Other Relational Languages

Chapter5:OtherRelationalLanguages
DatabaseSystemConcepts,5thEd.
Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan Seewww.dbbook.comforconditionsonreuse
Chapter5:OtherRelationalLanguages
s TupleRelationalCalculus s DomainRelationalCalculus s QuerybyExample(QBE) s Datalog
DatabaseSystemConcepts,5thEd.,Aug2005
5.<number>
Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan
TupleRelationalCalculus
s Anonproceduralquerylanguage,whereeachqueryisoftheform
{t|P(t)}
s ItisthesetofalltuplestsuchthatpredicatePistruefort s tisatuplevariable,t[A]denotesthevalueoftupletonattributeA s trdenotesthattupletisinrelationr s Pisaformulasimilartothatofthepredicatecalculus
5.<number>
PredicateCalculusFormula
1. Setofattributesandconstants 2. Setofcomparisonoperators:(e.g.,<,,=,,>,) 3. Setofconnectives:and(),or(v)not() 4. Implication():xy,ifxiftrue,thenyistrue xy xvy 5. Setofquantifiers: t r(Q(t)) thereexistsatupleintinrelationr suchthatpredicateQ(t)istrue t r(Q(t)) Qistrueforalltuplestinrelationr
5.<number>
BankingExample
s branch(branch_name,branch_city,assets) s customer(customer_name,customer_street,customer_city) s account(account_number,branch_name,balance) s loan(loan_number,branch_name,amount) s depositor(customer_name,account_number) s borrower(customer_name,loan_number)
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s Findtheloan_number,branch_name,andamountforloansofover
$1200
{t|tloant[amount]>1200}
sFindtheloannumberforeachloanofanamountgreaterthan$1200
{t|s loan(t[loan_number]=s[loan_number]s[amount]>1200)}
Noticethatarelationonschema[loan_number]isimplicitlydefinedby thequery
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s Findthenamesofallcustomershavingaloan,anaccount,orbothat
thebank
{t|sborrower(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name]) udepositor(t[customer_name]=u[customer_name])
sFindthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanandanaccount
atthebank
{t|sborrower(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name]) udepositor(t[customer_name]=u[customer_name])
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s FindthenamesofallcustomershavingaloanatthePerryridgebranch
{t|sborrower(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name] uloan(u[branch_name]=Perryridge u[loan_number]=s[loan_number]))}

sFindthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanatthe
Perryridgebranch,butnoaccountatanybranchofthebank {t|sborrower(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name] uloan(u[branch_name]=Perryridge u[loan_number]=s[loan_number])) notvdepositor(v[customer_name]= t[customer_name])}
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s FindthenamesofallcustomershavingaloanfromthePerryridge
branch,andthecitiesinwhichtheylive
{t|sloan(s[branch_name]=Perryridge uborrower(u[loan_number]=s[loan_number] t[customer_name]=u[customer_name]) vcustomer(u[customer_name]=v[customer_name] t[customer_city]=v[customer_city])))}
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohaveanaccountatallbranches
locatedinBrooklyn:
{t|rcustomer(t[customer_name]=r[customer_name]) (ubranch(u[branch_city]=Brooklyn sdepositor(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name] waccount(w[account_number]=s[account_number] (w[branch_name]=u[branch_name]))))}
5.<number>
SafetyofExpressions
s Itispossibletowritetuplecalculusexpressionsthatgenerateinfinite
relations.
s Forexample,{t|t r}resultsinaninfiniterelationifthedomainof
anyattributeofrelationrisinfinite expressionstosafeexpressions.
s Toguardagainsttheproblem,werestrictthesetofallowable s Anexpression{t|P(t)}inthetuplerelationalcalculusissafeifevery
componentoftappearsinoneoftherelations,tuples,orconstantsthat appearinP
q
NOTE:thisismorethanjustasyntaxcondition.
E.g.{t|t[A]=5true}isnotsafeitdefinesaninfiniteset withattributevaluesthatdonotappearinanyrelationortuples orconstantsinP.
5.<number>
DomainRelationalCalculus
s Anonproceduralquerylanguageequivalentinpowertothetuple
relationalcalculus
s Eachqueryisanexpressionoftheform:
{<x1,x2,,xn>|P(x1,x2,,xn)}
q q
x1,x2,,xnrepresentdomainvariables Prepresentsaformulasimilartothatofthepredicatecalculus
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s Findtheloan_number,branch_name,andamountforloansofover$1200
{<l,b,a>|<l,b,a>loana>1200}
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanofover$1200
{<c>|l,b,a(<c,l>borrower<l,b,a>loana>1200)}
s FindthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanfromthePerryridgebranch
andtheloanamount:
{<c,a>|l(<c,l>borrowerb(<l,b,a>loan {<c,a>|l(<c,l>borrower<l,Perryridge,a>loan)}
b=Perryridge))}
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s Findthenamesofallcustomershavingaloan,anaccount,orbothat
thePerryridgebranch:
{<c>|l(<c,l>borrower b,a(<l,b,a>loanb=Perryridge)) a(<c,a>depositor b,n(<a,b,n>accountb=Perryridge))}

sFindthenamesofallcustomerswhohaveanaccountatall
brancheslocatedinBrooklyn:
{<c>|s,n(<c,s,n>customer) x,y,z(<x,y,z>branchy=Brooklyn) a,b(<x,y,z>account<c,a>depositor)}
5.<number>
SafetyofExpressions
Theexpression: {<x1,x2,,xn>|P(x1,x2,,xn)} issafeifallofthefollowinghold:
4. Allvaluesthatappearintuplesoftheexpressionarevalues
fromdom(P)(thatis,thevaluesappeareitherinPorinatupleofa relationmentionedinP). subformulaistrueifandonlyifthereisavalueofxindom(P1) suchthatP1(x)istrue. trueifandonlyifP1(x)istrueforallvaluesxfromdom(P1).
5. Foreverythereexistssubformulaoftheformx(P1(x)),the
6. Foreveryforallsubformulaoftheformx(P1(x)),thesubformulais
5.<number>
QuerybyExample(QBE)
s BasicStructure s QueriesonOneRelation s QueriesonSeveralRelations s TheConditionBox s TheResultRelation s OrderingtheDisplayofTuples s AggregateOperations s ModificationoftheDatabase
5.<number>
QBEBasicStructure
s Agraphicalquerylanguagewhichisbased(roughly)onthedomain
relationalcalculus
s Twodimensionalsyntaxsystemcreatestemplatesofrelationsthat
arerequestedbyusers
s Queriesareexpressedbyexample
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QBESkeletonTablesfortheBankExample
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QBESkeletonTables(Cont.)
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QueriesonOneRelation
s FindallloannumbersatthePerryridgebranch.
q
q q q
_xisavariable(optional;canbeomittedinabovequery)
P.meansprint(display) duplicatesareremovedbydefault ToretainduplicatesuseP.ALL
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QueriesonOneRelation(Cont.)
s Displayfulldetailsofallloans
q
Method1:
P._x
q
P._y
P._z
Method2:Shorthandnotation
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sFindtheloannumberofallloanswithaloanamountofmorethan$700
s FindnamesofallbranchesthatarenotlocatedinBrooklyn
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s FindtheloannumbersofallloansmadejointlytoSmithand
Jones.
s FindallcustomerswholiveinthesamecityasJones
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QueriesonSeveralRelations
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohavealoanfromthe
Perryridgebranch.
5.<number>
QueriesonSeveralRelations(Cont.)
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohavebothanaccountandaloan
atthebank.
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NegationinQBE
s Findthenamesofallcustomerswhohaveanaccountatthebank,
butdonothavealoanfromthebank.
meanstheredoesnotexist
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NegationinQBE(Cont.)
s Findallcustomerswhohaveatleasttwoaccounts.
meansnotequalto
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TheConditionBox
s Allowstheexpressionofconstraintsondomainvariablesthatare
eitherinconvenientorimpossibletoexpresswithintheskeleton tables.
s Complexconditionscanbeusedinconditionboxes s Example:FindtheloannumbersofallloansmadetoSmith,to
Jones,ortobothjointly
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ConditionBox(Cont.)
s QBEsupportsaninterestingsyntaxforexpressingalternativevalues
5.<number>
ConditionBox(Cont.)
s Findallaccountnumberswithabalancegreaterthan$1,300andlessthan
$1,500
s Findallaccountnumberswithabalancegreaterthan$1,300andlessthan
$2,000butnotexactly$1,500.
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ConditionBox(Cont.)
s Findallbranchesthathaveassetsgreaterthanthoseofatleastone
branchlocatedinBrooklyn
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TheResultRelation
s Findthecustomer_name,account_number,andbalanceforall
customerswhohaveanaccountatthePerryridgebranch.
q
Weneedto:

Joindepositorandaccount. Projectcustomer_name,account_numberandbalance. Createaskeletontable,calledresult,withattributes customer_name,account_number,andbalance. Writethequery.
Toaccomplishthiswe:
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TheResultRelation(Cont.)
s Theresultingqueryis:
5.<number>
OrderingtheDisplayofTuples
s AO=ascendingorder;DO=descendingorder. s Example:listinascendingalphabeticalorderallcustomerswhohavean
accountatthebank
s Whensortingonmultipleattributes,thesortingorderisspecifiedby
includingwitheachsortoperator(AOorDO)anintegersurroundedby parentheses. alphabeticorderwiththeirrespectiveaccountbalancesindescendingorder.
s Example:ListallaccountnumbersatthePerryridgebranchinascending
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AggregateOperations
s TheaggregateoperatorsareAVG,MAX,MIN,SUM,andCNT s TheaboveoperatorsmustbepostfixedwithALL(e.g.,SUM.ALL.
orAVG.ALL._x)toensurethatduplicatesarenoteliminated. thePerryridgebranch.
s Example:Findthetotalbalanceofalltheaccountsmaintainedat
5.<number>
AggregateOperations(Cont.)
s UNQisusedtospecifythatwewanttoeliminateduplicates s Findthetotalnumberofcustomershavinganaccountatthebank.
5.<number>
QueryExamples
s Findtheaveragebalanceateachbranch.
s TheGinP.GisanalogoustoSQLsgroupbyconstruct s TheALLintheP.AVG.ALLentryinthebalancecolumnensuresthat
allbalancesareconsidered
s Tofindtheaverageaccountbalanceatonlythosebrancheswherethe
averageaccountbalanceismorethan$1,200,wesimplyaddthe conditionbox:
5.<number>
QueryExample
s Findallcustomerswhohaveanaccountatallbrancheslocatedin
Brooklyn.
q
Approach:foreachcustomer,findthenumberofbranchesin Brooklynatwhichtheyhaveaccounts,andcomparewithtotal numberofbranchesinBrooklyn QBEdoesnotprovidesubqueryfunctionality,sobothabovetasks havetobecombinedinasinglequery.
Canbedoneforthisquery,buttherearequeriesthatrequire subqueriesandcannotalwaysbeexpressedinQBE.
s Inthequeryonthenextpage
CNT.UNQ.ALL._wspecifiesthenumberofdistinctbranchesin Brooklyn.Note:Thevariable_wisnotconnectedtoothervariables inthequery CNT.UNQ.ALL._zspecifiesthenumberofdistinctbranchesin Brooklynatwhichcustomerxhasanaccount.

DatabaseSystemConcepts,5thEd.,Aug2005 5.<number> Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan
QueryExample(Cont.)
5.<number>
ModificationoftheDatabaseDeletion
s DeletionoftuplesfromarelationisexpressedbyuseofaD.command.
Inthecasewherewedeleteinformationinonlysomeofthecolumns, nullvalues,specifiedby,areinserted.
s DeletecustomerSmith
s Deletethebranch_cityvalueofthebranchwhosenameisPerryridge.
5.<number>
DeletionQueryExamples
s Deleteallloanswithaloanamountgreaterthan$1300andlessthan
$1500.
q
Forconsistency,wehavetodeleteinformationfromloanand borrowertables
5.<number>
DeletionQueryExamples(Cont.)
s DeleteallaccountsatbrancheslocatedinBrooklyn.
5.<number>
ModificationoftheDatabaseInsertion
s InsertionisdonebyplacingtheI.operatorinthequery
expression.
s InsertthefactthataccountA9732atthePerryridgebranchhas
abalanceof$700.
5.<number>
ModificationoftheDatabaseInsertion(Cont.)
s ProvideasagiftforallloancustomersofthePerryridgebranch,anew
$200savingsaccountforeveryloanaccounttheyhave,withtheloan numberservingastheaccountnumberforthenewsavingsaccount.
5.<number>
ModificationoftheDatabaseUpdates
s UsetheU.operatortochangeavalueinatuplewithoutchangingall
valuesinthetuple.QBEdoesnotallowuserstoupdatetheprimarykey fields.
s UpdatetheassetvalueofthePerryridgebranchto$10,000,000.
s Increaseallbalancesby5percent.
5.<number>
MicrosoftAccessQBE
s MicrosoftAccesssupportsavariantofQBEcalledGraphicalQueryBy
Example(GQBE)
q
s GQBEdiffersfromQBEinthefollowingways
Attributesofrelationsarelistedvertically,onebelowtheother, insteadofhorizontally Insteadofusingvariables,lines(links)betweenattributesareused tospecifythattheirvaluesshouldbethesame.
Linksareaddedautomaticallyonthebasisofattributename, andtheusercanthenaddordeletelinks Bydefault,alinkspecifiesaninnerjoin,butcanbemodifiedto specifyouterjoins.
Conditions,valuestobeprinted,aswellasgroupbyattributesareall specifiedtogetherinaboxcalledthedesigngrid
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AnExampleQueryinMicrosoftAccessQBE
s Examplequery:Findthecustomer_name,account_numberandbalance
forallaccountsatthePerryridgebranch
5.<number>
AnAggregationQueryinAccessQBE
s Findthename,streetandcityofallcustomerswhohavemorethanone
accountatthebank
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AggregationinAccessQBE
s TherowlabeledTotalspecifies
q q
whichattributesaregroupbyattributes whichattributesaretobeaggregatedupon(andtheaggregate function). Forattributesthatareneithergroupbynoraggregated,wecan stillspecifyconditionsbyselectingwhereintheTotalrowand listingtheconditionsbelow
s AsinSQL,ifgroupbyisused,onlygroupbyattributesandaggregate
resultscanbeoutput
5.<number>
Datalog
s BasicStructure s SyntaxofDatalogRules s SemanticsofNonrecursiveDatalog s Safety s RelationalOperationsinDatalog s RecursioninDatalog s ThePowerofRecursion
5.<number>
BasicStructure
s Prologlikelogicbasedlanguagethatallowsrecursivequeries;basedon
firstorderlogic.
s ADatalogprogramconsistsofasetofrulesthatdefineviews. s Example:defineaviewrelationv1containingaccountnumbersand
balancesforaccountsatthePerryridgebranchwithabalanceofover $700. v1(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B),B>700.
s RetrievethebalanceofaccountnumberA217intheviewrelationv1.
?v1(A217,B).
s Tofindaccountnumberandbalanceofallaccountsinv1thathavea
balancegreaterthan800 ?v1(A,B),B>800
5.<number>
ExampleQueries
s Eachruledefinesasetoftuplesthataviewrelationmustcontain.
q
E.g.v1(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B),B>700is readas
forallA,B if(A,Perryridge,B)accountandB>700 then(A,B)v1

s Thesetoftuplesinaviewrelationisthendefinedastheunionofallthe
setsoftuplesdefinedbytherulesfortheviewrelation.
s Example:
interest_rate(A,5):account(A,N,B),B<10000 interest_rate(A,6):account(A,N,B),B>=10000
5.<number>
NegationinDatalog
s Defineaviewrelationcthatcontainsthenamesofallcustomerswho
haveadepositbutnoloanatthebank:
c(N):depositor(N,A),notis_borrower(N). is_borrower(N):borrower(N,L).
s NOTE:usingnotborrower(N,L)inthefirstruleresultsinadifferent
q
meaning,namelythereissomeloanLforwhichNisnotaborrower. Topreventsuchconfusion,werequireallvariablesinnegated predicatetoalsobepresentinnonnegatedpredicates
5.<number>
NamedAttributeNotation
s Datalogrulesuseapositionalnotationthatisconvenientforrelationswitha
smallnumberofattributes
q
s ItiseasytoextendDatalogtosupportnamedattributes.
E.g.,v1canbedefinedusingnamedattributesas
v1(account_numberA,balanceB): account(account_numberA,branch_namePerryridge,balanceB), B>700.
5.<number>
FormalSyntaxandSemanticsofDatalog
s
Weformallydefinethesyntaxandsemantics(meaning)ofDatalog programs,inthefollowingsteps
1. 2. 3. 4.
Wedefinethesyntaxofpredicates,andthenthesyntaxofrules Wedefinethesemanticsofindividualrules Wedefinethesemanticsofnonrecursiveprograms,basedona layeringofrules Itispossibletowriterulesthatcangenerateaninfinitenumberof tuplesintheviewrelation.Topreventthis,wedefinewhatrules aresafe.Nonrecursiveprogramscontainingonlysaferules canonlygenerateafinitenumberofanswers. Itispossibletowriterecursiveprogramswhosemeaningis unclear.Wedefinewhatrecursiveprogramsareacceptable,and definetheirmeaning.
5.
5.<number>
SyntaxofDatalogRules
s Apositiveliteralhastheform
p(t1,t2...,tn)
q q
pisthenameofarelationwithnattributes eachtiiseitheraconstantorvariable notp(t1,t2...,tn)
s Anegativeliteralhastheform s Comparisonoperationsaretreatedaspositivepredicates
q q
E.g.X>Yistreatedasapredicate>(X,Y) >isconceptuallyan(infinite)relationthatcontainsallpairsof valuessuchthatthefirstvalueisgreaterthanthesecondvalue E.g.A=B+Cistreatedas+(B,C,A),wheretherelation+ containsalltriplessuchthatthethirdvalueisthe sumofthefirsttwo

5.<number> Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan
s Arithmeticoperationsarealsotreatedaspredicates
q
SyntaxofDatalogRules(Cont.)
s Rulesarebuiltoutofliteralsandhavetheform:
p(t1,t2,...,tn):L1,L2,...,Lm.
q q q
headbody
eachLiisaliteral headtheliteralp(t1,t2,...,tn) bodytherestoftheliterals p(v1,v2,...,vn).
s Afactisarulewithanemptybody,writtenintheform:
indicatestuple(v1,v2,...,vn)isinrelationp
s ADatalogprogramisasetofrules
5.<number>
SemanticsofaRule
s Agroundinstantiationofarule(orsimplyinstantiation)istheresult
ofreplacingeachvariableintherulebysomeconstant.
q
Eg.Ruledefiningv1 v1(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B),B>700. Aninstantiationaboverule:

750>700.
v1(A217,750):account(A217,Perryridge,750),
s ThebodyofruleinstantiationRissatisfiedinasetoffacts(database
instance)lif
1. Foreachpositiveliteralqi(vi,1,...,vi,ni)inthebodyofR,lcontains thefactqi(vi,1,...,vi,ni). 2. Foreachnegativeliteralnotqj(vj,1,...,vj,nj)inthebodyofR,l doesnotcontainthefactqj(vj,1,...,vj,nj).
5.<number>
SemanticsofaRule(Cont.)
s Wedefinethesetoffactsthatcanbeinferredfromagivensetoffactsl
usingruleRas:
infer(R,l)={p(t1,...,tn)|thereisagroundinstantiationRofR wherep(t1,...,tn)istheheadofR,and thebodyofRissatisfiedinl}
s Givenansetofrules={R1,R2,...,Rn},wedefine
infer(,l)=infer(R1,l)infer(R2,l)...infer(Rn,l)
5.<number>
LayeringofRules
s
DefinetheinterestoneachaccountinPerryridge interest(A,l):perryridge_account(A,B), interest_rate(A,R),l=B*R/100. perryridge_account(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B). interest_rate(A,5):account(N,A,B),B<10000. interest_rate(A,6):account(N,A,B),B>=10000.
Layeringoftheviewrelations
5.<number>
LayeringRules(Cont.)
Formally:
s Arelationisalayer1ifallrelationsusedinthebodiesofrulesdefining
itarestoredinthedatabase.
s Arelationisalayer2ifallrelationsusedinthebodiesofrulesdefining
itareeitherstoredinthedatabase,orareinlayer1.
q q
s Arelationpisinlayeri+1if
itisnotinlayers1,2,...,i allrelationsusedinthebodiesofrulesdefiningapareeither storedinthedatabase,orareinlayers1,2,...,i
5.<number>
SemanticsofaProgram
Letthelayersinagivenprogrambe1,2,...,n.Letidenotethe setofallrulesdefiningviewrelationsinlayeri.
s DefineI =setoffactsstoredinthedatabase. 0 s Recursivelydefinel =l infer( ,l ) i+1 i i+1 i s Thesetoffactsintheviewrelationsdefinedbytheprogram
(alsocalledthesemanticsoftheprogram)isgivenbytheset
offactslncorrespondingtothehighestlayern. Note:Caninsteaddefinesemanticsusingviewexpansionlike inrelationalalgebra,butabovedefinitionisbetterforhandling extensionssuchasrecursion.
5.<number>
Safety
s Itispossibletowriterulesthatgenerateaninfinitenumberofanswers.
gt(X,Y):X>Y not_in_loan(B,L):notloan(B,L) ToavoidthispossibilityDatalogrulesmustsatisfythefollowing conditions.

q
Everyvariablethatappearsintheheadoftherulealsoappearsin anonarithmeticpositiveliteralinthebodyoftherule.
Thisconditioncanbeweakenedinspecialcasesbasedonthe semanticsofarithmeticpredicates,forexampletopermitthe rule p(A):q(B),A=B+1
Everyvariableappearinginanegativeliteralinthebodyofthe rulealsoappearsinsomepositiveliteralinthebodyoftherule.
5.<number>
RelationalOperationsinDatalog
s Projectoutattributeaccount_namefromaccount.
query(A):account(A,N,B).
s Cartesianproductofrelationsr1andr2.
query(X1,X2,...,Xn,Y1,Y1,Y2,...,Ym): r1(X1,X2,...,Xn),r2(Y1,Y2,...,Ym).
s Unionofrelationsr1andr2.
query(X1,X2,...,Xn):r1(X1,X2,...,Xn), query(X1,X2,...,Xn):r2(X1,X2,...,Xn),
s Setdifferenceofr1andr2.
query(X1,X2,...,Xn):r1(X1,X2,...,Xn), notr2(X1,X2,...,Xn),
5.<number>
RecursioninDatalog
s Supposewearegivenarelation
manager(X,Y) containingpairsofnamesX,YsuchthatYisamanagerofX(or equivalently,XisadirectemployeeofY). employees

q
s Eachmanagermayhavedirectemployees,aswellasindirect
Indirectemployeesofamanager,sayJones,areemployeesof peoplewhoaredirectemployeesofJones,orrecursively, employeesofpeoplewhoareindirectemployeesofJones
s Supposewewishtofindall(directandindirect)employeesofmanager
Jones.WecanwritearecursiveDatalogprogram. empl_jones(X):manager(X,Jones).
empl_jones(X):manager(X,Y),empl_jones(Y).
5.<number>
SemanticsofRecursioninDatalog
s Assumption(fornow):programcontainsnonegativeliterals s Theviewrelationsofarecursiveprogramcontainingasetofrulesare
definedtocontainexactlythesetoffactsl computedbytheiterativeprocedureDatalogFixpoint procedureDatalogFixpoint l=setoffactsinthedatabase repeat Old_l=l l=linfer(,l) untill=Old_l
s Attheendoftheprocedure,infer(,l)l
q
Infer(,l)=lifweconsiderthedatabasetobeasetoffactsthat arepartoftheprogram
s liscalledafixedpointoftheprogram.
5.<number>
ExampleofDatalogFixPointIteration
5.<number>
AMoreGeneralView
s Createaviewrelationemplthatcontainseverytuple(X,Y)such
thatXisdirectlyorindirectlymanagedbyY.
empl(X,Y):manager(X,Y). empl(X,Y):manager(X,Z),empl(Z,Y)
s FindthedirectandindirectemployeesofJones.
?empl(X,Jones).
s Candefinetheviewemplinanotherwaytoo:
empl(X,Y):manager(X,Y). empl(X,Y):empl(X,Z),manager(Z,Y).
5.<number>
ThePowerofRecursion
s Recursiveviewsmakeitpossibletowritequeries,suchastransitive
closurequeries,thatcannotbewrittenwithoutrecursionoriteration.
q
Intuition:Withoutrecursion,anonrecursivenoniterativeprogram canperformonlyafixednumberofjoinsofmanagerwithitself

Thiscangiveonlyafixednumberoflevelsofmanagers Givenaprogramwecanconstructadatabasewithagreater numberoflevelsofmanagersonwhichtheprogramwillnotwork
5.<number>
RecursioninSQL
s StartingwithSQL:1999,SQLpermitsrecursiveviewdefinition s E.g.querytofindallemployeemanagerpairs
withrecursiveempl(emp,mgr)as( selectemp,mgr frommanager union selectmanager.emp,empl.mgr frommanager,empl wheremanager.mgr=empl.emp) select* fromempl
5.<number>
Monotonicity
s AviewVissaidtobemonotonicifgivenanytwosetsoffacts
I1andI2suchthatl1I2,thenEv(I1)Ev(I2),whereEvistheexpression usedtodefineV. l1I2impliesinfer(R,I1)infer(R,I2), X|,,and(aswellasoperationslikenaturaljoindefinedintermsof theseoperations)aremonotonic. monotonic.
s AsetofrulesRissaidtobemonotonicif
s Relationalalgebraviewsdefinedusingonlytheoperations:, , ,,|
s Relationalalgebraviewsdefinedusingsetdifference()maynotbe s Similarly,Datalogprogramswithoutnegationaremonotonic,but
Datalogprogramswithnegationmaynotbemonotonic.
5.<number>
NonMonotonicity
s ProcedureDatalogFixpointissoundprovidedtherulesintheprogram
aremonotonic.
q
Otherwise,itmaymakesomeinferencesinaniterationthat cannotbemadeinalateriteration.E.g.giventherules a:notb. b:c. c.
Thenacanbeinferredinitially,beforebisinferred,butnotlater.
s Wecanextendtheproceduretohandlenegationsolongasthe
programisstratified:intuitively,solongasnegationisnotmixed withrecursion
5.<number>
NonMonotonicity(Cont.)
s Thereareusefulqueriesthatcannotbeexpressedbyastratified
program
q
Example:giveninformationaboutthenumberofeachsubpartin eachpart,inapartsubparthierarchy,findthetotalnumberof subpartsofeachpart. Aprogramtocomputetheabovequerywouldhavetomix aggregationwithrecursion However,solongastheunderlyingdata(partsubpart)hasno cycles,itispossibletowriteaprogramthatmixesaggregation withrecursion,yethasaclearmeaning Therearewaystoevaluatesomesuchclassesofnonstratified programs
5.<number>
EndofChapter5
DatabaseSystemConcepts,5thEd.
Silberschatz,KorthandSudarshan Seewww.dbbook.comforconditionsonreuse
Figure5.1
5.<number>
Figure5.2
5.<number>
Figure5.5
5.<number>
Figure5.6
5.<number>
Figure5.9
5.<number>
Figurein5.2
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Other Relational Languages

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Other Relational Languages

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Chapter5:OtherRelationalLanguages

{t|sborrower(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name] uloan(u[branch_name]=Perryridge u[loan_number]=s[loan_number]))}

Perryridgebranch,butnoaccountatanybranchofthebank {t|sborrower(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name] uloan(u[branch_name]=Perryridge u[loan_number]=s[loan_number])) notvdepositor(v[customer_name]= t[customer_name])}

{t|sloan(s[branch_name]=Perryridge uborrower(u[loan_number]=s[loan_number] t[customer_name]=u[customer_name]) vcustomer(u[customer_name]=v[customer_name] t[customer_city]=v[customer_city])))}

{t|rcustomer(t[customer_name]=r[customer_name]) (ubranch(u[branch_city]=Brooklyn sdepositor(t[customer_name]=s[customer_name] waccount(w[account_number]=s[account_number] (w[branch_name]=u[branch_name]))))}

E.g.{t|t[A]=5true}isnotsafeitdefinesaninfiniteset withattributevaluesthatdonotappearinanyrelationortuples orconstantsinP.

{<c>|l(<c,l>borrower b,a(<l,b,a>loanb=Perryridge)) a(<c,a>depositor b,n(<a,b,n>accountb=Perryridge))}

{<c>|s,n(<c,s,n>customer) x,y,z(<x,y,z>branchy=Brooklyn) a,b(<x,y,z>account<c,a>depositor)}

fromdom(P)(thatis,thevaluesappeareitherinPorinatupleofa relationmentionedinP). subformulaistrueifandonlyifthereisavalueofxindom(P1) suchthatP1(x)istrue. trueifandonlyifP1(x)istrueforallvaluesxfromdom(P1).

Joindepositorandaccount. Projectcustomer_name,account_numberandbalance. Createaskeletontable,calledresult,withattributes customer_name,account_number,andbalance. Writethequery.

includingwitheachsortoperator(AOorDO)anintegersurroundedby parentheses. alphabeticorderwiththeirrespectiveaccountbalancesindescendingorder.

Approach:foreachcustomer,findthenumberofbranchesin Brooklynatwhichtheyhaveaccounts,andcomparewithtotal numberofbranchesinBrooklyn QBEdoesnotprovidesubqueryfunctionality,sobothabovetasks havetobecombinedinasinglequery.

CNT.UNQ.ALL._wspecifiesthenumberofdistinctbranchesin Brooklyn.Note:Thevariable_wisnotconnectedtoothervariables inthequery CNT.UNQ.ALL._zspecifiesthenumberofdistinctbranchesin Brooklynatwhichcustomerxhasanaccount.

Attributesofrelationsarelistedvertically,onebelowtheother, insteadofhorizontally Insteadofusingvariables,lines(links)betweenattributesareused tospecifythattheirvaluesshouldbethesame.

Linksareaddedautomaticallyonthebasisofattributename, andtheusercanthenaddordeletelinks Bydefault,alinkspecifiesaninnerjoin,butcanbemodifiedto specifyouterjoins.

whichattributesaregroupbyattributes whichattributesaretobeaggregatedupon(andtheaggregate function). Forattributesthatareneithergroupbynoraggregated,wecan stillspecifyconditionsbyselectingwhereintheTotalrowand listingtheconditionsbelow

balancesforaccountsatthePerryridgebranchwithabalanceofover $700. v1(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B),B>700.

forallA,B if(A,Perryridge,B)accountandB>700 then(A,B)v1

meaning,namelythereissomeloanLforwhichNisnotaborrower. Topreventsuchconfusion,werequireallvariablesinnegated predicatetoalsobepresentinnonnegatedpredicates

v1(account_numberA,balanceB): account(account_numberA,branch_namePerryridge,balanceB), B>700.

pisthenameofarelationwithnattributes eachtiiseitheraconstantorvariable notp(t1,t2...,tn)

E.g.X>Yistreatedasapredicate>(X,Y) >isconceptuallyan(infinite)relationthatcontainsallpairsof valuessuchthatthefirstvalueisgreaterthanthesecondvalue E.g.A=B+Cistreatedas+(B,C,A),wheretherelation+ containsalltriplessuchthatthethirdvalueisthe sumofthefirsttwo

eachLiisaliteral headtheliteralp(t1,t2,...,tn) bodytherestoftheliterals p(v1,v2,...,vn).

Eg.Ruledefiningv1 v1(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B),B>700. Aninstantiationaboverule:

1. Foreachpositiveliteralqi(vi,1,...,vi,ni)inthebodyofR,lcontains thefactqi(vi,1,...,vi,ni). 2. Foreachnegativeliteralnotqj(vj,1,...,vj,nj)inthebodyofR,l doesnotcontainthefactqj(vj,1,...,vj,nj).

infer(R,l)={p(t1,...,tn)|thereisagroundinstantiationRofR wherep(t1,...,tn)istheheadofR,and thebodyofRissatisfiedinl}

DefinetheinterestoneachaccountinPerryridge interest(A,l):perryridge_account(A,B), interest_rate(A,R),l=B*R/100. perryridge_account(A,B):account(A,Perryridge,B). interest_rate(A,5):account(N,A,B),B<10000. interest_rate(A,6):account(N,A,B),B>=10000.

itisnotinlayers1,2,...,i allrelationsusedinthebodiesofrulesdefiningapareeither storedinthedatabase,orareinlayers1,2,...,i

offactslncorrespondingtothehighestlayern. Note:Caninsteaddefinesemanticsusingviewexpansionlike inrelationalalgebra,butabovedefinitionisbetterforhandling extensionssuchasrecursion.

gt(X,Y):X>Y not_in_loan(B,L):notloan(B,L) ToavoidthispossibilityDatalogrulesmustsatisfythefollowing conditions.

Thisconditioncanbeweakenedinspecialcasesbasedonthe semanticsofarithmeticpredicates,forexampletopermitthe rule p(A):q(B),A=B+1

manager(X,Y) containingpairsofnamesX,YsuchthatYisamanagerofX(or equivalently,XisadirectemployeeofY). employees

Indirectemployeesofamanager,sayJones,areemployeesof peoplewhoaredirectemployeesofJones,orrecursively, employeesofpeoplewhoareindirectemployeesofJones

definedtocontainexactlythesetoffactsl computedbytheiterativeprocedureDatalogFixpoint procedureDatalogFixpoint l=setoffactsinthedatabase repeat Old_l=l l=linfer(,l) untill=Old_l

Thiscangiveonlyafixednumberoflevelsofmanagers Givenaprogramwecanconstructadatabasewithagreater numberoflevelsofmanagersonwhichtheprogramwillnotwork

withrecursiveempl(emp,mgr)as( selectemp,mgr frommanager union selectmanager.emp,empl.mgr frommanager,empl wheremanager.mgr=empl.emp) select* fromempl

I1andI2suchthatl1I2,thenEv(I1)Ev(I2),whereEvistheexpression usedtodefineV. l1I2impliesinfer(R,I1)infer(R,I2), X|,,and(aswellasoperationslikenaturaljoindefinedintermsof theseoperations)aremonotonic. monotonic.

Otherwise,itmaymakesomeinferencesinaniterationthat cannotbemadeinalateriteration.E.g.giventherules a:notb. b:c. c.

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