MONEY, TRAINS,

AND GUILLOTINES
ART AND REVOLUTION IN 1960S JAPAN

William Marotti
ASIA-­PACIFIC:­CULTURE,­POLITICS,­AND­SOCIETY

Editors: Rey Chow, Michael Dutton, H. D. Harootunian, and Rosalind C. Morris

Money, Trains,
­

and
­ GuilloTines
arT and revoluTion in 1960s Japan

william marotti
Duke­universit y­Press  Durham and London 2013
©­2013­Duke­University­Press
All­rights­reserved
Printed­in­the­United­States­of­
America­on­acid-­free­paper­♾
Designed­by­Amy­Ruth­Buchanan
Typeset­in­Chaparral­Pro­by­­
Tseng­Information­Systems,­Inc.
Library­of­Congress­Cataloging-­in-­
Publication­Data­appear­on­the­last­
printed­page­of­this­book.
Duke­University­Press­gratefully­
acknowledges­the­ucla­Paul­I.­and­
Hisako­Terasaki­Center­for­Japanese­­
Studies,­the­ucla­Division­of­Social­
Sciences,­and­the­ucla­Department­of­
History,­which­provided­funds­toward­­
the­publication­of­this­book.
Duke­University­Press­gratefully­
acknowledges­the­support­of­the­­
Association­for­Asian­Studies,­which­
provided­funds­toward­the­publication­­
of­this­book.
For my parents
Contents

Color plates appear after page 138

Acknowledgments ix  Chronology of Select Events xiii

Introduction 1

part i
Art against the Police:­Akasegawa­Genpei’s­1,000-Yen­
Prints,­the­State,­and­the­Borders­of­the­Everyday 9

1.­The­Vision­of­the­Police 15
2.­The­Occupation,­the­New­Emperor­System,­and­the­Figure­of­Japan 37
3.­The­Process­of­Art 74
part ii
Artistic Practice Finds Its Object:­
The­Avant-Garde­and­the­Yomiuri Indépendant 111

4.­The­Yomiuri Indépendant:­Making­and­Displacing­History 117
5.­The­Yomiuri Anpan 152

part iii
Theorizing Art and Revolution 201

6.­Beyond­the­Guillotine:­Speaking­of­Art / Art­Speaking 207
7.­Naming­the­Real 245
8.­The­Moment­of­the­Avant-Garde 284

Epilogue 317

Notes 319  Select Bibliography 393  Index 405
 ACknowledgments

This­book­was­a­long­time­in­coming:­it­began­with­a­paper­in­1993­after­a­
chance­encounter­in­the­University­of­Chicago­library­stacks,­building­even-
tually­ into­ a­ doctoral­ dissertation,­ and­ then­ assumed­ its­ final­ form­ after­
additional­years­of­revision­and­research.
­ Along­the­way­I­have­benefited­from­the­generosity­of­so­many­people­
over­so­many­years­that­I­begin­these­acknowledgments­with­a­profound­
intuition­of­its­ultimate­inadequacy.­I­have­incurred­any­number­of­debts­in­
writing­this­work.­Not­obligations,­but­rather­responsibilities,­for­which­this­
work,­and­these­insufficiently­brief­words,­are­but­a­small­gesture­toward­
their­fulfillment.­I­wish­to­acknowledge­my­deep­appreciation­for­the­many­
people­who­so­generously­gave­of­their­time­and­support­in­bringing­this­
book­to­fruition.­Their­inclusion­in­the­following­is­an­insufficient­gauge­of­
my­gratitude.
­ I­ would­ first­ like­ to­ thank­ the­ many­ artists,­ critics,­ and­ experts­ who­
granted­access­to­private­collections,­who­extensively­gave­of­their­time­and­
opinions,­and­who­patiently­answered­my­endless­questions.­In­the­process,­
 and­with­gratifying­frequency,­moments­of­unexpected­and­unforeseeable­
x dialogue­ arose,­ sparks­ arising­ from­ the­ experiences­ of­ events­ some­ four­
decades­or­more­ago.­My­immense­gratitude­to­Akasegawa­Genpei,­Naka-
acknowleDgments

nishi­Natsuyuki,­Tone­Yasunao,­Imaizumi­Yoshihiko,­Shinohara­Ushio,­Katō­
Yoshihiro,­ Yoshimura­ Masunobu,­ Toyoshima­ Sōroku,­ Kudō­ Hiroko,­ Ma-
suzawa­Kinpei,­Yoshino­Tatsumi,­Yamada­Satoshi,­Ishiguro­Kenji,­Yo­shida­
Yoshie,­ Hirata­ Minoru,­ Takeda­ Atsushi,­ Jacqueline­ Paul,­ Hashimoto­ To-
shiko,­Uehara­Seiichirō,­Kominami­Yūichirō,­Murai­Hidemi,­Mikami­Kan,­
Kara­Jurō­and­the­members­of­Karagumi,­Ōno­Kazuo,­Ōno­Yoshito,­Maro­
Akaji,­Satō­Makoto,­Saitō­Ren,­Shinfune­Yoko,­Motofuji­Akiko,­Sasame­Hiro-
yuki,­Kuniyoshi­Kazuko,­Oikawa­Hironobu,­and­Ishii­Tatsurō.­At­this­time­
I­would­also­like­to­acknowledge­that­by­convention,­and­with­ambiguity,­
Japanese­ names­ are­ given­ in­ Japanese­ order­ (surname­ first­ then­ given­
name)­for­those­individuals­working­and/or­writing­primarily­in­Japanese,­
even­if­their­residence­is­outside­of­Japan.
­ I­would­like­to­extend­especially­warm­thanks­to­the­many­friends­and­
colleagues­ whose­ kindness,­ criticisms,­ and­ forbearance­ have­ aided­ the­
work­ in­ manifold­ ways­ over­ the­ years:­ Ikeda­ Koichi­ and­ family,­ Igarashi­
Akio,­Ochi­Toshio­and­Shikimura­Yoshiko,­Uchino­Tadashi,­Umemori­Nao-
yuki,­Umemori­Junko,­Kuroda­Raiji­(KuroDalaiJee),­Fujiyama­Naoki,­Mori-
yama­Naoto,­R.­Jeff­Carlisle,­Mary­Coffey,­Chris­Connery,­Alan­Cummings,­
Peter­ Eckersall,­ Daniel­ Foote,­ Sean­ Gilsdorf,­ Bernard­ Green,­ Gail­ Her-
shatter,­Heather­Hindman,­Tom­Lamarre,­Alexandra­Munroe,­Bill­Mihalo-
polis,­Michael­Molasky,­Chris­Nelson,­Rob­Oppenheim,­Lawrence­Repeta,­
Wes­ Sasaki-­Uemura,­ Amanda­ Seaman,­ Robert­ Sukle,­ Stefan­ Tanaka,­ Bert­
Winther-­Tamaki,­Tomii­Reiko,­and­Igarashi­Yoshikuni.
­ I­would­add­to­this­list­a­special­mention­to­my­colleagues­at­ucla:­in­
particular,­ Herman­ Ooms,­ Fred­ Notehelfer,­ Miriam­ Silverberg,­ Ra’anan­
Boustan,­Andrea­Goldman,­and­Peter­Stacey.­I­benefited­from­the­aid­and­
tolerance­of­a­number­of­graduate­and­undergraduate­assistants,­including­
Nobuko­Anan,­Emily­Anderson,­Tanya­Barnett,­Paige­Holt,­Lita­Martinez,­
Kelly­McCormick,­Alice­Phan,­Kevin­Richardson,­Ken­Shima,­Sarah­Walsh,­
and­ Justin­ Jack­ Wilson.­ Also,­ a­ particular­ thanks­ to­ our­ thriving­ gradu-
ate­ cohort­ of­ recent­ years,­ who­ have­ encountered­ bits­ of­ the­ manuscript­
in­a­variety­of­forms;­and­beyond­ucla,­to­Miriam­Wattles,­Bert­Winther-­
Tamaki­(again),­Mimi­Long,­Greg­Levine,­Noriko­Aso,­and­the­many­mem-
bers­of­the­Japanese­Arts­and­Globalizations­research­group,­who­helped­
foster­ an­ interdisciplinary­ discussion­ space­ that­ I­ am­ happy­ to­ continue­
from­its­new­ucla­base.
­ I­ owe­ much­ to­ my­ mentors­ and­ colleagues­ at­ Chicago.­ In­ addition­ to­
fostering­a­special­intellectual­space,­my­mentors­Harry­Harootunian­and­ xi
Tetsuo­Najita­supported­my­explorations­in­this­unexpected­topic.­The­late­

acknowleDgments
William­Sibley­was­a­source­of­encouragement,­and­a­model­for­sensitivity­
to­language­and­translation.­Moishe­Postone’s­scholarship,­critical­theory­
courses,­and­workshops­encouraged­and­sharpened­analytical­precision.­To­
this­I­must­also­add­thanks­to­William­Sewell­and­the­other­members­of­Chi-
cago’s­Social­Theory­Workshop,­to­Norma­Field,­Nōtō­Hiroyoshi,­and­Okui-
zumi­Eizaburō;­to­the­members­of­my­extended­graduate­cohort­at­Chicago;­
at­nyu,­to­Marilyn­Young,­Tom­Bender,­Rebecca­Karl,­Ellen­Schrecker,­Csaba­
Békés,­Mario­Del­Pero,­Phillip­Deery,­and­the­faculty­and­fellows­of­the­Inter-
national­Center­for­Advanced­Studies­(Project­on­the­Cold­War);­at­Colum-
bia,­to­Carol­Gluck,­Kim­Brandt,­and­the­fellows­of­the­Expanding­East­Asian­
Studies­(ExEAS)­program;­and­to­my­colleagues­and­reading­group­members­
at­Tokyo­University.
­ I­would­like­to­thank­the­generosity­and­expertise­of­Kubota­Maho,­Shi-
raishi­Masami,­and­scai­the­bathhouse;­the­inimitable­Yamada­Satoshi­
and­the­Nagoya­City­Art­Museum;­the­staff­at­the­National­Research­Insti-
tute­for­Cultural­Properties­(Tōbunken);­Fujii­Aki­and­the­Tokyo­Contem-
porary­Art­Museum­(MoT);­the­archivists­at­nacP;­Toshie­Marra­and­the­
librarians­at­ucla;­Nagasaki­Yumi,­Nagasaki­Yukiko,­and­Gallery­58;­Doryun­
Chong,­Gwen­Farrelly,­MoMA,­and­the­Walker­Art­Museum;­The­Yomiuri­
News­Photography­Center;­the­Wayne­State­University­Walter­P.­Reuther­
Library;­The­Asahi­Shinbun;­and­The­Mainichi­Shinbun.
­ My­effusive­thanks­as­well­to­my­editors,­Reynolds­Smith,­Ken­Wissoker,­
and­Jessica­Ryan;­the­Duke­University­Press­staff;­and­the­anonymous­first­
reviewer­of­the­book.
­ This­work­would­not­have­been­possible­without­the­support­of­the­Japan­
Foundation,­ the­ Japan­ Arts­ Foundation,­ the­ Paul­ I.­ and­ Hisako­ Terasaki­
Center­for­Japanese­Studies­at­ucla,­the­ucla­Department­of­History,­and­
the­ucla­Social­Sciences­Division.
­ My­father,­Arthur­Marotti­(of­Wayne­State­University­and­the­grammar­
police),­ has­ been­ a­ critic­ and­ confidant­ throughout­ the­ long­ process.­ My­
mother,­Alice­Marotti,­contributed­her­eagle­eye­(from­birding)­to­the­final­
proofreading.
­ Most­ important,­ I’d­ like­ to­ thank­ my­ lovely­ perpetual­ editor,­ partner,­
and­teammate,­Judy,­who­has­read­more­versions­of­this­work­than­anyone­
should­ever­have­to.­And­much­love­to­my­children,­Alex­and­Gabriel.
What is deadly about the interpretation of art, moreover,
even philosophically responsible interpretation, is that
in the process of conceptualization it is forced to ex-
press what is strange and surprising in terms of what
is already familiar and thereby to explain away the only
thing that would need explanation.
—Theodor W. adorno, “Looking Back on
Surrealism”

Everyday life, policed and mystified by every means, is

a sort of reservation for good natives who keep modern
society running without understanding it.
—Guy debord, “Perspectives for Conscious
Alterations in Everyday Life”

The basic substance of art has become the protracted

discourse in words and material, echoed back and forth
from artist to artist, work to work, art movement to art
movement, on all aspects of contemporary civilization
and of the place of creation and of the individual in it. . . .
In a word, art has become the study and practice of cul-
ture in its active day-to-day life.
—harold rosenberG, “Educating Artists”
 IntroduCtIon

Artists are incorrigible. If it isn’t magnificently splendid, we don’t like it. According to
my plan, that thing would have been at least five meters high; it would have had to be
tempered glass, as lovely as the Crystal Palace. Moreover, at the very moment of its
operation it would fragment into splinters. . . . But I was ill, weak, and with no status
commanding that kind of money. It was rather like an ill person’s delusion. There was
no way I could make some tempered glass thing five meters high and two meters in
length. And as far as fooling a glass shop into thinking I was rich, there was no way
that anyone was going to buy it, since I’d be requesting illegal delivery to the [Imperial]
plaza. I was racking my brains over this. . . . There was nothing I could do, alas, so the
next day, the night on the eve of emperor’s birthday, I sat down in a daze at the moat by
Nijūbashi. Mercury lights dimly lit the fog. Right-wing students roved about, looking to
be the first arrivals for the celebratory palace visit. I was utterly exhausted. Aimlessly
casting my eyes over the students, I noticed that in the darkness, their outfits stood
out like black mourning garments.
2 The arTisT, criTic, and ediTor iMaizuMi yoshihiko Thus­
recorded­his­dejected­visit­to­the­Imperial­Palace­on­the­night­of­April­28,­
introDuction

1961,­mourning­his­inability­to­install­a­giant­glass­guillotine­in­the­adjacent­
Outer­Garden­(Kōkyo-­gaien).­His­dream­reenvisioned­the­classic­anarchist­
direct­action­of­regicide­in­the­form­of­a­fantastic­artwork­adequate­to­the­
epochal­task­of­executing­the­now­symbolic­emperor—a­symbolic­execution,­
in­fact,­that­might­sever­the­supracorporeal­connections­of­the­emperor­sys-
tem­after­the­Second­World­War.1
­ Less­ than­ two­ years­ later,­ the­ artist­ Akasegawa­ Genpei­ would­ embark­
upon­a­more­effective­attack­on­symbolic­authority,­with­his­monochrome,­
single-­sided­photomechanical­reproductions­of­the­b-­series­1,000-­yen­note.­
The­work­would­arise­amid­enthusiastic­discussions­of­the­possibility­of­di-
rect­action­through­art—the­possibility­that­practices­emerging­from­art­
might­contribute­to­or­achieve­revolutionary­results.­Discovered­in­a­police­
surveillance­of­a­Waseda­University­student­group,­the­League­of­Criminals,­
Akasegawa’s­works­would­land­him­in­Tokyo­District­Courtroom­701­in­1966,­
a­venue­for­prosecutions­of­corrupt­prime­ministers,­Red­Army­members,­
and­the­like.­He­was­prosecuted­under­an­1895­statute­against­“currency­imi-
tation”­(mozō),­and­his­conviction­in­1967­relied­on­obscenity-­related­case­
law­allowing­the­state­to­freely­criminalize­expression.­Appeals­to­the­High­
and­Supreme­Courts­affirmed­the­lower­court’s­ruling­and­the­state’s­duty­to­
interpret—and­correct—“commonly­held­social­ideas,”­shakai tsūnen,­in­the­
interest­of­social­hygiene.
­ The­gap­between­artists’­investigations,­and­dreams­of­revolution,­and­
the­state’s­policing­of­art­and­thought,­reveals­the­politics­of­culture­as­con-
frontation.­Such­conflicts­provide­the­opportunity­to­understand­commonly­
separated­phenomena,­institutions,­and­experiences­at­a­different­level­of­
analysis,­viewing­them­through­their­complex­interrelations­as­revealed­in­
the­events,­without­reducing­them­to­this­dimension­alone­or­to­anticipa-
tions­of­events­to­come.­In­this­I­follow­Kristin­Ross’s­observation­that­to­re-
inscribe­the­activism­of­the­1960s­into­conventional­sociological­categories­
is­to­elide­the­very­politics­of­that­activism,­which­specifically­targeted­the­
maintenance­of­those­separations.2
­ This­book­is­an­investigation­of­the­politics­of­culture­and­the­everyday­
in­postwar­Japan,­viewed­through­an­analysis­centered­on­transformations­
in­avant-­garde­artistic­production­and­performance.­Around­1960,­revolu-
tionary­forms­of­activism­and­critique­emerged­to­challenge­official­forms­
of­politics­and­daily­life.­In­Japan,­despite­massive­strikes­and­widespread­
protest,­the­ruling­party­used­a­Diet­majority­and­riot­police­to­renew­the­
U.S.-­Japan­Security­Treaty.­After­this­display­of­force,­the­ruling­party­sought­ 3
a­new­legitimacy­and­a­means­to­assuage­and­co-­opt­the­defeated­opposition­

introDuction
by­promoting­a­depoliticized­everyday­world­of­high­growth­and­consump-
tion­and­a­dehistoricized­national­image­in­preparation­for­the­Tokyo­Olym-
pics­in­1964.
­ Among­those­activists­who­emerged­to­contest­this­new­politics,­a­diverse­
group­ of­ young­ artists­ worked­ to­ repoliticize­ daily­ life­ through­ interven-
tionist­art­practices.­Their­critical­focus­and­organizational­strategies­antici-
pated­many­of­the­more­commonly­known­practices­of­activists­in­the­late­
1960s,­both­in­Japan­and­around­the­globe.­At­the­same­time,­their­practices­
appear­to­have­arisen­out­of­a­particular­local,­playful­art­practice­that­en-
gaged­with­the­takeoff­point­for­Japan’s­high-­growth­economics­at­the­level­
of­daily­life.­I­examine­the­advent­of­this­art-­based­activism­in­Japan­in­the­
late­1950s­and­early­1960s­in­its­complex­relation­to­an­internationalized­
art­world,­mass­culture,­domestic­protest­movements,­and­evolving­forms­
of­state­practice­and­surveillance.­I­then­reflect­upon­the­significance­of­this­
history­for­understanding­the­1960s­as­a­global­moment­and­the­particular­
role­of­art­and­performance­in­these­transformations.
­ In­this­book­I­provide­a­broadly­historicized­reading­of­these­artistic­prac-
tices­and­the­processes­within­which­they­are­bound.­Examining­the­path­
to­ these­ moments­ of­ conflict­ reveals­ a­ wider­ politics­ of­ culture­ in­ Japan­
after­ the­ Second­ World­ War,­ embedded­ in­ a­ larger­ set­ of­ social­ practices­
and­political­confrontations.­Such­complexities­were­recognized­by­the­par-
ticipants­in­the­events,­who—in­the­paradigmatic­activist­experience­dur-
ing­the­global­moment­of­the­1960s—found­their­daily­lives­bound­up­with­
issues­of­political­protest­and­violence,­law­and­the­Constitution,­state­au-
thority­and­legitimacy,­the­cold­war,­American­hegemony,­neoimperialism,­
and­Fordist­capitalism.­Much­like­Henri­Lefebvre­and­the­Situationists,­who­
identified­an­ongoing­“colonization­of­daily­life,”­artists­in­Japan­discovered­
hidden­forms­of­domination­in­the­everyday­world­and­imagined­ways­in­
which­their­own­practices­might­reveal,­or­even­transform,­such­systems­at­
their­point­of­articulation­in­people’s­daily­existence.3­Also­like­the­Situa-
tionists,­ artists­ in­ Japan­ were­ among­ the­ earliest­ to­ identify­ this­ central­
arena­for­criticism­and­struggle­in­the­1960s.4
­ Such­activism­arose­in­its­particular­form­and­time­from­a­remarkable­
confluence­of­circumstances,­hopes,­and­playful­experimentation­vividly­en-
acted­in­a­yearly,­unjuried­art­exhibition­in­Tokyo,­the­Yomiuri Indépendant.­
Described­by­a­participant­as­a­“crucible”­for­artistic­activity­of­a­“white­hot­
 intensity,”­the­exhibition­became­the­center­for­a­freely­experimental­art­
4 that­increasingly­focused­on­the­signs­and­fragments­of­daily­existence­as­it­
transformed­in­the­late­1950s­and­early­1960s,­while­simultaneously­expand-
introDuction

ing­and­exploring­the­potential­of­art­itself.5­A­predilection­for­art­incorpo-
rating­junk­or­transforming­junk­into­increasingly­enigmatic­objets­drew­art-
ists’­attention­to­the­daily­world—through­its­discards—as­a­vast­network­of­
activity,­destruction,­and­proliferation.­While­this­opened­an­immense­and­
little-­explored­arena­for­further­investigation,­play,­and­ultimately­critique,­
its­attractiveness­paralleled­the­contemporaneous,­weighty­investments­by­
the­state­in­promoting­a­depoliticized­everyday­world­as­the­grounding­for­
political­legitimacy­and­as­an­inoculation­against­dissent.­The­stage­was­set­
for­conflict­between­an­insurgent­cultural­production­and­the­defenders­of­
an­official,­quiescent­everyday.
­ The­confrontations­within­which­the­everyday­was­embedded,­however,­
simultaneously­hearkened­back­to­an­earlier­moment­of­conflict­and­politi-
cal­disidentification­during­the­early­years­of­the­Allied­(and­predominantly­
American)­Occupation­of­Japan,­one­that­conditioned­the­later­context­and­
yielded,­as­one­of­its­fraught­products,­the­Yomiuri Indépendant­exhibition.­A­
surge­of­labor­activism­and­peaceful­political­protest­on­the­verge­of­demo-
cratically­transforming­the­political­landscape­was­curtailed­by­Occupation­
authorities,­preserving­an­old­guard­and­permitting­a­reassertion­of­familiar­
forms­of­power­and­authority.­Detailing­these­connections,­I­consider­both­
moments­as­contestations­over­the­very­apportionments­of­speech­and­au-
thority,­the­“order­of­the­visible­and­sayable”­that­Jacques­Rancière­terms­
“the­police.”­This­wider­perspective­provides­the­context­for­examining­the­
politics­of­culture­as­a­venue­for­contestation­between­this­police­and­a­poli-
tics­which,­in­Rancière’s­terminology,­seeks­to­change­these­apportionments­
and­“make­heard­a­discourse­where­once­there­was­only­place­for­noise.”6­It­
also­connects­the­politics­of­the­1960s­to­an­earlier­moment­of­nascent­cold­
war­politics­in­which­the­terrain­of­political­contestation­within­Japan­and­
East­Asia­resolved­in­the­form­of­the­postwar­Japanese­state­and­its­linkage­
to­ an­ American­ strategic­ posture­ yielding­ two­ large­ Asian­ wars.­ Immedi-
ate­strategic­needs­trumped­professed­political­goals­and­gave­shape­to­the­
peculiarly­attenuated­cold­war­definition­of­democracy­and­its­acceptable­
forms.­Ultimately­both­moments—the­Occupation­and­the­1960s—are­con-
nected­by­a­demand­for­equality­and­real,­instead­of­ersatz,­popular­sover-
eignty.
­ Given­that­this­political­contestation­addressed­a­present­marked­by­mul-
tiple­engagements­with­such­historical­legacies­and­conflicts,­I­have­struc-
tured­this­book­to­bring­out­the­many­levels­operant­in­this­historical­con-
juncture.­I­have­thus­foregone­a­more­conventional­chronological­narrative­ 5
in­favor­of­a­thematic­exposition,­in­which­I­make­occasional­horizontal­for-

introDuction
ays­to­the­broader­political­field­and­consider­earlier­historical­moments­at­
length­to­reveal­the­potent­combination­of­conflicting­legacies­and­interests­
within­which­these­historical­actors­moved­and­the­full­range­of­heterologi-
cal­possibilities­with­which­they­engaged.­This­approach,­I­contend,­better­
reflects­the­actuality­of­this­historical­experience­than­that­presented­by­the­
over-­tidy­separations­inherent­in­simple­linear­narration,­since­historical­
actors­themselves­experience­the­past­as­“a­dimension­of­the­present.”7
­ This­ book­ is­ divided­ into­ three­ parts,­ each­ unified­ within­ a­ particular­
analytical­focus.­The­three­chapters­of­part­I,­“Art­against­the­Police:­Aka-
segawa­Genpei’s­1,000-­Yen­Prints,­the­State,­and­the­Borders­of­the­Every-
day,”­explore­the­prosecution­of­the­artist­Akasegawa­for­his­single-­sided,­
monochrome­prints­of­the­1,000-­yen­note.­In­chapter­1,­“The­Vision­of­the­
Police,”­I­illuminate­the­prosecution’s­grounding­in­both­a­late­nineteenth-­
century­ordinance­against­the­“imitation­of­currency”­and­case­law­on­ob-
scenity­that­authorized­“clinical”­state­interventions­irrespective­of­consti-
tutional­guarantees­of­freedom­of­speech­(Article­21).­Both­were­grounded­
in­a­revised­notion­of­extralegal,­imperial­state­authority.­The­negotiated­
origins­of­such­authority­are­the­subject­of­chapter­2,­“The­Occupation,­the­
New­Emperor­System,­and­the­Figure­of­Japan,”­which­examines­the­cen-
trality­of­the­imperial­figure­within­struggles­during­the­Occupation­over­
constitutional­law,­state­power,­and­Realpolitik,­shedding­new­light­on­the­
turning­point­in­the­politics­of­protest­and­democracy­in­mid-­1946.­Chap-
ter­3,­“The­Process­of­Art,”­details­the­specifics­of­Akasegawa’s­confrontation­
with­the­state:­the­confiscations­inflicted­upon­his­critical­art­by­the­judicial­
process­and­his­own­indirect­route­to­investigating­currency­as­an­outpost­
for­hidden­forms­of­domination.­An­inquiry­into­printed­money­as­a­strange­
object,­set­against­ideas­of­artistic­originality­and­mechanical­reproduction,­
soon­expanded­into­a­criticism­that­identified­currency­with­unconscious­
domination­underwritten­by­state­authority­and­based­on­the­imposed­iden-
tification­of­state-­printed­currency­as­“real.”
­ The­two­chapters­of­part­II,­“Artistic­Practice­Finds­Its­Object:­The­Avant-­
Garde­and­the­Yomiuri Indépendant,”­trace­the­crucible­for­Akasegawa’s­and­
others’­critical­art­in­the­yearly­exhibition.­Chapter­4,­“The­Yomiuri Indépen-
dant:­ Making­ and­ Displacing­ History,”­ locates­ the­ exhibition­ within­ two­
critical­moments­for­the­politics­of­culture­and­protest­in­postwar­Japan.­
First­was­its­genesis­in­Occupied­Japan­as­the­product­of­a­key­labor­struggle­
 within­a­newspaper­corporation,­tied­into­a­general­pattern­of­cultural­pro-
6 motion­for­distraction­and­historical­amnesia.­Second,­the­exhibition’s­hey-
day­in­the­late­1950s­and­early­1960s­coincided­with­what­I­term­the­“Monty­
introDuction

Hall­moment”­of­postwar­Japanese­politics,­when­thwarted­demands­for­
democratic­ participation­ were­ traded­ away­ for­ fabulous­ prizes—the­ mo-
ment­when­the­state­took­advantage­of­the­economic­expansion­under­way­
to­position­itself­as­the­beneficent­guarantor­of­welfare­and­economic­pros-
perity.­While­mainstream­protest­was­effectively­disrupted­by­these­tactics,­
a­group­of­artists­associated­with­the­Yomiuri Indépendant­developed­an­ex-
plosive­art­of­objets,­installations,­and­performance—the­subject­of­chap-
ter­5,­“The­Yomiuri Anpan.”­Brought­together­by­the­exhibition,­artists­en-
gaged­in­an­anarchic,­playfully­competitive­art­of­provocation­and­formal­
experimentation.­They­displayed­a­wide­range­of­perspectives,­concerns,­and­
proclivities­but­nonetheless­developed­a­shared­formal­vocabulary­that­in-
creasingly­cast­a­critical­light­upon­the­everyday­world.­This­focus­on­the­
everyday­world,­as­well­as­a­developing­consideration­of­the­relation­of­art­
and­politics­and­the­possibilities­for­action,­brought­them­into­confrontation­
with­museum­officials,­their­sponsor,­and—for­some—the­state.
­ The­three­chapters­of­part­III,­“Theorizing­Art­and­Revolution,”­shift­the­
analysis­to­the­development­of­an­overtly­political­practice­of­artistic­direct­
action­among­a­small­group­of­artists,­through­the­artists’­own­theorizations­
of­their­practices­during­several­key­moments.­Chapter­6,­“Beyond­the­Guil-
lotine:­Speaking­of­Art / Art­Speaking,”­details­a­moment­in­late­1962­to­early­
1963­when­artists­experimented­with­public­agitation­on­trains­and­debated­
a­failed­plan­for­erecting­a­giant­guillotine­in­the­Imperial­Plaza.­Reacting­
to­the­startling­disappearance­of­mass­activism­after­the­Anpo­demonstra-
tions­in­1960,­the­artists­considered­the­prospects­for­artistic­agitation­and­
revolution­and­attempted­to­formulate­a­conceptual­discourse­adequate­to­
reorient­their­transforming­practices­toward­a­form­of­direct­action.­Chap-
ter­7,­“Naming­the­Real,”­examines­Akasegawa’s­reply­to­his­first­police­in-
terrogations­and­a­distorting­newspaper­article­in­his­“Theses­on­‘Capitalist­
Realism’”­of­February­1964.­Declaring­his­own­commitment­to­the­scientific­
observation­ of­ the­ everyday­ world,­ Akasegawa­ articulated­ a­ complex­ cri-
tique­of­the­pseudo-­reality­of­money,­identifying­it­as­an­agent­of­hidden­
forms­of­domination­supported­by­state­authority­and­by­the­policing­of­
commonsense­understandings­of­crime,­of­art,­and­of­currency’s­reality.­The­
chapter­then­identifies­the­origins­of­many­of­these­insights­in­the­practices­
of­Akasegawa­and­his­compatriots­during­the­prior­year,­including­their­for-
mation­of­the­ambiguously­conspiratorial­art­group,­Hi-­Red­Center.­Chap-
ter­8,­“The­Moment­of­the­Avant-­Garde,”­details­Akasegawa’s­response­to­his­
indictment­on­November­1,­1965:­rejecting­reductive­characterizations­of­his­ 7
act­as­either­conventional­art­or­crime,­he­affirmed­the­potential­of­a­radi-

introDuction
cal­art­to­create­“moments”­disclosing­the­“dictatorial­system­of­‘everyday-
ness,’”­loosening­the­grasp­of­a­naturalized­capitalist­world­of­“real­things,”­
and­allowing­its­transformation­to­become­conceivable.
­ While­readers­are­likely­(and­welcome)­to­make­use­of­separate­sections­
of­the­book,­the­order­and­structure­are­additive,­each­part­contributing­to­
build­ a­ fuller­ understanding­ of­ this­ history.­ Part­ I’s­ introduction­ to­ Aka-
segawa’s­ confrontation­ with­ the­ policing­ operation­ of­ the­ postwar­ state­
unfolds­the­historic­background­to­this­Kafkaesque­court­encounter­in­an­
examination­ of­ the­ state’s­ constitutional­ self-­authorization­ of­ extralegal­
intervention­into­the­everyday­world.­The­retention­of­the­“symbolic­em-
peror”­legitimized­and­enabled­such­actions­(by­a­set­of­political­actors­and­
a­previously­imperial­bureaucracy­surprisingly­little­altered­by­defeat­and­
occupation)­by­maintaining­the­image­of­the­familial,­paternalistic­state,­in­
effect­conflating­the­Meiji­and­postwar­Constitutions.­The­stakes­for­Akase-
gawa’s­intervention­and­the­state’s­suppressive­efforts­are­revealed­to­hinge­
upon­the­mundane,­policed­borders­of­the­conventional­categories­and­prac-
tices­of­the­everyday­world—an­essential­background­for­understanding­the­
artist­and­state­actions­considered­in­the­rest­of­the­book.
­ Part­ II­ focuses­ on­ the­ Yomiuri Indépendant­ exhibitions,­ which­ concen-
trated­and­nurtured­this­political­art,­and­on­the­many­overlapping­routes­
to­engagement­in­its­distinctive­forms­of­play.­Here­too­the­narrative­re-
turns­to­an­earlier­moment,­locating­the­origins­of­the­exhibition­within­an­
Occupation-­era­politics­of­culture­in­which­war­and­postdefeat­labor­sup-
pressions­were­concealed­by­art­sponsorship.­This­history­prefigures­and­was­
directly­ at­ issue­ in­ the­ Anpo­ confrontations­ of­ 1960­ and­ the­ subsequent­
state­tactic­of­using­the­promise­of­an­improving­daily­life­for­both­depoliti-
cization­and­political­legitimacy.­Against­this­background,­part­II­charts­the­
unforeseen­emergence­of­a­critical­artistic­practice­focused­on­this­every-
day­ world,­ locating­ Akasegawa’s­ art­ within­ this­ broader­ productivity­ and­
setting­the­stage­for­part­III’s­examination­of­these­artists’­serial­attempts­
to­theorize­forms­of­direct­action­out­of­their­evolving­practice.­Part­III’s­
detailed­examination­of­the­artists’­own­words­(particularly­those­of­Aka-
segawa­in­the­face­of­increasing­state­intervention)­relies­upon­the­prior­
explications­ of­ state­ practice­ and­ political­ investments­ in­ the­ policing­ of­
the­everyday­world,­while­giving­specificity­to­these­distinctive,­remarkable­
voices­of­­dissent.
 ­ The­critical­art­activism­that­is­the­subject­of­my­study­charted­and­chal-
8 lenged­the­contemporary­transformations­of­the­everyday­world­as­an­arena­
of­unexamined­effects­and­underexplored­political­investments.­By­tracing­
introDuction

the­course­of­this­art­activism,­my­work­analyzes­the­sources,­terms,­and­
objects­of­these­critical­practices­in­their­grasp­of­this­world,­revealing­their­
contestation­of­an­everyday­life­that­displaced­and­undergirded­the­renewal­
of­state­power.­Following­the­seemingly­peripheral­actions­of­this­group­of­
artists­thus­demonstrates­the­power­of­this­kind­of­historical­analysis­not­
only­to­illuminate­the­central­political­issues­and­struggles­of­postwar­Japan­
but­also­to­bring­out­unfamiliar­dimensions­and­interrelations­within­this­
history,­demonstrating­the­concrete­details­of­such­relations­at­the­level­of­
daily­experience­and­consciousness.
­ Artists­ dreaming­ of­ revolution,­ the­ state­ prosecuting­ art­ and­ policing­
thought:­these­are­all­moments­in­which­the­politics­of­culture­emerges­as­
confrontation.
 notes

Introduction

­ 1­ The­ glass­ guillotine­ was­ not­ the­ only­ option­ he­ considered;­ he­ also­ imagined­
some­sort­of­chewing­machine­that­would­potentially­gnash­the­emperor­with­
teeth­composed­of­sets­of­the­classic­pair­of­worker’s­implements,­the­pickaxe­
and­shovel.
­ 2­ Ross,­May ’68 and Its Afterlives.
­ 3­ This­was­part­and­parcel­of­identifying­“everyday­life”­itself­as­an­analytical­and­
critical­category,­that­(in­the­words­of­Guy­Debord)­“everyday­life­is­right­here”­
(“Perspectives­for­Conscious­Alterations­in­Everyday­Life”).­Rob­Shields­has­as-
sociated­Lefebvre’s­concept­of­le quotidien,­“the­everyday,”­with­that­of­the­Sur-
realists.­Shield­distinguishes­Lefebvre’s­concept’s­specific,­critical­reference­to­
an­alienated­and­banal­life—that­is­nonetheless­the­site­potentially­for­authen-
tic­engagement—from­general­references­to­“daily­life”­and­from­critical­but­al-
legedly­nondialectical­conceptions­of­the­latter­by­Debord­(Shields,­Lefebvre, Love
and Struggle,­66–80).­I­use­the­general­terms­throughout­this­study,­however,­
to­render­equivalent­Japanese­terms­and­explore­the­development­of­their­own­
evolving,­critical­content­in­specific­circumstances,­discussions,­and­writings.
 ­ 4­ My­concept­of­the­1960s­as­a­global­moment­includes­events­overlapping­the­de-
320 cade’s­numerical­boundaries—that­is,­a­“long­decade­of­the­sixties.”
­ 5­ Akasegawa,­Ima ya akushon aru nomi!,­3.
notes­to­chaPter­1

­ 6­ Rancière,­Disagreement,­29–30.
­ 7­ Fasolt,­The Limits of History,­16.­On­the­constituent­“heresy”­at­stake­in­demo-
cratic­subjectivation­and­historical­narration,­see­Rancière,­The Names of History,­
88–103.­See­also­Osborne,­The Politics of Time,­on­modernity­itself­as­a­“form­of­
historical­consciousness,­an­abstract­temporal­structure­.­.­.­totalizing­history­
from­the­standpoint­of­an­ever-­vanishing,­ever-­present­present”­(23).

1. The Vision of the Police

­ 1­ Article­60­of­the­Criminal­Code­provides­that­two­or­more­persons­acting­in­con-
cert­in­the­commission­of­a­crime­are­all­to­be­treated­as­perpetrators­of­the­prin-
cipal­offense.
­ 2­ “Kisojō,”­2–3.
­ 3­ Takeuchi,­Matsuo,­and­Hiroshi,­Shin hōritsugaku jiten­1381;­see­also­Nihon­Dai-
jiten­Kankōkai,­Nihon Kokugo Daijiten,­290.
­ 4­ The­gizō­code­provisions­(Title­16,­Articles­148,­150,­152,­153)­all­specifically­re-
quire­that­the­counterfeiting­be­done­for­the­purpose­of­using­the­counterfeits­
as­money.­Wagatsuma­and­Toshiyoshi,­Roppō zensho,­1412.
­ 5­ Umemori,­“Modernization­through­Colonial­Mediations,”­demonstrates­that­in­
the­case­of­police,­ prisons,­ and­ criminal­ statutes,­ many­of­these­ mechanisms­
were­adopted­from­European­colonial­practices­(such­as­those­in­Hong­Kong)­and­
thus­amounted­to­willful­“internal­colonization”­by­the­Meiji­oligarchs.
­ 6­ “The­fundamental­principle­of­the­1889­Constitution­was­the­idea­of­imperial­
sovereignty,­as­stated­in­Article­4:­‘The­emperor­is­the­head­of­the­Empire,­com-
bining­in­himself­the­rights­of­sovereignty.’­In­accordance­with­this­provision,­
the­Constitution­dealt­with­the­executive,­legislative,­and­judicial­branches­of­
government­ as­ if­ they­ were­ three­ aspects­ of­ the­ unitary­ imperial­ sovereign­
power”­(Maki,­Court and Constitution in Japan,­xvi–xvii).
­ 7­ In­Akasegawa’s­language,­“spies”­and­“ex-­spies”­(see­chapter­3).
­ 8­ Ross,­May ’68 and Its Afterlives,­2;­Rancière,­Disagreement.
­ 9­ See­Shihō tōkei nenpō,­1967,­250–51;­Shihō tōkei nenpō,­1968,­362–63.
­ 10­ Sugimoto,­“Bōtō­chinjutsu,”­156.­Other­future­members­of­Hi-­Red­Center­and­
associates­of­Akasegawa­were­connected­to­this­Waseda­University­group,­whose­
principals­included­Hiraoka­Masaaki­and­Miyahara­Yasuharu.­The­name­perhaps­
references­the­secret­society­the­League­of­Outlaws,­a­progenitor­of­the­League­
of­the­Just,­and­the­Communist­League,­for­whom­Marx­drafted­the­Communist
Manifesto.­See­Wheen,­Karl Marx,­98–99,­108–13.
­ 11­ Miyahara,­Akai fūsen arui wa mesu ōkami no yoru,­50.­If­police­had­not­already­
been­aware­of­the­work­for­other­reasons,­the­League’s­book­likely­would­have­
attracted­police­interest­for­its­inclusion­of­a­number­of­conventionally­prohib-
william marotti­is­associate­professor­of­history­at­
the­University­of­California,­Los­Angeles.

Library­of­Congress­Cataloging-in-Publication­Data
Marotti,­William­A.­(William­Arthur)
Money,­trains,­and­guillotines­:­art­and­revolution­in­­
1960s­Japan­/­William­Marotti.
p.­cm.­—­(Asia-Pacific)
Includes­bibliographical­references­and­index.
isbn­978-0-8223-4965-5­(cloth­:­alk.­paper)
isbn­978-0-8223-4980-8­(pbk.­:­alk.­paper)
1.­Arts,­Japanese—20th­century. 2.­Arts—Political­­
aspects—Japan—History—20th­century. 3.­Arts­and­­
society—Japan—History—20th­century. 4.­Avant-garde­­
(Aesthetics)—Japan—History—20th­century. 5.­Politics­­
and­culture—Japan. I.­Title. II.­Series:­Asia-Pacific.
nx584.a1m37­2013
709.52′09046—dc23  2012033715