Hoorcollege

1 (H1)
Organizational Behavior: behavior of people in organizations, which affects organizational performance. Formal vs. informal approach to organizing:

Role identification

Hoorcollege 2 (Skill sheets E6)

Perception: - A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. - Peoples behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. - The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important. Factor that influence perception: - Factors in the perceiver: attitudes, motives, interests, experience and expectations. - Factors in the target: novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity. - Factors in the situation: time, work, social settings. Perceptions and individual decision-making: - Problem: a perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state. - Decisions: choices made from among alternatives developed from data. - Perception linkage: all elements of problem identification and the decision making process are influenced by perception (problems must be recognized, data must be selected and evaluated). Decision-making models in organizations: 1. Rational decision-making (perfect world model: assumes complete information, all options known, and maximum payoff). Six-step decision-making process: 1. Define the problem. 2. Identify the decision criteria. 3. Allocate weight to the criteria. 4. Develop alternatives. 5. Evaluate the alternatives. 6. Select the best alternative. 2. Bounded reality (real world model: seeks satisfactory and sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives). This is the most used model. 3. Intuition (a non-conscious process created from distilled experience that results in quick decisions). Common biases and errors in decision-making: - Overconfidence bias (believing too much in or own ability) - Anchoring bias (using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments) - Confirmation bias (selecting and using only facts that support our decision) - Availability bias (emphasizing information that is most readily at hand) Managerial implications: - Bounded reality: making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problem without capturing all their complexity. - Combine traditional methods with intuition and creativity for better decisions. How to make good decisions: - Focus on goals. - Look for information that disconfirms your beliefs. - Dont try to create meaning out of random events, look for cause-and-effect relationships. - Increase your options.

Hoorcollege 3 (H9 + H14)

Implicit assumptions of the worker role in BA: workers fulfill their (professional) role expectations: 1. Focus on content. 2. Leave emotions, instincts and irrationality at the doorstep. 3. Act rationally (profit maximization). Social animal characteristics (evolutionary view): - Nothing is more important than: sexual reproduction and family and in-group relations. - Life loses meaning if: one no longer belongs to the social group or one is not appreciated by the group. - Strong awareness of social/hierarchical status. Counterproductive work behavior (CWB): voluntary behavior of organizational members that violates significant organizational norms, and in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization and/or its members. Interpersonal: bullying, sexual harassment, ridicule, and jealousy. Organizational: stealing, political games, withholding company-relevant information. Overt: bullying, sexual harassment, stealing. Under the radar: jealousy, undermining of authority, political games. CWB occurs: as reactions to experiences at work, as reflections of employees personalities or primal instincts, or as adaption to the socio-hierarchical or institutional context. Group conformity: our instincts dictate that being in peace with the group is more important than reporting accurate information. Evil behavior: the exercise of power to intentionally harm (psychologically), hurt (physically) and/or destroy (mortally or spiritually). 10 steps to destructive obedience: 1. An ideology to justify means -> good ends. 2. Small first steps, minor action. 3. Successively increase small actions. 4. Seemingly just authority in charge. 5. Compassionate leader changes gradually to become an authoritarian monster. 6. Rules are vague, changing. 7. Situation re-labels actors and actions (teacher helping <-> aggressor hurting). 8. Provide social models for compliance. 9. Allow verbal dissent, but insist on compliance. 10. Make exiting difficult. How can power corrupt ordinary people? - De-individuation (displacement of responsibility). - Anonymity of place. - De-humanization. - Role playing and social modeling.

- Morel disengagement. - Group camaradory and emergent norms. - Power differentials between in-group and out-group. - The evil of inactions: passivity of good guards. - Put people in a new context where institutional power is pitted against individual will to resist.

Hoorcollege 4 (H3+H8)
The structure of mood:

Affect at work: - Affect: a broad range of feelings that people experience (e.g. emotions, moods). - Emotions: intense emotions that are directed at someone or something. Emotions are critical for rational thinking and good decision-making and provide us with critical information about the world. - Moods: feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. More facts: 1. Emotions motivate us to engage in actions that are important for survival. 2. Emotions allow us to solve cooperative problems. 3. Our ability to read into other peoples emotions is the basis of empathy. 4. Beware of leaders who lack happiness, fear, and empathy. 5. Our ability to read other peoples emotion and manage them is an indispensible social skill and a characteristic of successful businessmen. How do emotions/moods influence the bottom line? - Selection (e.g. we want emotionally competent salesmen). - Decision-making (e.g. split-second decisions). - Creativity (positive mood -> more creative). - Motivation (positive mood -> work harder). - Leadership (positive mood -> social magnet). - Negotiation (unemotional = good negotiator). - Customer service (positive mood -> social magnet). - Counterproductive work behavior.

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB): positive, volitional employee behavior, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, that serves and enhances the functioning of an organization. Facets of OCB: altruism; courtesy; acceptance of rules, regulation and procedures; civic virtue (deep concern and active interest in the organization); sportsmanship (tolerance of less than ideal circumstances without complaining). Antecedents of OCB: job attitudes, organizational justice/fairness, personality. Attitude: an attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with a certain degree of favor or disfavor. Organizational commitment is: - Affect: emotional attachment, belongingness, and pride. - Cognition: positive associations, identification. - Action readiness: a binding promise, behavioral inclination. Well-established job attitudes:

How do job attitudes affect the bottom line:

Absenteeism

Causes of favorable job attitudes: work experiences, personality and personal history. Organizational justice/fairness: compare with distributive justice (outcome fairness and favorability), procedural fairness and interactional (treated with dignity and respect).

Hoorcollege 5 (H4)
Personality: the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environments. Myers-Briggs type indicator:

Personality traits, The Big Five model (Costa & McCrea): OCEAN Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extroversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Other typologies: - Type A/B personality (A = always in a hurry, ambitious, high NA. B = relaxed, low need for achievement, low NA). - Pro-active personality. - Core self-evaluations. - Dark Triad personality: disagreeableness, high extraversion and openness, low conscientiousness and emotional empathy, higher probability for antisocial behavior. Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and (non-clinical) psychopathy. - Self-monitoring. - Regulatory focus. Values: desirable, trans situational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in peoples lives. Schwartz values diagram:

Choices we make: Openness to change Agency - Achievement - Self-enhancement Personal safety My pleasure - Pleasure - Individual

vs. vs. vs. vs. vs. vs. vs. vs. Conservation Communion Pro-social orientation Self-transcendence Adventure Our pleasure Devoutness Collective

Time perspective: is a predisposition at the cross-roads of personality, values and culture.

Hofstedes cultural value dimensions: - Individualism vs. collectivism - Masculinity (performance) vs. feminity (humane) - Power distance - Uncertainty avoidance - Long-term orientation Culture matters in leadership through implicit leadership theories and leadership prototypes, which are culturally bound. The role of power distance in relation to transformational leadership, fairness and OCBs. Transformational leader characteristics: setting high expectations, vision, encouraging, intellectual stimulation, recognizing individual differences, empowering, dynamic etc. Universally endorsed in leaders: trustworthiness, just, honest, foresight, planning ahead (vision), encouraging, motivating, positive, dynamic, building confidence, communicative, informed, coordinator, team integrator. Universally disliked in leaders: loner, anti-social, irritable, non-cooperative, dictatorial, autocratic. Watch out if you are: individualistic (autonomous), status (un)conscious, risk taking. Culture affects the workplace: - How people prefer to cooperate, communicate. - How people wish to be compensated. - Which business decisions are taken. - Informal norms/rules in the workplace. - Reactions to leadership styles. - Propensities to trust others.

Hoorcollege 6 (H6)
Motivation: processes that account for an individual intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining an (organizational) goal. We are instinctively most interested in: avoiding death, money, gaining power and sex. Money is highly associated with instinctual drives like survival (e.g. food), self-reliance, status and power. Monetary incentives work great for simple tasks, but has a lot of negative sides: - Worse performance for cognitively complex tasks. - Strategic behavior (e.g. short-term gains, minimalistic). - Less pro-social behavior (by promoting selfishness and mental accounting). - It decreases intrinsic motivation (cognitive evaluation theory). - We are insatiable, and money boosts satisfaction only temporarily (max 3 months). - In practice, policies are easily seen as prerogatives, not as rewards (not getting the bonus is seen as punishment). Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation: How to foster intrinsic motivation: get the money issue off the table and get out the way; allow our employees to follow their passions and let them focus on the task. Over time, extrinsic motivation can transform into intrinsic motivation through the process of internalization (self-determination theory). Basic physiological needs -> intrinsic motivation. - Autonomy (self-identity, self-consistency, self-direction, freedom to make own choice, work under own discretion). - Competence (growth, progress motive, self-enhancement, self-efficacy). - Relatedness (communion, good relationships with others). There is no evidence for the proposition that need structures are organized along dimensions proposed by Maslow or ERG THEORY. There is no evidence for the claim that unsatisfied needs motivate, or that satisfied needs activates movement to a new level of needs. Theory X/Y: this theory is served to open our eyes to mental models used by managers. However, if there is no evidence for the claim that if managers switch from theory X to theory Y, this too impacts on employee motivation. There is no evidence for the claim that one pair of assumptions is better than the other. Critics to Hertzbergs hygiene/motivating factors theory: self-serving bias functions as alternative explanation (things go well -> people credit themselves, things go bad -> people credit external causes). No metric in the methodology. Positive aspects may compensate for negative aspects. McClellands theory of needs: need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation (very similar to Schwartz value diagram). Self-efficacy and social learning theory: competence and motivation are associated. Social learning theory: Bandura argues that there are four ways self-advocacy can be increased: enactive mastery, vicarious modeling, verbal persuasion, and arousal.

Goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 2000):

Equity theory (Adams): reciprocity vs. equity. - Reciprocity: all people seek to get an acceptable amount of returns for their investments in social exchange relationships. - Equity: people compare their ratios of inputs/outcomes to relevant others in order to judge whether their exchange relationship is acceptable. Expectancy theory (Vroom): expectancy-value motivation.

Self-regulation theory: Definition 1: the selective allocation of personal energy to facilitate goal striving over time and across changing circumstances. Definition 2: the exercise of control over oneself, especially with regard to bringing the self into line with preferred (thus, regular) standards. Includes: regulatory focus theory (Riggins), self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci), and goal orientation theory (learning vs. performance goals). Job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldhem): 1. Skill variety. 2. Task identity. 3. Task significance. 4. Autonomy. 5. Feedback. Pro-social motivation: employees arent as selfish as is often assumed. Thus, beyond self-centered motivators, pro-social motivators should be considered for managerial purposes.

Hoorcollege 7 (H9 + H10)

Social status: a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others Status characteristics theory: status comes from three sources: 1. The power of person wields over others. 2. A persons ability to contribute to group goals (ELT). 3. An individuals personal characteristics (extraversion, impression management, humor, physical attractiveness, money, intelligence, friendliness and so forth). French & Raven (1959): power is that state of affairs which holds in a given relationship, A-B, such that a given influence attempt by A over B makes As desired change in B more likely. There are six bases of power: Formal power bases - Positional (or legitimate) power - Reward power - Coercive power Personal power bases - Referent power (identification, attraction, loyalty (pathos/ethos-based)) - Expert power (knowledge, skills, or expertise) - Informational power (rational argument, persuasion, factual data (logos-based)) Leadership: the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or a set of goals. Managers vs. leaders: Managers... Leaders are coping with complexity are coping with change have formal authority to be in charge influence others to follow have a technocratic function in organization are an emergent state in a social network accomplish something, have responsibility influence, and guide have legitimate (institutional) or reward power leadership is personal and non-sanctioned Evolutionary Leadership theory: in the animal world, the leaders is: - The most active (to energize/entertain me). - The best hunter (when Im hungry). - The tallest, the strongest (when Im in danger). - The most experienced (when Im insecure). - The most intelligent (when situations are complex). Types of followers (Kelly):

Theoretical approaches of leadership: The Big Man approach; psycho analytical approach (Freud, Jung); trait approaches; behavioral approaches; contingency approaches; charismatic leadership; transformational and transactional leadership; authentic and ethical leadership; servant leadership; evolutionary theory of leadership. The early classics of leadership: trait approach; behavioral approach; contingency theory. Trait approaches: focus on traits/characteristics of leaders (personality, social, physical, intellectual), assumes leaders are born, goal is to select leaders. Behavioral approaches: focus on specific behaviors of leaders, assume leaders can be trained, goal is to develop leaders. Task (initiating structure, production oriented, concern for production) vs. social (consideration, employee oriented, concern for people) approach. Contingency approaches: focus on situational leadership, assume that effectiveness of style depends on the situation and that leadership style is fixed or changeable. Fiedler model: fixed leadership style (task vs. relationship), situation factors determine effectiveness (leader-member relationship, task structure, positions power).

Hoorcollege 8 (H7 + H12)

Two perspectives on studying teams: 1. Individual of focal unit of study, the group/team as a context in which individuals operate. Group/team as micro-organizational context. 2. The group/team as a whole, as focal unit of study. Work team: a group of three or more individuals, who: socially interact, posses one or more common goals, are deliberately brought together to perform organizationally relevant tasks (formal group), exhibit interdependencies with respect to workflow, goals and outcomes, have different roles and responsibilities and are together embedded within an organizational system. IPO model of team effectiveness:

Organizational context: organizational culture and structure; reward systems, HRM practices; resources (time, money, equipment), training and consultation; leadership. Leadership functions within teams: - In transition phase: compose team, define mission, establish expectations and goals, structure and plan, train and develop team, sense making, provide feedback. - In action phase: monitor team, manage team boundaries, challenge team, perform team task, solve problems, provide resources, encourage team self-management, support social climate. Different needs for differentiation/integration: low diff / low integration (advice team) low diff / high integration (production team), high diff / low integration (project team), high diff / high integration (action team). Team work design: three types of tasks: aggregate tasks (team performance is sum of individual performance), conjunctive tasks (team performance determined by lowest performer) and disjunctive tasks (team performance determined by highest performer). Team composition: demographic, attitudinal and task-related diversity; spatial separation. Opportunities of diversity/separation: broader range of knowledge, perspectives, expertise; high-quality decision-making and problem solving; lower costs. Risks of diversity/separation: poor social integration, lack of cohesion; interpretative barriers, cognitive distance; coordination problems, dysfunctional conflict; subgroup formation, majority-minority influence.

When to use homogenous or heterogeneous teams: Homogenous: simple tasks, sequential tasks, tasks that require cooperation; tasks that must be done quickly. Heterogeneous: complex tasks, collective tasks, tasks that require creativity; tasks that need not be done quickly. Individual characteristics: KSAs (knowledge, skills and abilities), teamwork requires also social skills (conflict resolution skills, collaborative problem solving skills, communication skills, goal setting/performance management skills, planning/task coordination skills. Characteristics of teamwork processes: interdependent acts among team members, interdependent acts may involve cognitive, verbal and behavioral activities, directed towards achieving a collective goal. Three types of teamwork process: Action phase processes: e.g. mission analysis & goal setting, task performance strategy & planning) Transition phase processes: e.g. monitoring progress towards goals, coordination & backup behavior. Interpersonal processes: e.g. conflict & trust management, motivation and confidence building. Actual team productivity: potential productivity - process losses (+ process gains). Process losses and gains especially prominent in self-managed teams (SMTs) because of little supervision. Bright side of teams Dark side of teams SMTs: autonomy in how to organize work Adopting dysfunctional task structures Increased group cohesion/solidarity Strong pressures towards conformity SMTs: sense of collective accountability Diffusion of responsibility Increased motivation and effort Increased social loafing Virtues of diversity in teams Tendency towards polarization Identification with and commitment to team Escalation of commitment, disidentification with organization, goal-displacement Increased autonomy of team as a whole Loss of individual autonomy, more control Better decision-making Groupthink

Hoorcollege 9 (H13 + H14)

Approaches to leadership effectiveness: - Internal/external focus of leadership. - Transformational and transactional leadership. - Charismatic leadership. - Authentic leadership. - Servant leadership. Internal/external focus of leadership:

Components of transformational leadership: 1. Idealized influence (attribute). 2. Idealized influence (behavior). 3. Inspirational motivation. 4. Intellectual stimulation (think/be different). 5. Individualized consideration (small steps). Elements of a great speech: speak to peoples emotions, speak to peoples desire for togetherness, emphasize small steps, how do these small steps fit into a great vision? Elements of connecting with others: co-evolution (simultaneous creation), inclusive understanding (sense making, belonging/openness/transparency/equality), attraction. Outcomes of connecting: (affiliative) need satisfaction (for its own sake), enrollment (bi- directional influence), inspiration/epiphanies/intellectual stimulation. Components of charisma: - Appealing vision. - Sensitive to followers needs. - High leader identification in followers. - Unconventional behavior, which demonstrates courage and conviction. - Personal magnetism, emotional contagion (Amir Erez).

- High positive energy, confident, powerful presence. - Experts in creating rapport & social connection. Charisma and followers effect: - Transfer of emotions (emotional contagion). - Mechanisms: charismatic are extraverted, higher self-esteem, low neuroticism, positive affectivity. Interpreting cues from audience, good self-monitors and exhibit those behaviors. - Charismatic leaders make others happier through positive behaviors. - Positive affect is related to higher creativity, high motivation, better decisions, better performance and better negotiation. Transactional leadership: - Contingent reward: provides rewards for satisfactory performance by followers. - Management by exception (active): tends to follow mistakes and failures to meet standards (fault finder). - Management by exception (passive): waits until problems become severe before attending to him and intervening (fire fighter). Authentic leadership: - Important for: figurehead role, instilling trust, corporate ethical behavior. - Characteristics: acting upon values and beliefs (opposite to opportunism), word-deed congruence, leader integrity (honesty and truthfulness). Servant leadership: not for ones own aggrandizement, other-oriented, humble, sacrificial for the sake of those they are serving. Aspects: general attitude humbleness and servitude, inspiration, coaching, listening, empathy, awareness, persuasion, foresight, stewardship (sustainable), humanistic emphasis, building community. Learys rose:

Alpha male attitude/behavior: high status -> low conformity - Attractive, likable, relaxed composure, eye contact, low need to conform to group norms, strong sense of self and inner purpose. - High status group members are often given more freedom to deviate from norms compared to other group members (e.g. feet on the table, the kind of jokes). Approach/inhibition theory of power: - Powerful people are relatively free to behave as they wish, encounter fewer social constraints, and more resource-rich environments. - Less fearful of negative consequences of behavior (for absence of punishments). Explanations for widespread supervisory abuse: Proximate explanations: - Approach inhibition theory of power. - Disproportionate distribution of sex, status, wealth attracts Dark Triad of personalities. Ultimate explanations: - Dark Triad personalities persist because they are attractive (evolutionary arguments) short-term mates. - Instinctively we choose high testosterone leaders (hawks) as an acute asset in case of external threat. - Lack of stop mechanisms among followers because our brains are not used todays business realities. Abusive supervision: - Workplace deviance (organizational/personal): retaliatory hostile behavior toward abusive supervisor, displaced aggression. - The chain of abuse: abusive behavior is highly contagious, social modeling (Milgrams study), victims become perpetrators, culture of abuse. Put stop mechanism in place: - Institutional: democracy is the least evil among evils; maximum terms of service (e.g. 4 years); procedures for complaints, correctability; emphasize distributed leadership and participative decision-making; de-emphasize short-term profit maximization and reward long-term sustainability; impeachment procedures (integrity checks). - Attitudinal/cultural: regard asshole behavior as just another form of incompetence. - Use the reinforcement principle on leaders too: make sure mailbehavior has no positive consequences (stop rewarding it) and direct negative consequences (put swift punishments in place).

Hoorcollege 10 (H2)
What explains employee performance: - Intelligence. - Ability-job fit. - Learning: is a change in behavior as a result of experience. It occurs when one receives information, internalizes it, and makes a conscious attempt to act on the information. Classical conditioning (Pavlov):

Law of association: - Contiguity: events that occur together become associated (time interval between events; consistency of pairings). - Frequency (number of trails). - Intensity of the stimuli. Operant conditioning (Skinner): refers to voluntary behavior in contrast to reflexive or unconscious behavior. Unlearning: - Extinction (only conditioned stimulus, without associated unconditioned stimulus). - Spontaneous recovery (you never completely unlearn). - The partial reinforcement effect: if behavior X was only rewarded every now and then, the process of extinction (unlearning) will take longer. - If the time interval between behavior X and the reward was large, extinction will take longer.

Theoretical critiques to operant conditioning: - Circular reasoning in the reinforcement idea: a response increases if it is followed by a satisfying result, but the only way to know whether the result is satisfying, is that we observe increases in the response. - Learning is not always observable in overt behaviors. - One can also learn from other peoples behaviors (copycat). Extrinsic rewards tend to decrease intrinsic motivation. Preferably, do not use negative reinforcement (only in life/firm-threatening situations). If the reward is perceived as manipulative, it is less effective.

Hoorcollege 11 (H17)
Culture: the system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors and artifacts that the members of society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning. Ferraro: culture is everything that people have, think and do as members of their society. This definition includes three major components: - Have: refers to material objects. - Think: refers to ideas, values and attitudes. - Do: refers to patterns of behavior. Four components of culture: 1. Systematic pattern: - Patterned: people in a society live and think in ways that form definite patterns. - Structural: culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols or behaviors. - Behavioral: culture is shared learned human behavior, a way of life. - Normative: culture is ideals, values, or rules for living. 2. Symbolic composition: - Historical: culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed on from generation to generation. - Shared: culture is shared by the members of a society. No culture of one. - Mental: culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that inhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals. - Learned: the process of learning ones culture is called enculturation. - Internalized: habitual, taken for granted, perceived as natural. 3. Learned transmission: - Functional: culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the environment or living together (sense making). - Mutually constructed: mutually constructed through a constant process of social interaction. - Arbitrary: not based on natural laws, external to humans, but created by humans according to the whims of society. 4. Societal grounding: - Symbolic: culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are shared by a society. - Symbolic: culture, language and thought are based on symbols and symbolic meanings. How culture evolves: - Through the evolution of men: the members of various societies had to cope with their specific environment and with one another. - Contact with others: through trade, conquest, (cultural) imperialism, geographic discoveries, colonialism, forced migration, travel, international business. - Role models: the desire to distinguish our self and/or to resemble others: the royalty, the upper-class, successful people, by civility, behavior, clothing, language, symbols, etc. - Technology influences culture: the use of fire, cultivation of plants, domestication of

animals. Philosophy and the development of modern science. The invention of the wheel, the book, money, gunpowder, automobile, television, jet plane, internet. Categorizing globalization: - Economics: international commerce, industry, enterprise. - Politics: empire, systems of global governance, UN, OAS. - Social: migration, travel, NGOs. - Cultural: shared meaning across national boundaries. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners model of culture with seven dimensions: Universalism vs. particularism (what is more important, rules or relationship?) Individualism vs. collectivism (do we function in group or as individuals?) Neutral vs. emotional (do we display our emotions?) Specific vs. diffuse (how separate we keep our private and working lives) Achievement vs. ascription (we have to prove ourselves to receive status or is it given to us?) Sequential vs. synchronic (do we do things one at a time or several things at once?) Internal vs. external control (do we control our environment or are we controlled by it?) Organizational culture: refers to a system of shared meaning held by a member that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. Mintzberg: Culture is the soul of the organization - the beliefs and values, and how they are manifested. Hofstede: Culture is the collective programming of the mind. The first level, Human Nature, is the deepest and most difficult to change. The other layers, culture and personality, are programmed in the course of education through life. Functions of organizational culture: - Culture complements rational managerial tools. - Culture supports (or resists) strategic changes. - Culture helps socialize new members. - Culture promotes expected behaviors. - Subcultures facilitate organizational diversity. - Organizational diversity is the trigger for the creation of new meaning (sense making). According to Daft (1998) corporate culture serves two critical functions on organizations: internal integration and external adaption. Corporate culture: is a pattern of basic assumptions, invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valuable and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relationship with those problems. Core ideology connects purpose and values: combines essential core values as a set of guiding principles with a purpose that uniquely defines the fundamental reasons for the organizations existence (beyond making money). Values: are the enduring beliefs and expectations that a person or group hold to be important guides to behavior.

Organizational value system: a core set of values shared by the majority of organizational members, typically differentiated by the origin and content of those enduring values. Elements that influence organizational behavior:

Managers develop a culture: first generation managers develop a culture (they function as role model, what they value, measure and control, and how to react to critical event and crisis) ---> second generation adapts a culture ---> growth prompts revolutionary shifts in culture ---> new leadership, new teaching practices. Strong culture: achieved when most members accept the interrelated assumptions that form an internally consistent cultural system that endures over time. Look for consistencies and varieties in what people tell you. The greater the consistency, the stronger the culture.

Pros of strong culture: commitment, less formalization, lower employee turnover. Cons of strong culture: less diversity, less flexible to changes in environment, less creativity, tunnel vision, difficult in merges and acquisitions. Dimensions of organizational culture (OReilly, Chatman & Caldwell, 1991): Innovation and risk taking (willing to experiment, take risks, encourage innovation). Attention to detail (paying attention to being precise vs. saying its good enough for chopped salad). Outcome orientation (oriented to results vs. oriented to process). People orientation (degree of value and respect for people). Individual vs. team orientation (individuals highly noted vs. collective efforts). Aggressiveness (taking action, dealing with conflict. Stability (openness to change).

Hofstedes dimensions of organizational culture: Process oriented vs. result oriented. Job & task oriented vs. employee oriented. Professional vs. parochial. Closed system vs. open system. Tight control vs. Loose control. Pragmatic vs. normative. Cultural Orientation Model (TMC, Princeton): - Environment: how individuals view and relate to people, objects and issues in their sphere of influence. - Time: how individuals perceive the nature of time and its use. - Action: how individuals conceptualize actions and interactions. - Communication: how individuals express themselves. - Space: how individuals demarcate their physical and psychological space. - Power: how individuals define their identity. - Competitiveness: how individuals are motivated. - Structure: how individuals approach change, risk, ambiguity and uncertainty. - Thinking: how individuals conceptualize. Ten components of organizational culture 1. Characteristics: - Innovation & risk taking. - Attention to detail. - Outcome orientation. - People orientation. - Team orientation. - Aggressiveness. - Stability. 2. Types: - Power culture. - Role culture. - Task culture. - People culture. 3. Intensity: - Strong culture. - Weak culture. 4. Functions: - Boundary of definition. - Sense of identity. - Commitment. - Stability.

- Sense making & control 5. Liability: - Barriers to change. - Barriers to diversity (xenophobia). - Barriers to mergers & acquisitions. 6. Formation: - Selection. - Top management. - Socialization (pre-arrival stage -> encounter stage -> metamorphosis stage). 7. Culture learning: - Stories. - Rituals. - Symbols. - Language. 8. Ethical culture: - Be a visible role model. - Communicate ethical expectations. - Provide ethical training. - Visible reward ethical acts (punish unethical acts).

- Prove protective mechanisms. 9. Positive culture: - Building on employee strengths (empowerment). - Rewarding > punishing. - Vitality & growth. 10. Spiritual culture: - Strong sense of purpose. - Trust & respect. - Humanistic work practices. - Tolerance employee expressions.

Hoorcollege 12 (H19)
Stress (Selye, 1936): an unpleasant state of arousal in which people perceive the demands of an event as taxing or exceeding their ability to satisfy or alter those demands. Increased risk of chronic back pain, diabetes, respiratory infections, arthritis, herpes, gum disease, common colds and some forms of cancer. Weakened defenses. Pathways from stress to illness:

Consequences of stress: - Physiological: ulcers, immune system deteriorates, increased blood pressure, headaches. - Psychological: dissatisfaction, irritability, tension, always wired up, unable to calm down, anxiety, procrastination. - Behavioral: loss of appetite, withdrawal behavior, smoking, alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, sleep disorders. Antecedents: - Individual factors: social support, attribution, experience, trait hostility, self-efficacy. - Organizational factors: job demands, control, support (Karaseks JDC-model) (toxic leaders and toxic organizations). - Environmental factors: economic crises -> insecurity. Burnout dimensions/diagnostics: - Extreme exhaustion (and extremely slow recovery). - Cynicism (psychological distancing). - Lack of professional efficacy. Six warning signs to burnout: 1. Workload 2. Control. discretion 3. Feedback, reward, cognition. 4. Community at work (including process for resolving conflict). 5. Fairness. 6. Value incongruence, dissonance between values and required behaviors. Predicting burnout: if employees report to exhaustion or cynicism in combination with at least on of the six areas of mismatch, burnout could be predicted one year later. But if employees report exhaustion or cynicism without one of the six warning signs, there will be no burnout.

Ways to cope with stress:

- Problem-focused coping: e.g. remove stressor. - Emotion-focused coping: e.g. humor. - Pro-active coping: e.g. re-arrange your energy household (work-home balance). Work-home conflict: process whereby an individuals behavior and functioning in one domain (e.g. work) is influenced by the demands of the other domain (e.g. home). Consequences of work-home conflicts (Byron, 2005): physical and mental health complaints (e.g. distress, burnout); negative work domain consequences (e.g. turnover intention); negative home domain consequences (e.g. marital conflicts). Three classical theories: - Segmentation (Dubin, 1956). - Compensation (Wilensky, 1960). - Spillover (Wilensky, 1960) -> Role stress theory (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). There is incompatibility of roles from different domains with regard to: time, strain and behavior. Conflicts from the home domain can also spill over into the work domain (Gutek, Searle & Kepla, 1991). Positive influences between work & home (Greenhouse & Powell 2006): additive effect; buffering/compensation; spillover. In general, individuals report higher levels of work-home conflict than of home-work conflict (Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeayx & Brinley, 2005). Prevalence of home-work enrichment is higher than that of work-home enrichment (Geurts & Demerouti, 2003).

The glass ceiling for women exists (Jenny Hoobler): leadership positions are associated with agentic characteristics; managers think women have more home-work conflicts even if women have nu actual family responsibilities (lower perceived person-job, person- organization fit); women nee to have higher performance ratings than men for the same position. Job applications (Heilman & Okimoto, 2008): parents are perceived as less committed, dependable and less achievement oriented. Mothers are perceived as less competent. Supervisors perceptions of their employees (King, 2006): few differences between men and womens perceptions. Supervisors perceive mothers as more disrupted at work, less productive in publishing, less involved and less flexible. Some basic lessons: - Employees act out roles, but will only partially succeed at it (we bring our personalities, values, instincts, emotions and they matter). - We are pro-social, communal beings (organizational citizenship behavior, pro-social motivation, we have the ability to connect, empathize and imitate). - Beware of (cynical) rational-actor models (emotions have served us well, its not all about the money -> intrinsic motives work best on the long run). - We can all be heroes: charisma, vision, servitude, be different. - Or villains: normal people can do horrific things in certain socio-hierarchal context. Power corrupts. - It pays off to take employee well-being seriously.