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Photovoltaic Panel Efficiency and Performance This page describes the major properties of a solar panel which are used to measure solar panel efficiency and solar panel performance. The data for each property is collected in or calculated from our solar panel database. All data in the database are from manufacturers' product datasheets, but we do not guarantee the accuracy.

A photovoltaic panel or a solar panel is an interconnected assembly of solar cells and is the basic component of a photovoltaic system. Photovoltaic panel consists of transparent front side, encapsulated solar cells and backside. It is framed with an aluminum frame, occasionally with a stainless steel or with a plastic frame. The front side material (superstrate) is usually low-iron, tempered glass. Most common backside materials (substrate) are EVA (ethylene-vinyl-acetate) and PVB (polyvinyl-burial). According to the solar cell technology popular photovoltaic panels are classified as monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solar panels, and the last one is also called thin-film panels.

Photovoltaic panel electrical performance depends on environmental conditions such as the temperature, solar irradiance, angle-of-incidence, solar spectral(air mass), and the types of PV cells. Each PV panel is rated under industrial Standard Test Conditions (STC) of solar irradiance of 1,000 W/m with zero angle of incidence, solar spectrum of 1.5 air mass and 25C cell temperature. Electrical characteristics from manufacturers include maximum rated power, open circuit voltage, short circuit current, maximum power voltage, maximum power current, and temperature coefficients.

Maximum Rated Power Pm (Watt): The maximum power output from a PV panel at STC which is usually labeled on the panel nameplate. The actual power output can be estimated by Preal = Pm * S / 1000 * [1 - (Tcell - 25)] Tcell = Tambient + S / 800 * (TNOCT - 20) where S - the solar radiation on the panel surface, Tambient - the ambient temperature, TNOCT - the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature, and - Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient.

Rated Power Tolerance (%): The specified range within which a panel will either overperform or underperform its rated power Pm at STC. Power tolerance can vary greatly, from as much as +10% to -10%. A 200 watt panel with 10% rated power tolerance may produce only 180 Watts or as much as 220 watts out of the box. To ensure expected power output, look for panels with a small negative (or positive only) power tolerance.

Panel Efficiency (%): The ratio of output power to input power from the sunlight, i.e., what percentage of light energy that hits the panel gets converted into electricity. The higher the efficiency value, the more electricity generated in a given space. You must be aware, however, that the solar cell efficiency doesnt equal the panel efficiency. The panel efficiency is usually 1 to 3% lower than the solar cell efficiency due to glass reflection, frame shadowing, higher temperatures etc.

Fill Factor (%): The ratio of actual rated maximum power Pm to the theoretical (not actually obtainable) maximum power (Isc x Voc ). This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar panels. Typical commercial solar panels have a fill factor > 0.70, while grade B solar panels have a fill factor range from 0.4 to 0.7. A higher fill factor solar panel has less losses due to the series and parallel resistances within the cells themselves.

Series Fuse Rating (Amps): Current rating of a series fuse used to protect a panel from overcurrent under fault conditions. Each panel is rated to withstand a certain number of amps. Too many amps flowing through the panel(perhaps backfed amps from paralleled panels or paralleled strings of panels) could damage the panel if its not protected by an overcurrent device rated at specification. Backfeeding from other strings is most likely to exist if one series string of panels stops producing power due to shading or a damaged circuit. Because PV panels are current-limited, there are some cases where series fusing may not be needed. When there is only one panel or string, there is nothing that can backfeed, and no series string fuse is needed. In the case of two series strings, if one string stops producing power and the other string backfeeds through it, no fuse is needed because each panel is designed to handle the current from one string. Some PV systems even allow for three strings or more with no series fuses. This is due to 690.9 Exception B of the NEC and is possible when the series fuse specification is substantially higher than the panels shortcircuit current (Isc). When required, series fuses are located in either a combiner box or in some grid-connected inverters.

Connector Type: Panel output terminal or cable/connector configuration. Most panels come with "plug and play" weatherproofed connectors to reduce installation time in the field. Connectors such as Solarlok (manufactured by Tyco Electronics), and MC and MC4 (manufactured by MultiContact USA) are lockable connectors that require a tool for opening. Because so many PV systems installed today operate at high DC voltages, lockable connectors are being used on panels in accessible locations to prevent untrained persons from "unplugging" the paneles, per 2008 NEC Article 690.33(C). Due to this new code requirement, most PV manufacturers are

updating their connectors to the locking type. Depending on how fast this change is reflected in the supply chain, connectors on a particular panel may be an older version.

Materials Warranty (Years): A limited warranty on panel materials and quality under normal application, installation, use, and service conditions. Material warranties vary from 1 to 10 years. Most manufacturers offer full replacement or free servicing of a defective panel.

Power Warranty (Years): A limited warranty for panel power output based on the minimum peak power rating (STC rating minus power tolerance percentage) of a given panel. The manufacturer guarantees that the panel will provide a certain level of power for a period of time (at least 20 years). Most warranties are structured as a percentage of minimum peak power output within two different time frames: (1) 90% over the first 10 years and (2) 80% for the next 10 years. Panel replacement value provided by most power warranties is generally prorated according to how long the panel has been in the field.

Cell Type: The type of silicon that comprises a specific cell, based on the cell manufacturing process. Each cell type has pros and cons. Monocrystalline PV cells are the most expensive and energy intensive to produce but usually yield the highest efficiencies. Though polycrystalline and ribbon silicon cells are slightly less energy intensive and less expensive to produce, these cells are slightly less efficient than monocrystalline cells. However, because both poly- and ribbon silicon panels leave fewer gaps on the panel surface (due to square or rectangular cell shapes), these panels can often offer about the same power density as monocrystalline modules. Thinfilm panels, such as those made from amorphous silicon cells, are the least expensive to produce and require the least amount of energy and raw materials, but are the least efficient of the cell types. They require about twice as much space to produce the same power as mono-, poly-, or ribbon-silicon panels. Thin-film panels do have better shade tolerance and hightemperature performance but are often more expensive to install because of their lower power density. Sanyos "bifacial" HIT panels are composed of a monocrystalline cell and a thin layer of amorphous silicon material. In addition to generating power from the direct rays of the sun on the panel face, this hybrid panel can produce power from reflected light on its underside, increasing overall panel efficiency.

Cells in Series: Number of individual PV cells wired in series, which determines the panel design voltage. Crystalline PV cells operate at about 0.5V. When cells are wired in series, the voltage of each cell is additive. For example, a panel that has 36 cells in series has a maximum power voltage (Vmp) of about 18V. Why 36? Historically, panels known as 12V were designed to push power into 12V batteries. But to deliver the 12V, they needed to have enough excess voltage (electrical pressure) to compensate for the voltage loss due to high temperature conditions. Panels with 36 ("12V") or 72 ("24V") cells are designed for battery-charging applications.

Panels with other numbers of cells in series are intended for use in grid-tied systems. Due to the increased availability of step-down/MPPT battery charge controllers, grid-tied panels can also be used for battery charging, as long as they stay within the voltage limitations of the charge controller.

Maximum Power Voltage Vmp: The voltage where a panel outputs the maximum power. Gridtied inverters and MPPT charge controllers are built to track maximum power point throughout the day, and Vmp of each panel array, as well as array operating temperatures must be considered when sizing an array to a particular inverter or controller. Series string sizing software programs for grid-tied inverters allow you to input both the high and low temperatures at your installation site, and calculate the correct number of panels in series to maximize system performance.

Maximum Power Current Imp: The maximum amperage where a panel outputs the maximum power. This specification is most commonly used in calculations for PV array disconnect labeling required by NEC Article 690.53(1), as the rated maximum power-point current for the array must be listed. Maximum power current is also used in array and charge controller sizing calculations for battery-based PV systems.

Open-Circuit Voltage Voc: The maximum voltage generated by a PV panel exposed to sunlight with no load connected. All major PV system components (panels, wiring, inverters, charge controllers, etc.) are rated to handle a maximum voltage. Maximum system voltage must be calculated in the design process to ensure all components are designed to handle the highest voltage that may be present. Under certain low-light conditions (dawn/dusk), its possible for a PV system to operate close to open-circuit voltage. PV voltage will increase with decreasing air temperature, so Voc is used in conjunction with historic low temperature data to calculate the absolute highest maximum system voltage. Maximum system voltage must be shown on the PV array disconnect label required by NEC code.

Short-Circuit Current Isc: The maximum amperage generated by a PV panel exposed to sunlight with the output terminals shorted. The PV circuit's wire size and overcurrent protection (fuses and circuit breakers) calculations per NEC Article 690.8 are based on panel short-circuit current. The PV system disconnect(s) must list short-circuit current (per NEC 690.53).

Short-Circuit Current Temperature Coefficient (%/C): The change in panel short-circuit current per degree Celsius at temperatures other than 25C. It is most commonly used to calculate maximum system current (per NEC Article 690.7) for system design and labeling purposes. For example, consider a series string of ten 8A (Isc) panels installed at a site with a

record low of 15C. Given a Isc temperature coefficient 0.04%/C), the decrease in current will be 0.32A, making for an overall maximum system current of 7.68A.

Open-Circuit Voltage Temperature Coefficient (%/C): The change in panel open-circuit voltage at temperatures other than 25C. If given, It is most commonly used to calculate maximum system voltage (per NEC Article 690.7) for system design and labeling purposes. For example, consider a series string of ten 43.6V (Voc) panels installed at a site with a record low of -10C. Given a Voc temperature coefficient of -160mV/C, The voltage per panel will rise 5,600mV (= 160mV x (-10C 25C)), making for an overall maximum system voltage of 492V (= 10 x (5.6V + 43.6V)), which is under the 600VDC limit for PV system equipment.

Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient (%/C): The change in panel output power for temperatures other than 25C. It is used to calculate how much panel power will be lost or gained due to temperature changes. In hot climates, cell temperatures can reach an excess of 70C (158F). Consider a panel maximum power rating of 200W at STC, with a temperature coefficient of -0.5%/C. At 70C, the actual output of this panel would be approximately 155W. Panels with lower power temperature coefficients will fare better in higher-temperature conditions. Thin-film panels have relatively low temperature coefficients which reflects better high-temperature performance.

Nominal Operating Cell Temperature: The temperature of each panel at an irradiance of 800 W/m2 and an ambient air temperature of 20C and wind speed is 1 m/s at a module tilt angle 45C. NOCT is a very critical parameter that is required by various performance, qualification and energy rating standards/methods. It can be used with the maximum power temperature coefficient to get a better real-world estimate of power loss due to temperature increase. The cell temperature of open-rack panels , however, is governed by several external factors such as ambient temperature, irradiance level, wind speed, wind direction, and tilt-angle of the panel in an array. The difference in cell temperature and ambient temperature is dependent on sunlights intensity (W/m2). For example, if a particular panel has an NOCT of 40C and a maximum power temperature coefficient of -0.5%/C, power losses on temperature can be estimated at about 7.5%(=0.5% x (40C 25C)).

Panel certification: Panel certifications are required to get the approval for federal and state rebates in USA. Every Market region has specific sets of standards which must be met by solar panels. Most popular certification standards are IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), IEC 61646 (thin film performance), IEC 61730 ((crystalline modules, safety), IEC 62108(concentrating PV performance), IEC 61701 (salt resistance) ) for Europe UL 1703, UL 8703 (CPV) for USA and Canada CE mark (European Union, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey) TV or VDE certificates indicate the panels have passed the testing of IEC standards, while UL certificate implies the UL 1703 testing IEC standard allows 1000 volt maximum system voltage, while UL allows 600 volt only. The maximal system voltage limits how many panels can be cascaded in one single string. For example, given panels with 40V of Voc, 25 panels can be cascaded in one series string in Europe, but only 15 panels are allowed to do so in USA and Canada. Beside the common certifications, some countries and regions have extra requirements. Some USA states require PTC rating of California CEC, UK requires its MCS certification, while Australia requires panels have to meet Application Class A, or Class C of IEC 61730.

Flash Report: Most manufacturers provide flash reports of their solar panels sold, including every single panel's flash test data. During a flash test, a solar panel is exposed to a short (1 - 30 millisecond), bright (1 watt per M2) flash of xenon light source. The spectrum of the flash light is designed to be close to the spectrum of the sun. The output is collected by a testing computer and the data is compared to a pre-configurated reference solar panel which has its power output calibrated to standard solar irradiation. The results of the flash test are compared to the specifications of the pv module datasheet and are printed somewhere on the pv panel. The flash

testing system is usually re-corrected by the reference panel in certain interval (usually two hours). The data in a flash report includes the pv panel barcode, Pmax, Voc, Isc, Im and Vm. Your supplier should be given these data before you hit final buying trigger or after you sign the purchase contract.

Common Solar Panel Defects: The following defects are common during solar panel quality testing: Scratches on the frame and/or glass Excessive or uneven glue marks on glass or frame Gap between frame and glass due to poor sealing Always lower output than stated in data sheet Always lower fill factor than indirectly stated in data sheet Inconsistant cell colors

Photovoltaic Panel Efficiency and Performance

This page describes the major properties of a solar panel which are used to measure solar panel efficiency and solar panel performance. The data for each property is collected in or calculated from our solar panel database. All data in the database are from manufacturers' product datasheets, but we do not guarantee the accuracy. A photovoltaic panel or a solar panel is an interconnected assembly of solar cells and is the basic component of a photovoltaic system. Photovoltaic panel consists of transparent front side, encapsulated solar cells and backside. It is framed with an aluminum frame, occasionally with a stainless steel or with a plastic frame. The front side material (superstrate) is usually low-iron, tempered glass. Most common backside materials (substrate) are EVA (ethylene-vinyl-acetate) and PVB (polyvinyl-burial). According to the solar cell technology popular photovoltaic panels are classified as monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solar panels, and the last one is also called thin-film panels. Photovoltaic panel electrical performance depends on environmental conditions such as the temperature, solar irradiance, angle-of-incidence, solar spectral(air mass), and the types of PV cells. Each PV panel is rated under industrial Standard Test Conditions (STC) of solar irradiance of 1,000 W/m with zero angle of incidence, solar spectrum of 1.5 air mass and 25C cell temperature. Electrical characteristics from manufacturers include maximum rated power, open circuit voltage, short circuit current, maximum power voltage, maximum power current, and temperature coefficients. Maximum Rated Power Pm (Watt): The maximum power output from a PV panel at STC which is usually labeled on the panel nameplate. The actual power output can be estimated by Preal = Pm * S / 1000 * [1 - (Tcell - 25)] Tcell = Tambient + S / 800 * (TNOCT - 20)

where S - the solar radiation on the panel surface, Tambient - the ambient temperature, TNOCT - the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature, and - Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient. Rated Power Tolerance (%): The specified range within which a panel will either overperform or underperform its rated power Pm at STC. Power tolerance can vary greatly, from as much as +10% to -10%. A 200 watt panel with 10% rated power tolerance may produce only 180 Watts or as much as 220 watts out of the box. To ensure expected power output, look for panels with a small negative (or positive only) power tolerance. Panel Efficiency (%): The ratio of output power to input power from the sunlight, i.e., what percentage of light energy that hits the panel gets converted into electricity. The higher the efficiency value, the more electricity generated in a given space. You must be aware, however, that the solar cell efficiency doesnt equal the panel efficiency. The panel efficiency is usually 1 to 3% lower than the solar cell efficiency due to glass reflection, frame shadowing, higher temperatures etc. Fill Factor (%): The ratio of actual rated maximum power Pm to the theoretical (not actually obtainable) maximum power (Isc x Voc ). This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar panels. Typical commercial solar panels have a fill factor > 0.70, while grade B solar panels have a fill factor range from 0.4 to 0.7. A higher fill factor solar panel has less losses due to the series and parallel resistances within the cells themselves. Series Fuse Rating (Amps): Current rating of a series fuse used to protect a panel from overcurrent under fault conditions. Each panel is rated to withstand a certain number of amps. Too many amps flowing through the panel(perhaps backfed amps from paralleled panels or paralleled strings of panels) could damage the panel if its not protected by an overcurrent device rated at specification. Backfeeding from other strings is most likely to exist if one series string of panels stops producing power due to shading or a damaged circuit. Because PV panels are current-limited, there are some cases where series fusing may not be needed. When there is only one panel or string, there is nothing that can backfeed, and no series string fuse is needed. In the case of two series strings, if one string stops producing power and the other string backfeeds through it, no fuse is needed because each panel is designed to handle the current from one string. Some PV systems even allow for three strings or more with no series fuses. This is due to 690.9 Exception B of the NEC and is possible when the series fuse specification is substantially higher than the panels shortcircuit current (Isc). When required, series fuses are located in either a combiner box or in some grid-connected inverters. Connector Type: Panel output terminal or cable/connector configuration. Most panels come with "plug and play" weatherproofed connectors to reduce installation time in the field. Connectors such as Solarlok (manufactured by Tyco Electronics), and MC and MC4 (manufactured by MultiContact USA) are lockable connectors that require a tool for opening. Because so many PV systems installed today operate at high DC voltages, lockable connectors are being used on panels in accessible locations to prevent untrained persons from "unplugging" the paneles, per 2008 NEC Article 690.33(C). Due to this new code requirement, most PV manufacturers are updating their connectors to the locking type. Depending on how fast this change is reflected in the supply chain, connectors on a particular panel may be an older version. Materials Warranty (Years): A limited warranty on panel materials and quality under normal application, installation, use, and service conditions. Material warranties vary from 1 to 10 years. Most manufacturers offer full replacement or free servicing of a defective panel. Power Warranty (Years): A limited warranty for panel power output based on the minimum peak power rating (STC rating minus power tolerance percentage) of a given panel. The manufacturer guarantees that the panel will provide a certain level of power for a period of time (at least 20 years). Most warranties are structured as a percentage of minimum peak power output within two different time frames: (1) 90% over the first 10 years and (2) 80% for the next 10 years. Panel

replacement value provided by most power warranties is generally prorated according to how long the panel has been in the field. Cell Type: The type of silicon that comprises a specific cell, based on the cell manufacturing process. Each cell type has pros and cons. Monocrystalline PV cells are the most expensive and energy intensive to produce but usually yield the highest efficiencies. Though polycrystalline and ribbon silicon cells are slightly less energy intensive and less expensive to produce, these cells are slightly less efficient than monocrystalline cells. However, because both poly- and ribbon silicon panels leave fewer gaps on the panel surface (due to square or rectangular cell shapes), these panels can often offer about the same power density as monocrystalline modules. Thinfilm panels, such as those made from amorphous silicon cells, are the least expensive to produce and require the least amount of energy and raw materials, but are the least efficient of the cell types. They require about twice as much space to produce the same power as mono-, poly-, or ribbon-silicon panels. Thin-film panels do have better shade tolerance and hightemperature performance but are often more expensive to install because of their lower power density. Sanyos "bifacial" HIT panels are composed of a monocrystalline cell and a thin layer of amorphous silicon material. In addition to generating power from the direct rays of the sun on the panel face, this hybrid panel can produce power from reflected light on its underside, increasing overall panel efficiency. Cells in Series: Number of individual PV cells wired in series, which determines the panel design voltage. Crystalline PV cells operate at about 0.5V. When cells are wired in series, the voltage of each cell is additive. For example, a panel that has 36 cells in series has a maximum power voltage (Vmp) of about 18V. Why 36? Historically, panels known as 12V were designed to push power into 12V batteries. But to deliver the 12V, they needed to have enough excess voltage (electrical pressure) to compensate for the voltage loss due to high temperature conditions. Panels with 36 ("12V") or 72 ("24V") cells are designed for battery-charging applications. Panels with other numbers of cells in series are intended for use in grid-tied systems. Due to the increased availability of step-down/MPPT battery charge controllers, grid-tied panels can also be used for battery charging, as long as they stay within the voltage limitations of the charge controller. Maximum Power Voltage Vmp: The voltage where a panel outputs the maximum power. Gridtied inverters and MPPT charge controllers are built to track maximum power point throughout the day, and Vmp of each panel array, as well as array operating temperatures must be considered when sizing an array to a particular inverter or controller. Series string sizing software programs for grid-tied inverters allow you to input both the high and low temperatures at your installation site, and calculate the correct number of panels in series to maximize system performance. Maximum Power Current Imp: The maximum amperage where a panel outputs the maximum power. This specification is most commonly used in calculations for PV array disconnect labeling required by NEC Article 690.53(1), as the rated maximum power-point current for the array must be listed. Maximum power current is also used in array and charge controller sizing calculations for battery-based PV systems. Open-Circuit Voltage Voc: The maximum voltage generated by a PV panel exposed to sunlight with no load connected. All major PV system components (panels, wiring, inverters, charge controllers, etc.) are rated to handle a maximum voltage. Maximum system voltage must be calculated in the design process to ensure all components are designed to handle the highest voltage that may be present. Under certain low-light conditions (dawn/dusk), its possible for a PV system to operate close to open-circuit voltage. PV voltage will increase with decreasing air temperature, so Voc is used in conjunction with historic low temperature data to calculate the

absolute highest maximum system voltage. Maximum system voltage must be shown on the PV array disconnect label required by NEC code. Short-Circuit Current Isc: The maximum amperage generated by a PV panel exposed to sunlight with the output terminals shorted. The PV circuit's wire size and overcurrent protection (fuses and circuit breakers) calculations per NEC Article 690.8 are based on panel short-circuit current. The PV system disconnect(s) must list short-circuit current (per NEC 690.53). Short-Circuit Current Temperature Coefficient (%/C): The change in panel short-circuit current per degree Celsius at temperatures other than 25C. It is most commonly used to calculate maximum system current (per NEC Article 690.7) for system design and labeling purposes. For example, consider a series string of ten 8A (Isc) panels installed at a site with a record low of 15C. Given a Isc temperature coefficient 0.04%/C), the decrease in current will be 0.32A, making for an overall maximum system current of 7.68A. Open-Circuit Voltage Temperature Coefficient (%/C): The change in panel open-circuit voltage at temperatures other than 25C. If given, It is most commonly used to calculate maximum system voltage (per NEC Article 690.7) for system design and labeling purposes. For example, consider a series string of ten 43.6V (Voc) panels installed at a site with a record low of -10C. Given a Voc temperature coefficient of -160mV/C, The voltage per panel will rise 5,600mV (= 160mV x (-10C 25C)), making for an overall maximum system voltage of 492V (= 10 x (5.6V + 43.6V)), which is under the 600VDC limit for PV system equipment. Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient (%/C): The change in panel output power for temperatures other than 25C. It is used to calculate how much panel power will be lost or gained due to temperature changes. In hot climates, cell temperatures can reach an excess of 70C (158F). Consider a panel maximum power rating of 200W at STC, with a temperature coefficient of -0.5%/C. At 70C, the actual output of this panel would be approximately 155W. Panels with lower power temperature coefficients will fare better in higher-temperature conditions. Thin-film panels have relatively low temperature coefficients which reflects better high-temperature performance. Nominal Operating Cell Temperature: The temperature of each panel at an irradiance of 800 W/m2 and an ambient air temperature of 20C and wind speed is 1 m/s at a module tilt angle 45C. NOCT is a very critical parameter that is required by various performance, qualification and energy rating standards/methods. It can be used with the maximum power temperature coefficient to get a better real-world estimate of power loss due to temperature increase. The cell temperature of open-rack panels , however, is governed by several external factors such as ambient temperature, irradiance level, wind speed, wind direction, and tilt-angle of the panel in an array. The difference in cell temperature and ambient temperature is dependent on sunlights intensity (W/m2). For example, if a particular panel has an NOCT of 40C and a maximum power temperature coefficient of -0.5%/C, power losses on temperature can be estimated at about 7.5%(=0.5% x (40C 25C)). Air mass has an effect on power output. Air mass is the optical path length relative to that at the zenith at sea level. So by definition, the sea-level airmass at the zenith is 1. Airmass increases as the angle between the source and the zenith increases, reaching a value of approximately 38 at the horizon. AM = (cos(z) + 0.5 x (96 - z)-1.6364)-1 x P/Psea-level (P/Psea-level = exp(-0.1184 x h)) where z is the zenith angle of the sun in degree, P is atmospheric pressure, and h is the site altitude in kilometer. Air mass has a much greater effect on the triplejunction amorphous modules than mono or polycrystalline modules. The most informative measure of performance is panel efficiency, or what percentage of light energy that hits the panel gets converted into electricity. You must be aware, however, that the solar cell efficiency doesnt equal the panel efficiency. The panel efficiency is usually 1 to 3% lower than the solar cell efficiency due to glass reflection, frame shadowing, higher temperatures

etc. That is why some manufacturers are more happy to tell you their cell efficiencies instead of panel efficiencies. The second performance measurement is the power tolerance which indicates the rated power range that the manufacturer can guarantee. For example, a -10% lower end tolerance means that the actual peak power could be 10% lower than the plate rated power. The third important performance measure is the temperature coefficients which show how the panel outputs will follow the temperature changes. Three most common temperature coefficients are usually available in panel data sheets, and should be considered as important parameters in design stage of PV systems. Solar panels must withstand heat, cold, rain and hail for many years. Many Crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer warranties that guarantee electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80% Panel certification: Panel certifications are required to get the approval for federal and state rebates in USA. Every Market region has specific sets of standards which must be met by solar panels. Most popular certification standards are

IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), IEC 61646 (thin film performance), IEC 61730 ((crystalline modules, safety), IEC 62108(concentrating PV performance), IEC 61701 (salt resistance) ) for Europe UL 1703, UL 8703 (CPV) for USA and Canada CE mark (European Union, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey) TV or VDE certificates indicate the panels have passed the testing of IEC standards, while UL certificate implies the UL 1703 testing IEC standard allows 1000 volt maximum system voltage, while UL allows 600 volt only. The maximal system voltage limits how many panels can be cascaded in one single string. For example, given panels with 40V of Voc, 25 panels can be cascaded in one series string in Europe, but only 15 panels are allowed to do so in USA and Canada. Beside the common certifications, some countries and regions have extra requirements. Some USA states require PTC rating of California CEC, UK requires its MCS certification, while Australia requires panels have to meet Application Class A, or Class C of IEC 61730.

Flash Report: Most manufacturers provide flash reports of their solar panels sold, including every single panel's flash test data. During a flash test, a solar panel is exposed to a short (1 - 30 millisecond), bright (1 watt per M2) flash of xenon light source. The spectrum of the flash light is designed to be close to the spectrum of the sun. The output is collected by a testing computer and the data is compared to a pre-configurated reference solar panel which has its power output calibrated to standard solar irradiation. The results of the flash test are compared to the specifications of the pv module datasheet and are printed somewhere on the pv panel. The flash testing system is usually re-corrected by the reference panel in certain interval (usually two hours). The data in a flash report includes the pv panel barcode, Pmax, Voc, Isc, Im and Vm. Your supplier should be given these data before you hit final buying trigger or after you sign the purchase contract. Common Solar Panel Defects: The following defects are common during solar panel quality testing:

Scratches on the frame and/or glass Excessive or uneven glue marks on glass or frame Gap between frame and glass due to poor sealing Always lower output than stated in data sheet Always lower fill factor than indirectly stated in data sheet

Inconsistant cell colors Inconsistant cell alignments Undurable panel label printing

Solar Panel Grading: Based on the types and degrees of above defects, solar panel grading comes to play. Grade A normally means a panel has no above defect and is covered by manufacturer's standard warranty, while you may not be able to find "Grade A" in manufacturer's documents at all. Grade B usually means the panel has some "cosmetic imparfections" or "cosmetic blemishes" of the above, but has the "same" electrical output as Grade A. Grade B is rarely covered by manufacturer's standard warranty and is usually traded underneath the market. If the nameplate of your panel has word "Grade x" or the like, you are alerted to check with the manufacturer what it means.

Inconsistant cell alignments Undurable panel label printing

Solar Panel Grading: Based on the types and degrees of above defects, solar panel grading comes to play. Grade A normally means a panel has no above defect and is covered by manufacturer's standard warranty, while you may not be able to find "Grade A" in manufacturer's documents at all. Grade B usually means the panel has some "cosmetic imparfections" or "cosmetic blemishes" of the above, but has the "same" electrical output as Grade A. Grade B is rarely covered by manufacturer's standard warranty and is usually traded underneath the market. If the nameplate of your panel has word "Grade x" or the like, you are alerted to check with the manufacturer what it means.
SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 11, 2012

How to Understand Technical Specs of Solar Panels

Posted by hitman

Solar panels are devices which are used for generating electricity from sun light. Solar panels consist of many individual photo voltaic cells arranged in series. Each cell is able to generate a small amount of voltage in response to the incident sun rays over its surface. Arrays of these individual cells are connected in series to form a single solar panel, which results in the generation of a significant magnitude of voltage in the presence of sunlight. This amazing ability of these devices to convert free and abundant solar energy into electrical power has made it immensely useful in the relevant application. No doubt, solar panels are gaining popularity at a very rapid pace and can be considered as the devices of the future for replacing conventional methods of generating electricity. When it comes to personal usage, solar panels can become a difficult parameter to digest. While selecting solar panels, folks tend to depend entirely on the

manufacturer and the technical personnel, and therefore are unable to take personal decisions with the devices technical specs and quality. In this article well discuss some of the basic technical points related to solar panels which will help us to understand solar panels from the core and use them efficiently. The discussed points are though very basic, provides general yet useful inputs regarding these outstanding devices. As discussed in the above paragraph, solar panels convert direct sunlight incident over their surface into electricity. Since the generated electricity is directly proportional to the striking sunrays, the direction and the intensity of the rays become the main factors affecting the outcomes. Therefore, the voltage magnitude available across solar panel output terminals may vary according to the intensity and the amount of sun light available over its surface, and varies linearly. Typically every solar panel is associated with a particular set of technical and electrical specifications, which defines its functioning and application. The following technical specs can be normally witnessed: Optimal voltage, Optimal current, Maximum voltage, Short circuit current, Maximum wattage, Fuse rating. As a customer, the parameters which would be particularly important are: optimal voltage, optimal current, short circuit current and the fuse rating. Though the installations will be handled by the associated engineer, the user should also be aware regarding the operating terms related to these devices. This would greatly help them to analyze, customize and even troubleshoot some of the common faults accompanied with these devices.

Image Credit - http://cndingwen.en.made-in-china.com/offer/QMsmDPNUHgYy/Sell285W-Polycrystalline-Solar-Panels.html Coming back to the specs, optimal voltage refers to the magnitude of voltage that may be acquired from a solar panel under normal conditions; optimal current is also the magnitude of current thats available from it under the above conditions, that is when the sun light is perpendicular to the surface of the panel with clear skies. Optimal voltage should always be greater than the minimum required voltage for the application. In fact it should greater than twice the required value. This makes sure that even under gloomy conditions the output from the panel might be just enough for the needs or above the minimum requirements. During optimal conditions, the excess voltage from the panel is appropriately tailored by the associated voltage regulator such that only the required magnitude reaches the application; normally this voltage will be used for charging an inverter battery. Maximum voltage can be ignored as it refers to the ability of the panel to produce electricity under maximum artificial forced light conditions, not something related to normal usage.

Short circuit current is the magnitude of current which causes the output of the solar panel reach a zero level when its output leads are joined or shorted, a point at which the panel output indicates a zero voltage and fails to operate. The condition may cause severe deterioration or even a permanent damage to the device. This specification indicates the loading current of the panel which cannot be exceeded above the rated value; typically this value must be kept at around 50% of the specified value. The maximum fuse rating is the amperage of the fuse wire connected in series with the panels output. This rating should be a shade lower to the above short circuit current rating so that the fuse instantly blows-of before the current can exceed and reach the dangerous short circuit conditions. The maximum wattage spec may also be ignored because once the optimal current and voltage are selected appropriately, the wattage which the product of the above two parameters, automatically adjust with the requirements. However todays modern solar voltage regulators and charger associated with solar panels take care of the most critical situations, eliminating short circuit, overload or over voltage situations, safeguarding both the solar panel and the inverter/battery stage which are integrated to the panel for the desired operations. Although the solar panel may be generating just about enough current for your batteries, it may be quite useless once the sun rays stop reaching the surface of the panel. To fight against this issue, solar trackersmechanisms are normally employed with solar panels so that the panels keep generating electrical power at the most efficient rates throughout the day irrespective of the suns position in the sky. This also facilitates the incorporation of relatively smaller sized solar panels because now the optimal voltage can be selected just close to the actual requirement and does not need to be twice or thrice than the actual need.

How to choose Solar Panels

How to choose a 12V solar panel to charge12 volt systems Did you know a 100 watt solar panel will probably only deliver about 70 watts to your battery? Thats bad I hear you say And a 12 volt solar panel will actually put out approximately 18 volts in full sunlight? But thats better, you say. After all 18 volts is better than 12 volts. Yes, but lets delve a bit deeper. Lets set up a small solar panel to make up a solar charger for a 12 volt battery. Lets say you choose a Suntech 40 watt solar panel.

Before you begin assembly, lets check the technical data for a 40W Suntech solar panel, it includes the following important information: Output 40 W Pmax 40 W Vmp 17.4 V Imp 2.3 A Voc 21.8 V Isc 2.58 A What does this tell us? Pmax is the maximum power generated by the solar module in full sunlight with the panel facing directly at the sun overhead in a clear sky and where the temperatures of the solar cells is at 25C. These are the standard test conditions (STC). Vmp is the voltage at STC. Imp is the amps at STC. Voc is the open circuit voltage, the voltage at the terminals of the solar panel in full sun but not connected up. Isc is the short circuit current, the current that would flow through the solar panel in full sun if the panel terminals were shorted out. This is the current to consider when sizing the required wiring for the panel, to be safe add 25%. For instance this solar panel would need at least 2.58 plus 25% = 3.225 amp cable. Solar panel temperature Now lets discuss the effect temperature has on solar cells. Solar cells need to be kept as cool as possible because the solar cells efficiency drops by about 10% for every 20C rise in temperature, so at 45C you can expect 10% less power output. On the plus side, because solar panels love to be cool, at 5C you can expect 10% more power than its rated output. The power loss is caused by a decrease in cell voltage at higher temperatures. Lets look at the diagram below. Ignore the dotted lines showing the current flow (amps) at various light levels, well discuss that later, just look at the top line showing how maximum voltage decreases at higher temperatures of the solar cells. At 50C the optimum voltage is about 15 volts and at 75C its only about 11 volts. Now you might think those temperatures are higher than you would get on a normal sunny day but solar panels are designed to absorb as much sunlight as possible and more sun equals more heat. Even on a relatively cool day when air temperature is about 10C the solar cell will be at about 30C, so on a typical warm sunny day the temperatures of the solar cells reach about 60C. Thats why 12v solar panels are designed to supply about 18 volts. A lot of the time the solar panel is hot and is only generating about 15 volts or less. The actual temperature sensitivity depends on the type of solar panel but the bottom line is you cant expect to get maximum power from a hot solar panel.

Typical solar panel output at various light levels and temperatures OK back to our Suntech 40 watt solar panel, according to the data plate it will deliver a current of 2.3 Amps at 17.4 Volts in full sunlight at 25C. Lets check those figures: Volts times Amps equals Watts so 17.4 x 2.3 = 40 Watts. From Ohms law V = IR so the load (resistance) required to achieve this output would be 17.4V divided by 2.3A = 7.56 (ohms) The electrical characteristics graph looks like this:

Suntech 40 watt solar panel electrical characteristics On the chart I have highlighted the maximum power point (MPP) for standard test conditions (STC) where the 17.4 volts line intersects the 2.3 amps line. If you follow the vertical red line to where it intersects the PV curve for STC (top curve) you can see it is at the 40 watts level on the power scale. The PV curve is at its highest point here, which verifies it's the optimum operating point for this solar panel. Solar panel voltage regulation You will also need a solar regulator to ensure you dont overcharge the battery, let's say you select a Sealite 10A solar regulator to ensure the battery is charged properly. lets check the specs for the Sealite 10A solar regulator Output: 10 A the maximum current that it can regulate without overheating Boost Charge: 14.2 V when a depleted battery is being recharged Float Charge: 13.8 V when a battery is trickle charged up to keep it fully charged Solar regulators are voltage regulators, they adjust the output volts to suit the battery. Most 12 volt batteries need to be charged at about 14.2 volts so that is what this solar regulator does. It will allow the maximum current to flow at all times, because higher current flow will recharge the battery faster. See the battery notes below for when you are connecting solar panels directly to batteries. During the boost charge the Sealite solar regulator will supply 14.2 volts. The maximum current flow we can expect is 2.3 amps according to the solar panels electrical specifications. Watts = Volts x Amps so at 14.2 volts it will supply 32.7 watts maximum, any excess power provided by the solar panel is wasted. Why not connect the solar output directly to the battery to obtain the best power output? Sure, that would charge your battery faster, but it might overcharge it so its wise to use a solar regulator or charge controller as its sometimes called. If the light falling on the solar panel decreases because of the suns position or a cloudy day then the solar panel will receive less photons resulting in less output. Let's say it only generates 800 watts per square meter of solar energy (equivalent to the middle graph) then the regulator will only be supplying about 1.8 amps to the battery. Remember too that this amperage is only provided at the maximum power point, due to other electrical conditions it will probably about 10 to 15% less than this. So now you know why a 12 volt solar panel might actually be providing 15 volts and a 40 watt solar panel will probably not put 40 watts into your battery.

A 12 volt Solar panel is designed to charge up 12 volt batteries The best 12V solar modules are made of 36 solar cells connected in series and enclosed between a sheet of toughened glass and hard plastic and sealed within a high grade aluminium frame for protection and weatherproofing. 12V Solar components To create a stand-alone 12v solar panel system you will also need a solar regulator to ensure the battery is not overcharged. The purpose of the regulator is to act as charge controller, allowing the maximum charge from the solar panel when the battery charge is depleted but tapering off as it nears full charge, most solar regulators also control the power to the load, disconnecting it as the battery becomes depleted again after powering the load devices for some time without being charged from the solar panel. Once the solar panel begins recharging the battery the regulator will recommence powering the load. Deep cycle batteries are recommended for use with solar kits, these are made to withstand daily cycles of charging and deep discharging. If you intend running AC appliances then you will also need a DC to AC power inverter. To estimate your solar power requirement use this as an example: A 20 watt globe will use 200 watts in 10 hours (the wattage rating of any appliance indicates how much power it uses in one hour). Assuming 5 hours of peak sunlight per day means you will need a solar panel capable of producing 200 watts in 5 hours. Dividing 200 by 5 to get the watts size for the solar panel gives 40, so you will need a 40 watt solar panel. In an actual application the system will include wiring, a regulator and a battery to store the power. These components all consume energy, thus decreasing the overall inefficiency of the system, so you should allow for that. Choose a battery large enough to provide power for about three days to allow for cloudy days (ALL solar panels need bright, full sunlight over the whole solar module to generate their rated output). With an adequate 12V solar power supply you can use a 12 volt solar panel to power anything that can be run off a car battery. If you prefer a complete solar kit that you can set up in minutes and folds into a flat carry bag for easy storage then check out our portable folding solar panels that include everything except the 12V battery. 12V Battery Notes:

Flooded (wet cell) Lead-Acid and AGM batteries should be boost charged at 14.5 volts with a charge current no more than 10% of the battery amp-hour capacity, so for a 100 AH battery this would equal 10 Amps. Gel type Lead-Acid batteries should be boost charged at 14.5 volts with a charge current no more than 5% of the battery amp-hour capacity, so for a 100 AH battery this would equal 5 Amps. The battery is fully charged when the current has dropped to 3% of the charge current. All Lead-Acid batteries can be float charged at 13.5 volts with a charge current of about 3% of boost charge, so for a boost charge of 30 Amps this would equal 0.9 Amps and for a boost charge of 20 Amps this would equal 0.6 Amps. Test the battery charge after it been standing for at least 4 hours. A fully charged flooded battery voltage should read 12.7V, AGM and Gel batteries should read 12.8V. A battery with 75% will read about 12.5V, 12.3V indicates about 50% and 12.1V is about 25% charge. Less than 12V would indicate almost no usable charge is left in the battery.

Questions about Solar Panels Q: I want to set up a solar trickle charger for our 200 amp-hour caravan battery whilst the van is in storage, I can connect to the battery via an Anderson plug that charges from the car whilst travelling The battery is housed inside the van and is not directly accessible from outside. What sort of solar panel and regulator is required? A: A 2 watt solar panel will be OK for trickle charging but not to recharge a flat battery. If you leave the battery connected to any powered circuits that constantly consume power then it will discharge more quickly but if it is electrically isolated when not in use then it will self-discharge at less than 1% of capacity per week. A typical 200Ah (amp-hour) battery with a self-discharge rate of about 1% per week would lose 2 Ah per week or about 300 mAh (0.3 Ah) per day. A 2 watt solar panel will generate a current of about 100mA (0.1Amps). Therefore in a typical day with an average of 5 hours of sun. you can expect it to recharge about 0.5 Ah back into the battery, that is enough to replace the self-discharge losses in a 200Ah battery that is still in good condition. You do not need a regulator for the 2 watt solar panel as the battery is larger than 50Ah. The main purpose of a solar regulator is to prevent overcharging a battery but the 2 watt solar panel will only generate a maximum charging current of 0.1 amps, which is too low to overcharge. Q: How much cable comes with the 10 watt solar panel and does it have an inbuilt diode to prevent battery drainage at night?

A: The 10 watt Suntech solar panel has 3 meters of 18AWG twin cable fitted to the terminal of the junction box. No, a blocking diode is not fitted, solar panels do not normally need any blocking diodes as the reverse current is negligible during normal use, in fact an installed SCHOTTKY blocking diode would cause a slight voltage drop which may cause more power loss than the reverse current at night. If the solar panels are to be kept covered or out of the sun for an extended time, then its better to connect a power isolator switch to prevent battery drainage. Q: Do I require a regulator for a 10 watt 12 volt panel or can I connect it directly to a battery? A: That depends on the size of the battery,for instance if it's large, say 100Ah battery,then the solar panel does not have much chance of overcharging it, which is the primary reason for using a solar regulator (also called a charger controller)A 10W solar panel will only generate about 3 Ah in one day of peak sunlight so you can connect it directly to the battery. For smaller batteries of less than 20Ah you might want to use a small solar regulator to prevent overcharging. if 3Ah per day is likely to overcharge your battery. Q: I want to set up a 12V solar charging system that will charge and then maintain a 12 volt ride-on mower battery (24Ah). Would a 10 Watt 12 volt panel coupled to the Projecta regulator achieve this outcome? Is the necessary wiring and connectors between the panel and the regulator included and can I connect alligator clamps to the output wiring for the mower battery terminals? A: The 10 watt solar panel has a maximum current of about 0.5 amps so in one full day of sunshine it will generate about 3Ah. If you use the mower once a week then you can probably expect about 4 days of good sunshine between mowing which would generate about 12Ah, probably enough to recharge the battery. A solar charger is not really necessary because the low charging current (0.5 amps) produced by the 10 watt solar panel is unlikely to overcharge the battery. But if you prefer to use one then any small solar regulator will be OK, connected between the solar panel and the battery. There is a small length of wiring included with the solar panel but you will need wiring for the regulator. We can supply additional wiring and battery clamps. Q: (Regarding the 12V solar charging system discussed before) Would you recommend an in-line fuse of any sort or is it OK as is? A: A fuse is not required on the solar panel circuit. Only if you are setting up a permanent power supply with the battery supplying power to a connected circuit then you would put an appropriate inline fuse in the battery's positive side to prevent a short causing the wiring to overheat and catch fire but I presume you are not taking power from the battery while it is being charged. Q: (Regarding the 12V solar charging system discussed before) Also, there are no instructions on how to mount the solar panel - any special methods required? I was going to use pan head screws in the channel on the back of the panel with loose nuts securing these to 2 pieces of wood which will then be bolted to the shed roof. A: Mounting the solar panel is a matter of personal preference. There are mounting kits on the market but your idea sounds fine. An alternative is to use a strong construction adhesive to fix it to the wooden rails. Keep an air gap under the panel to allow for a good airflow to aid cooling as cooler panels produce more electricity than hot ones. An angled support of about 30 to 40 degrees to the horizontal and facing north would maximise exposure to the sun, this would also stop dirt and debris collecting on the solar panel and obstructing the panels, clean panels produce more electricity than dirty panels. Also see our Solar Panel Mountings category for commercially available products. Q: Will a 40 watt solar panel run our Engel fridge and some LED lights while we are camping? A: The answer depends on the battery capacity in Amp hours that you use to run the fridge and lights and how long it lasts before it needs to be recharged. But generally speaking I think you would need 80 watt or larger solar panel. The solar panel will have to be big enough to charge up a battery that must run the fridge for a couple of days without recharging, in case you have cloudy days with little sun. Q: I would like to use a 12 volt solar panel run a small 12 volt exhaust fan which uses a current of 2 amps during all daylight hours. Can you also tell me what size solar panel is needed to run it for any time, day or night. A: If it consumes 2 amps then to find watts multiply volts by amps: 2 X 12 = 24 watts so if you wanted to run this fan directly from a solar panel only while the sun is shining then I would recommend a 30 watt solar panel. If you need the fan to run at any time then you also need a 12V battery to store the solar power. The size of battery depends on how long it needs to run every day. Storage battery sizes are measured in amp-hour (Ah) If the fan requires 2 amps to run then in 24 hours it will consume 24 x 2 = 48 Amp-hours from the battery. It is best to choose a battery with double the required capacity so I would recommend a 100Ah deep cycle battery. Now when choosing a solar panel to keep the battery charged up you need to remember that on average a solar panel will usually only generate peak power for 5 hours a day. Therefore the solar panel must generate 48 Ah in 5 hours. 48/5 = 9.6 amps ( let's round that off to 10 amps). When choosing a solar panel it's usually better to think in terms of the amps it will generate, and a useful general rule to remember is that a 20 watt solar panel generates about 1 amp. To keep the battery topped up every day so you can run the fan continually you need 10 amps so 10 x 20 watts= 200 watts, so you will need 200 watts of solar power. That's quite a large solar panel but that is only if you want to run it for 24 hours a day, if you only wanted to run it for 6 hours a day then the battery size and solar panel size can be 25Ah and 50 watts respectively.

Tuesday, 8 January, 2013

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Stay Informed NewsTicker & Intelligence Updates DateBook Want to buy a solar panel? Key things to be considered
Mar 9, 2012
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Article takes a look at the slew of factors that one needs to consider while determining the right solar panel technology and the criticality of the choice in shaping a financially feasible solar project. In todays market there are thousands of solar panel manufacturers available. A solar panel buying decision should be based on analysis of factors such as the solar panel technology to be used, selection of an ideal panel manufacturer, certifications of the panel, its operating specifications, effect of variance in its performance and efficiency of the panel. Critical parameters to be considered for solar panel evaluation

1. Selecting the right technology: It is not just about the price Based on the cell structure, solar panels can be classified into two categories: crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon or thin-film.The crystalline silicon solar panels can be further classified as mono-crystalline and poly crystalline. Below is the comparison between different types of solar cell technologies: Table 1: Different type of solar cell technology

There is no fixed rule for selecting one technology over the other. The selection of solar panel technology generally depends on space available for installation and the overall plant cost. Use of crystalline silicon panels can increase panel cost but reduce Balance of System (BOS) cost, which comprises all components of a solar power plant apart from the solar panels, such as land, panel mounting structures, cables, power conditioning units etc.The thin-film variant is cheaper and will reduce

panel cost but increasesthe BOS cost.Following are the sample calculations for 1MW solar power plant using crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon solar panels. Table 2: Comparative capital required for a crystalline and amorphous solar panel plant.

As calculated above, the per MW capital cost of a crystalline silicon solar power plant is approximately Rs. 12.05 Cr., whereas the capital required for amorphous silicon solar power plant is around Rs.1.18 Cr lower than crystalline variant. This is a marginal cost saving and varies from plant to plant, depending on BOS cost. Hence, overall plant economics play a significant role in selecting the right technology.

IndiasJNNSM is neutral to the type of technology to be used for the solar power plant. Both crystalline and amorphous silicon technology panels can be used to claim financial benefits under the mission. 2. Selecting the right manufacturer: Warranty represents value only as long as the manufacturer is able to support the same Its always best to select a financially sound manufacturer to ensure the company can withstand the fluctuations encountered in a highly dynamic solar panel market. On this front, a publicly listed company may represent a preferred choice as they are expected to have the resources to enable them to absorb the after-effects or fallouts from catastrophic manufacturing defects, e.g. REC Solar had recalled its 420,000 solar panels to repair manufacturing defect. The whole exercise cost REC SolarUS$56 Million. A small manufacturer is unlikely to have the resources to offer such service if faced with a similar challenge. In India, some of the key solar panel manufacturers are listed below along with their panel manufacturing capacity: Table 3: India's key solar panel manufacturers.

In India, to claim the financial incentives under JNNSMs Phase I Batch II bidding, it is mandatory for projects based on crystalline silicon technology to use both cells and panels manufactured in India. This is true irrespective of whether the project is an Off-grid / stand-alone system or a grid connected solar rooftop / smaller plant connected directly to distribution network at voltage levels below 33 kV. During the first batch of projects under Phase 1 of JNNSM, this rule was applicable only on the panels and solar cells were exempted. There is no mandatory domestic content requirement for projects based on other technologies. 3. Certification Requirements: Tap into the Subsidies Available To avail the financial incentives under JNNSM, the plant needs to adhere to certain certification requirements for off-grid or stand-alone solar systems and grid connected rooftop PV or other small solar power plants.For state level benefits, Rajasthan has same certification requirements for solar panels as JNNSM, while Gujarats Solar Policy of 2009 specifies technical requirements of power plants in terms of experience of power plant developer but no specific requirements are mentioned for solar panels. West Bengal requires the solar system components to be tested and certified by Government of India accredited test centre all these are similar requirements in nature to those defined for the JNNSM. International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), the leading global organization that publishes consensus-based International Standards for electric and electronic products, systems and services has well established standards for the solar plant components. Most of the Indian requirements established by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) are based on these IEC norms. Requirements for off-grid or stand-alone solar systems: For Indian and imported panels, following are the certification requirements according to their type: Crystalline Silicon Solar Panels: IEC 61215 / IS14286

The IEC61215 certification tests a panel for parameters which are responsible for its ageing such as sunlight, climate (changing of climate, coldness, warmth, and humidity etc.), and mechanical load (hail, wind suction, wind pressure, snow parameters etc).

IS 14286 is the Indian certification covering the same parameters as IEC 61215.

Thin Film Terrestrial Solar Panels: IEC 61646

The IEC 61646 certification is for Thin-Film solar panels and is in many aspects identical to the international standard IEC 61215 for crystalline panels. An additional test records the degradation behavior of amorphous silicon due to temperature and irradiance exposure.

In case of a solar panel used in the solar lanterns and home lights systems, while the IEC/BIS certification for the specific models is not essential, a solar panel manufacturer needs to obtainIEC/BIS certification for any of the panels manufactured by them to be eligible for subsidy. Requirements for grid connected,rooftop solar systems or other small solar power plants: The solar panels used in the grid connected solar power projects need to adhere to the qualityrequirements defined in the latest edition of any of the following IEC solar panel qualification tests or equivalent BIS standards. Crystalline Silicon solar panels: IEC 61215 Edition II

All parameters in this certification are same as IEC 61215 and it includes an increased load capacity of 5400Pa for solar panels.

Thin Film solar panels: IEC 61646

The IEC 61646 certification is for Thin-Film solar panels and is in many aspects identical to the international standard IEC 61215 for crystalline panels. An additional test records the degradation behavior of amorphous silicon due to temperature and irradiance exposure.

Common requirements: In addition to the above requirements, the panels must conform to IEC 61730 Part 1 &2. The 1st part covers all the requirements for construction and states the mandatory design characteristics of the panel. The 2nd part consists of the requirements for testing. Part 2 of the IEC61730 defines 3 different application classes for a panel design, specifying the type of use, the related qualification tests and the resulting safety class modifications. Solar panels to be used in a highly corrosive atmosphere (coastal areas, etc.) must qualify SaltMist Corrosion Testing as per IEC 61701 which checks the resistance of PV panels against the corrosive effects. Also, each solar panel must have a RFID tag containing the following information:

Name of the manufacturer of solar panel Name of the Manufacturer of solar cells Month and year of the manufacture (separately for solar cells and panel) Country of origin (separately for solar cells and panel) I-V curve for the panel Peak Wattage, Im, Vm and FF for the panel

Unique Serial No and Model No of the panel Date and year of obtaining IEC solar panel qualification certificate Name of the test lab issuing IEC certificate Other relevant information on traceability of solar cells and panel as per ISO 9000 series.

MNRE has authorized Solar Energy Centre (SEC), Gurgaon,Haryana and ETDC, Bangalore for testing of the solar panels as per IEC and IS standards.In addition, certificates issued by any laboratories accredited by IEC are also acceptable. 4. Operating Specifications: Look BeyondSTC Ratings especially in India STC is Standard Test Conditions which are used as global standard for quoting solar panels specifications. These conditions are 1,000 Watts per square metersolar irradiance, 25 degrees C cell temperature and air mass equal to 1.5. This test is performed by the manufacturer to know true wattage of the panel under these conditions. Since actual climatic conditions may be different from STC, I-V curve can give the right specification of the panel under specific climatic conditions. For example, using the I-V curve below, we can interpret that at 50 degree C cell temperature and 600W/m2 irradiance, the solar cell will product 4A current at 18V. Hence the power output of the solar cell at these climatic conditions will be approximately 72W. Similarly at same cell temperature and 800W/m2 solar irradiance, the same solar cell will generate approximately 5.8A at 16V or 92.8W power.

Figure 2: Sample I-V Curve for a solar cell

5. Negative Tolerance: Can Lead to a Lower System Performance and Reduced Capacity Negative tolerance rating of solar panel is its deviation from the labeled specification. For example a 5% negative rating panel with 100W label is warranted for 95W power generation. This parameter is very important in case of large power systems where many panels are connected in series to each other to generate high power and performance of one panel can pull down the performance of the whole system. For example, a 500W system in which 5 panels with 100W rating and 5%

negative tolerance are connected in series will generate minimum 475W. But if one of the panels is having 10% negative tolerance, that panel will generate 90W minimum. Assuming output voltage of each panel to be 20V, in the mismatch system, 4 panels will be generating 4.75A current to give 95W output from each, whereas 1 panel will be generating 4.5A current to give 90W output. Since all the panels are connected in series, the total output voltage will be 100V and the output current will be the least current generated in the series, which is 4.5A. Hence the overall power output of the system will be 450W. Hence one high negative tolerance panel in the system can pull down performance of other high performance panels. 6. Solar Panel Efficiency Under Different Conditions and Over Time Solar panels efficiency helps you to understand the size of the solar panel. Higher the efficiency, smaller the panel will be as compared to the same wattage panel with low efficiency. Other advantage of high efficiency solar panels is their marginally better performance under low light conditions.If you have enough installation space, then you can consider low efficiency panels, given that other performance parameters are comparable to the higher efficiency panel. In India under JNNSM, to claim financial incentives, the solar panel used must be warranted for their output peak wattcapacity, which should not be less than 90% at the end of 10 yearsand 80% at the end of 25 years. On considering the above mentioned points, a solar panel buyer can make an informed decision regarding which solar panel is the best suited for his or her application. Future of solar panel technologies As a result of huge research and development work across the world, $/W for solar cells has come down and has also resulted in improvements in almost all aspects of solar cell manufacturing starting from material selection to the manufacturing process. There have been numerous new techniques in solar cell design and manufacturing which seemingly have led to improved efficiency. For example Solar 3D Inc. claims the creation of 3-D nanocone-based solar cell technology which has increased the efficiency of solar cells by around 80%. Still in R & D stage, these technologies are yet to be proven at the commercial scale. Solar bidding why price of solar power is falling in JNNSM?: Falling of solar power price bid to Rs.7.49/KwHr in JNNSM Batch II of Phase 1, by the French company Solairedirect has brought solar power very close to grid parity with coal based power plants. JNNSM has forced companies to compete on prices. As per Bloomberg New Energy Finance, till date, Solairedirect's offer is the third-cheapest on record globally. It is behind $110/MWHror Rs.5.50/KWHr bid in China and $120/MWHr or Rs.6.00/KWHr bid in Peru. To succeed in such a competitive environment, companies are focused at cost cutting at every step. Solairedirect seems to have been able to achieve these seemingly aggressive levels (almost 30% lower than average price worldwide) due to its vertically integrated business model as also the extremely competitive prices and deferred payment terms it enjoys from its suppliers. With unsuccessfulbidders in JNNSM claiming that it will be impossible to supply the electricity at such low prices, its a wait and watch situation in the global solar market. The successful completion of projects by low bidders such as Solairedirect will set an example for the entire solar market to reduce the cost of production of solar electricity and make solar more affordableand widely available as an alternative to traditional energy sources.

The author, Navdeep Gupta is a Senior Associate at a sustainability consulting firm cKinetics.

How To Read A Solar Panel Specification: Part #1 Power & Temperature Specs
February 3, 2012 By Finn Peacock 13 Comments

Does a solar panel with a Max Power rated at, say 190W, really produce a maximum power of 190W when it is on your roof in the blazing sun? Short Answer: Not on your nellie! The max power rating (in Watts) that your solar panels are rated at is the figure that everyone quotes when talking about panel size. If the installer or salesperson talks aout a 190W or 250W panel they are talking about the max power rating of the panels. This rating is based on the power output measured from that panel under Standard Test Conditions (STC) that, unfortunately, are a long way from Real World Operating Conditions. Under these STC conditions, the solar panel is subject to a light source (technical term: irradiance) measured at 1000W per square metre. That number probably means nothing to you, so you have to take it from me that 1000W/m is the equivalent of a strong sun. That in itself is not a problem, as last time I checked, the sun is pretty bloody strong in most parts of Australia. The problem is, however, that the STC power rating is based on a panel temperature of 25C. Think about that for a second. The panel temperature is the temperature that the actual solar panel itself will get to when it is on your roof. This temperature is critical because all solar panels lose efficiency as they heat up. That means that the solar panel has to be no hotter than 25C to produce its rated max power. Unfortunately a solar panel on your roof will generally be 20 hotter than the ambient temperature (its a big black panel sitting on the roof its gonna get hot!). That means that the ambient temperature for an STC test must be only a rather chilly 5C.

When was the last time you were in strong sun and the mercury was only at 5C? Cowboy Salesman Trap #1: Ask him what ambient temperature the module will produce its rated power at. If he says 25C, push him out of the door! So unless you live in a very sunny, cold place, you are never going to get the rated power out of your panels. Sorry about that. The good news is that you can quickly work out how much power you will get in the real world, if you are brave enough to look at the solar panels specification sheet (also known as its data sheet). All reputable solar vendors will provide this as part of the quote. Cowboy Salesman Trap #2: Kick him out if he cant or wont provide a spec sheet for your solar panel that looks something like this:

Heres how to work out the real max power output of your solar panels from the solar panel specification sheet:

First look for the part of the spec sheet that contains the Temperature Characteristics. And look for the both the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature(NOCT) and the Temperature Coefficient of Pmax. Ive highlighted them on this spec for a Suntech panel (STP190S24/Ad+):

The NOCT is the temperature that the panel reached in the lab when subjected to 800W/m of irradiance (moderate sun) at an ambient temperature of 20C. So its a much more realistic measure of the temperature that your panels are actually likely to operate at. Here you can see that our panel will get to 45C. All solar panels reduce their power as they heat up. The Temperature Coefficient of Pmax tells us how much power it loses for every C that the panel is hotter than 25C (Remember that 25C is the panel temperature that the STC power is measured at). The Suntech panel above will lose 0.45% of its max power for every degree above 25. The NOCT has told us that the panel will typically sit at 45C so it is a simple sum to work out the power loss at this temperature: (45C-25C) x -0.45%/C) = 20 x -0.45% = -9% So expect the real max power out of the panel to be 9% lower than the panels rated power. The Suntech STP190S-24/Ad+ is a 190W panel, so I would estimate its real world max power to be approximately 91% x 190W = 172.9W. This is a much better number to use for solar panel comparison than the STC rated max power, because it takes into account the temperature performance of the panels, which is important Down Under! In fact in the USA the power we have just calculated above is on most solar panel specs and is called the PTC power (which stands for PVUSA Test Conditions). And even better than that, if the panel is approved for use in California, they actually measure the PTC power in a lab so that they dont have to rely on the manufacturers numbers to calculate the PTC power. When they started doing this in 2009 they found that the real numbers were worse than the manufacturers claimed specs by an average of 6%. Check out the comparison tool Ive put together that lets you compare the PTC of solar panels approved for use in Australia and California, if you need to compare panels before buying. If you are interested in how the Suntech panel we used for our example tested in the lab, you can see the Californian Test results here. It actually tested to have a PTC of 171.5W, pretty

damn close to the 172.9W calculated above. This goes to show how reputable brands like Suntech are gonna give you accurate numbers, but if you are buying your no-name panel from Dodgy Bros you might want to take the specifications with a pinch of salt.

Understanding Solar Panel Specifications Part #2: Power, Tolerance & Efficiency
February 6, 2012 By Finn Peacock 2 Comments In my last blog post I went into great detail about why the Max Power quoted on your solar panel specification sheet and the real max power you will actually get from that panel are very different numbers. I showed you how to calculate a more accurate max power by using some little known temperature specs. In this post Ill go through the other important numbers that you should look at when comparing solar panels. The solar panel specification sheet, looks a bit scary at first glance, with lots of curves and about 2 dozen numbers with techno-babble labels. The good news is that only 4 of these numbers actually need to be understood by you the consumer. The other numbers are for the (CEC accredited) solar designer to use to make sure that he uses the correct panels in the correct wiring configuration with the correct inverter. The 4 numbers you have to worry about are these:

1) Maximum Power at STC (Pmax) This is the number that everyone refers to as the size of the solar panel. e.g. a 250W solar panel has an STC maximum power of 190W. I went on at great lengths in my previous blog post as to why this number is very optimistic to put it mildly! 2) Module Efficiency Some solar panel data sheets also list cell efficiency. Dont get module and cell efficiency mixed up! Cell efficiency if the efficiency of the solar cell (the beermat sized black/blue piece of silicon many of which make up a single panel) in isolation. Solar Panel efficiency is the efficiency of the panel as a whole and will always be slightly lower than the cell efficiency because of the gaps between individual cells. Most panels should have an efficiency of 13% or more. Unless you absolutely need to squeeze as many panels as possible onto your roof, then dont worry too much about this number. Ive written a whole blog post about why solar panel efficiency isnt the most important factor and you can read it here.

3) Power Tolerance This is the range within which a panel manufacturer is saying the module can deviate from its specified STC max power. For example: if you had a -10%/ +10% power tolerance on a 200W panel, the actual panels on your roof could have actual max Powers of between 180W and 220W. These days it is increasingly common to have a 0% negative power tolerance. Which means that the panel will always have a rated STC max power greater than or equal to the specification. I would argue that a 0% negative power tolerance is also a good sign that the panel manufacturer has got a good handle on its quality control and manufacturing processes. So my advice is be choosy and look for panels with a 0% negative power tolerance. 4) Maximum Power at NOCT Not all data sheets have this number but most reputable brands will list it. If it is not listed, that may be a sign of a not-so-great panel manufacturer. This number is the maximum power of the panel when tested in harsher conditions than the STC max power. It is the power with less sun, and at higher panel temperatures. It will typically be between 70-75% of the STC power. It is useful because it takes into account how much power is lost due to increasing temperatures. If you want to quickly get an idea of which panels will give you more power in reality even though they have the same STC max power then choosing the panel with the highest NOCT max power should give a fair indication of the best one for the hot Aussie conditions. It does, of course, depend on the manufacturers specs being truthful! So there you have the 4 numbers that you need to know if you want to compare solar panels before buying. If you think there is a critical spec that Ive missed out then let rip in the comments.