. Thus, the larger the diameter for a given discharge, the smaller will be the head losses and greater will be the net head available to the turbines, resulting in a greater power development. also

depends on diameter and in turn determine efficiency on

On the other hand, greater size would mean less velocity and greater capital investment. We should choose, therefore, a size which would give the least annual costs. If the total annual cost of the penstock corresponding to any given diameter is plotted, installation cost results. On the other hand, if the cost (which is the price of energy lost in friction at the prevalent rate of sale of energy) due to the horse power lost is plotted in the same figure, power lost would result.

The total cost would be the sum of the ordinates of the two curves corresponding to any diameter. Then, the total cost curve is plotted in the same figure. The least cost corresponds to the optimum diameter of the penstock.

Penstock Joints
Penstock pipes are generally supplied in standard lengths, and have to be joined together on site. There are many ways of doing this, and the following factors should be considered when choosing the best jointing system for a particular scheme.
o Relative costs o Ease of installation o Suitability for chosen pipe material o Degree of joint flexibility

Methods of pipe jointing fall roughly into four categories:

o Flanged joints o Spigot and socket joints o Mechanical joints o Welded joints

Flanged Joints Flanges are fitted to each end of individual pipes during manufacture, and each flange is then bolted to the next during installation as shown in Figure below

A gasket or other packing material is necessary between each flange of a pair. Flange jointed pipes are easy to install, but flanges can add to the cost of the pipe. Flanged joints do not allow any flexibility. They are generally used to join steel pipes, and occasionally ductile iron pipes.

Spigot and Socket Joints: are made by either fitting a

collar to, or increasing the diameter during manufacture of, one end of each pipe such that the internal diameter of the collar or increased internal diameter of the pipe is the same as the external diameter of the pipe.

The plain end of each pipe can thus be pushed into the collar or socket in the next as shown in Figure below. A good seal is required between each pipe section, and this is achieved by either providing a rubber seal or special glue called solvent cement, depending up on the material of which the pipes are made. Spigot and socket joints are generally used to join ductile steel, PVC, and concrete pipes.

Mechanical Joints

Mechanical joints are rarely used on penstocks because of their cost.

One important application of it is for joining pipes of different material or where a slight deflection in the penstock is required that does not warrant installing a bend.

Welded Joints Welded joints are used on penstocks made of steel. Steel pipes are brought to the site in standard lengths, and then welded together on site. One advantage of welding on site is that changes in the direction of the pipe can be accommodated without preparation of a special bend section. It is relatively cheap method, but has the drawback of needing skilled site personnel.

Expansion Joints A penstock, specially exposed ones, will change in length depending on temperature fluctuations. If it is fixed the thermal expansion forces are substantial. It is possible to relieve these forces by incorporating special joints called expansion joints, which allow the pipe to expand and contract freely. For short penstocks, provision of a single expansion joint may be sufficient, but for long penstocks with a multiple anchor blocks expansion joints should be placed below each anchor block. Another alternative to take care of thermal expansion is to take in to account the forces that result from it in designing anchors.

Penstock Supports and Anchors Slide blocks, anchors, and thrust blocks all serve the same basic function: to constrain movement of the penstock. Different terms are used with these structures simply to indicate which specific function they serve (see figure) Slide Blocks A slide block, also called supporting pier, carries the weight of pipe and water, and restrains the pipe from upward and sideway movements, but allows it to move longitudinally. In most cases the spacing between slide blocks are assumed equal to the length of each pipe.

If the penstock is buried, slide blocks are unnecessary; rather instead the pipe is laid in a trench on a bed of sand or gravel of consistent quality, with no big stones which could cut into the pipe or cause stress concentrations on the pipe wall. Forces that act on slide blocks Weight of the pipe and enclosed water: As slide blocks do not resist longitudinal forces, only the component of the weight perpendicular to the pipe will be considered. Friction forces on the blocks: This is due to the longitudinal movement of the pipe over the blocks caused by thermal expansion and contraction. Weight of the block

Figure Forces on slide block

Anchor Blocks An anchor block consists of a mass of reinforced concrete keyed to the penstock so that the penstock cannot move in any way relative to the block. It is designed to withstand any load the penstock may exert on it. Anchors are often used at bends (horizontal and vertical) and before entrance to the powerhouse. They can also be used along long straight sections of penstock, each one next to expansion joint.

Because an anchor is keyed to the penstock pipe and is also frequently located at a bend in the pipe, more forces act on an anchor than on a slide block. The major forces which act on anchor blocks are the following:
Weight of the pipe and enclosed water Hydrostatic force on a bend Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor and expansion joint Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not incorporated The weight of the anchor block itself

Thrust Blocks These are a special form of anchor whose sole purpose is to transmit forces primarily caused by hydrostatic pressures at horizontal bends along a buried penstock to undisturbed soil which provides the reaction force. However, if the bend is vertical, an anchor block is still used if the back filled soil is not able to resist this force.

Penstock Valves Valves are usually installed at two places in a penstock. One valve is provided at the upstream end of the penstock, i.e., at the forebay or immediately after the surge tank, and is called penstock inlet valve, while the second is provided at the downstream end of the conduit, immediately ahead of the turbine, and is named as turbine inlet valve. The upper valve is sometimes replaced by a gate. The main purpose of penstock inlet valve is for dewatering of the penstock in case maintenance of the penstock is required. But, it can be omitted for short penstocks where the closure of the power canal or power tunnel is possible from the intake.

The main purpose of turbine inlet valve is to close the penstock while the turbine is inoperative. It can also act as an emergency shut-off device. This valve cannot be omitted except under special case where the penstock supplies a single unit having installed the penstock inlet valve. The number of turbine inlet valves required at a power station is governed by the number of turbine units installed, but not by the number of penstocks, as a single penstock can serve a number of units through a manifold at the end.

There are various types of valves for use in hydropower installations. The most frequently applied include:
o Butterfly valves o Spherical valves o Needle valves o etc

The type to be applied should be determined individually for each case after considering the various factors involved.

Power House
The power house structure can be divided in two sections,
o a substructure supporting the hydraulic and electrical

equipment, and o a superstructure housing the equipment. The substructure is usually a concrete block with all the necessary waterways formed within it. The scroll case and draft tube are usually cast integrally (especially in large low-head plants) with the substructure with steel linings. The superstructure usually houses the generating units and exciters, the switch board and operating room.

Vertical-axis units (whose turbines are placed just below the floor level) generally require less floor space than those mounted on horizontal axes. The cost of the superstructure can be reduced considerably by housing individual generators only (outdoor power house), although it has the disadvantage that maintenance works have to be restricted to good weather conditions only. Under certain topographic conditions, particularly when the power plant is situated in narrow canyons with no convenient site for a conventional type of power house, this may be located underground.

It is essential to equip a power house with a crane to lift and move equipment for installation and maintenance purposes. Travelling cranes spanning the width of the building and capable of traversing its entire length is normally used. The crane rail elevation depends on the maximum clearance required when the crane is in operation which, in turn, determines the overall height of the

superstructure.

Section through a power station

Tail Race
The tail race is the waterway into which the water from the turbine units is discharged (through draft tubes if reaction-type units are used). It may be very short and if the power house is close to the stream the outflow may be discharged directly into it. On the other hand, if the power house is situated at a distance from the stream the tail race may be of considerable length. Proper tail race design ensures, especially in low-head plants, that more of the plant gross head is available for power development.

The tail race in the vicinity of the draft tube exit (head of tail race) must be properly lined, as it may otherwise degrade and cause lowering of the tailwater elevation of scouring of the channel bottom. Should this be allowed to progress the designed turbine setting level would alter, thus causing reduced efficiency of the turbine (cavitation in the turbine runner), and remedial measures (artificial raising of the water level) would have to be taken. The tail race channel may sometimes aggrade, in which case the gross head at the plant decreases, with a resulting reduction in power output.

This situation may arise if the main spillway outflow is close to the tail race without an adequate separating wall. Gates, with an appropriate hoisting mechanism, must be provided at the draft tube outlet (between the piers and tail race) to isolate the draft tube for maintenance works. The tail race of the underground power house is invariably a horizontal tunnel into which the turbine units discharge the water. Such tunnel flow could sometimes take place under pressure