Horizontal & Extended Reach Wells

PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Drilling Technology
Horizontal and Extended Reach Wells
Horizontal & Extended Reach Wells

Review
This topic begins by discussing the application of horizontal wells, conventional low angle and horizontal drill string design and horizontal hole cleaning. It introduces the technological aspects of extended reach drilling and covers the definition, history, current market application, and implementation of this technology and the application of extended reach drilling in todays market. The topic concludes by taking a brief glimpse at the future of extended reach drilling.
Content
Horizontal Well Applications Increased Formation Exposure
One of the main reasons for considering a horizontal well is the increased formation exposure it can provide (Figure 1). Tight formations (those with low permeability) or heavy oil reservoirs may not be economically feasible to produce with a vertical well due to the low production rates normally associated with these reservoirs. A horizontal well can improve the economics considerably by exposing more wellbore to the formation. An excellent candidate for a horizontal well is the thin bed formation (Figure 2)
Figure 1. Increased Formation Exposure of Horizontal Well.
Figure 2. Use of Horizontal Well in Thin Bed Formation.
The Robert Gordon University 2002
Reduction in Water and Gas Coning

Most oil bearing strata contain water below the oil and/or gas above the oil zone. Normally, water and gas are avoided when a well is completed. However, after a time water and gas may migrate into the wellbore along with the oil being produced. This is normally the result of a phenomenon called coning. The oil/water contact zone in the area of the well has risen in a cone shape around the wellbore. The mirror image occurs at the gas/oil transition zone. (Figure 3). The net result of coning is a reduced or chokedoff producing zone around the wellbore. A horizontal well tends to reduce the incidence of water and gas coning. Horizontal wells usually have a lower draw down pressure, compared to a vertical well at the same production rate, which discourages the formation of a water or gas cone.
Figure 3. Reduction in Water or Gas Coning in a Horizontal Well.
Figure 4. Intersection of Vertical Fractures by a Horizontal Well.
Intersection of Vertically Fractured Reservoirs.

Limestone and dolomite formations can be significant reservoirs. Many of these reservoirs tend to have low porosity and permeability, which limit their commercial viability when considering a vertical well. These calciferous formations are brittle and often geological forces produce numerous fractures in the formation. These fractures tend to be in the vertical plane, and are difficult for a vertical well to intersect, but ideal for intersection by a horizontal well (Figure 4). Examples of this type of formation are the Austin Chalk of South Texas, the Rospo Mare of Italy and the Batu Raja of Indonesia. Although shales are not usually classified as reservoir formations, there are vertically fractured shale formations that have been productive due to the horizontal drilling. An example of this type formation is the Balken Shale in North Dakota.
EOR (Enhance Oil Recovery)

Horizontal wells can improve the efficiency of EOR techniques. The long formation exposure is better suited to introducing steam or water into a zone.
Drill String Design

The drill string, which includes all tubulars from the kelly to the bit, has three primary functions:
To transmit hydraulics to the bit; To transmit torsional loads to the bit; To transmit tensile and compressive loads to the bit.
Only compressive loading for bit weight is discussed here. Conventional Low Angle Drill String Design
Sinusoidal Buckling
In conventional low angle drill string design, all the tubulars used for weight application are located at the bottom of the drill string. The number of drill collars and/or Hevi-Wate required for a desired bit weight is determined by first calculating the air weight of the BHA. At no time is the drill pipe allowed to be used for compression, the neutral point must always be in the drill collars or Hevi-Wate (Figure 5). This is due to the fact that the drill pipe will buckle sinusoidally under very low compressive loads in a vertical hole as calculated by the formula below. This formula was developed by Arthur Lubinski in 1950. The compressive load at which sinusoidal buckling occurs is called the critical buckling load.
Fc = 1.94.3 EIp 2
where: Fc = critical buckling load (lbs) E = modulus of elasticity (30 x 106 for steel) I = moment of Inertia (in4) p = buoyed weight per inch of the tubular (Ibs) For 4-1/2" Grade E, Premium Class drill pipe with a nominal weight of 16.60 Ibs/ft used in a vertical well with 10lb/gal mud, the critical sinusoidal buckling load in a vertical hole is 1098 pounds. Sinusoidal buckling means the drill pipe will wrap itself around the inside of the well, taking the shape of a coil spring. Sinusoidal buckling of the drill pipe during rotary drilling can very quickly lead to fatigue failure, so it must always be located below the top of the collars or Hevi-Wate for this type of drill string.
Figure 5. Neutral Point in Drillstring in Vertical and Horizontal Wells.
Horizontal Drill String Design Sinusoidal Buckling

In the horizontal well, having the weight components as the lowest most element of the drill string is useless. If the well is horizontal, the weight of these elements cannot be used to apply weight to the bit, but only increase the load that must be pushed along the low side of the hole as drilling progresses. A better scenario is to move the collars and Hevi-Wate up the string into the vertical or low angle section of the well, and use something light, like drill pipe, to transmit the compressive loads created to the bit. Figure 5 illustrates the differences between the drill strings used in vertical holes and horizontal wells. It is possible to compressively load drill pipe to quite a large extent in horizontal holes. The limit, or critical buckling load, for inclined wells can be determined by solving the equation below. This equation was developed by Exxon (Dawson et al. 1984)
Fc = 2 EI.p sin r
where: E = Modulus of Elasticity (30x 106 for steel) I = Moment of Inertia p = Buoyed weight per inch of the tubular = hole inclination
r = (actual hole diameter - minimum tubular diameter)/2 where the minimum tubular diameter may be:
Drill collar OD; Drill pipe tube OD; Hevi-Wate centre upset OD.
For 4-1/2" Grade E, Premium Class drill pipe with a nominal weight of 16.60 Ibs/ft used in an 8-1/2" hole with a 90 inclination and 10 Ib/gal mud, the critical sinusoidal buckling load in a vertical hole is 18,737 pounds.
Helical Buckling
It is important to note that the sinusoidal buckling described above is the limit while rotary drilling due to fatigue failure caused high levels of cyclic stress. If drill string rotation is not present, exceeding the sinusoidal buckling load will generally not create drill string problems. As is often the case when sliding in a horizontal well, very large compressive loads are applied just to get the string to start sliding. In some cases, even using the entire weight of the drill string, sliding/oriented drilling was very difficult, or even impossible. In 1989, a second order of buckling was defined called Helical Buckling. Helical buckling is the square root of 2 times greater than sinusoidal buckling. What helical buckling does is to cause the drill string to get into a lock up condition in the horizontal section of the well, and thus not allow sliding to occur.
Torque and Drag

Torque and drag effect can be significant even at moderate overbalances in permeable formations. Most companies provide computational models that have the ability to analyse the expected torque and drag characteristics of well bores, including both sinusoidal and helical buckling. In any new situation, this analysis should be done to ensure that the drill string can accomplish the desired drilling objective without failing due to tension, torsional stress, or buckling.
Horizontal Hole Cleaning

High angle wells create special problems when planning the mud system. The main objective is to drill a well with minimum formation damage, clean of drilled cuttings, and completed as planned as economically as possible. To accomplish this, the well design and mud properties for low and high angle wells are somewhat different. There are four major areas that need to be considered.
Drilling fluid type; Pressure Design; Fluid Flow Design; Drill String Rotation.
Drilling Fluid Type

Drilling fluids perform numerous functions when drilling any type of well. Some of these functions include:
Cooling and lubricating the bit, drill string and other tools; Stabilising sensitive formations; Balancing formation pressure; Minimising formation damage;
Cleaning the wellbore of drilled cuttings; Suspending drilled cuttings when circulation stops; Powering downhole motors and provide transmission medium for MWD tools.
These considerations are required for vertical, directional, and horizontal wells with different emphasis depending on the type of well drilled. Vertical and low angle directional wells with inclination angles less than 45 degrees usually use the same design factors while wells drilled at angles over 45 degrees require different considerations, especially with regard to hole cleaning and drilled cuttings transport. Suspension of solids becomes critical and much more difficult in highly inclined well bores when circulation is stopped. The cuttings will tend to fall relative to the fluid environment and can build up on the low side of the well bore. This can lead to stuck pipe and sometimes formation fracturing, in severe cases. This effect can be reduced by maximising the suspension properties of the drilling fluid. Fluid loss must also be controlled to reduce the build-up of wall cake which could lead to problems with differential sticking.
Extended Reach Wells

Extended-Reach Drilling (ERD) has evolved from simple directional drilling to horizontal, lateral, and multi-lateral step-outs. ERD employs both directional and horizontal drilling techniques and has the ability to achieve horizontal well departures and total vertical depth-to-deviation ratios beyond the conventional experience of a particular field. Extended reach wells started to be recognised as a technology category in the very early 1980's. Prior to this period the term high angle drilling was used. There are several definitions of what an extended reach well is, but a generally agreed definition is a well with a horizontal displacement more than twice the vertical displacement. Current wells have achieved reach to TVD ratios of over 4. After an initial build most wells are drilled with a constant sail angle. Typically sail angles are in excess of 70 or 80 and may incorporate a horizontal section in the pay. There are two factors which dominate the design of ERD wells, torque and drag and hole cleaning, though some would consider these problems as interrelated as they are both highly dependant on drilling fluid properties. Of these drag is probably the most important as it sets the limit for casing setting. Most ERD trajectories are only finalised after extensive torque and drag studies. These are generally based on the 'soft string' model (Johancsik1983). Recent work has indicated that there may be some benefit in increasing the build rate in stages. This method of increasing the build rare in several steps reduces near surface doglegs and thus reduces torque and drag. It is also usual for any steering to be undertaken by only sliding for part of a joint and the return to the rotary mode. This reduces the 'tortuosity' of the well. Tortuosity is the planned curvature minus sum of all the curvature increments in the section divided by the footage drilled. The fluid effects of lubricity and cuttings carrying capacity are also closely controlled. In general oil or synthetic based fluids give better lubricity than water based and are thus the preferred choice for most high angle and ERD wells as they give lower friction factors. Friction factors are a composite function of the materials involved (pipe to formation and/or pipe to casing) and the lubricity of the mud. Some predicted and field data are given on Figure 6. Cutting transport is a function of inclination and velocity as depicted in Figure 7. In all wells the desire is to eliminate bed formation by maximising annular velocity and pipe rotation. Some guidelines for flowrate, pill size and number of circulations for cleaning are given in Tables 1-3.
Figure 6. Measured and Predicted Friction Factors.
Figure 7. Effect of Inclination and Velocity on Transport of Cuttings.
As is the case with horizontal wells the ability to survey and steer the well accurately is of prime importance. Presently drilling practices for these wells are ahead of effective completion technologies that allow for reliable low cost maintenance, which restricts their utility. Casing wear may also be a problem that needs to be addressed and compensated for.
Table 1.
Hole size inches 17-1/2 12-1/4 8-1/2

Table 2.
Flowrates GPM 1100-1400 950-1400 500 Pill sizes for hole cleaning BBLS 50+ 30-50 20 Hole size (inches) 17-1/2 12-1/4 1.3 1.4 1.8 2.0 8-1/2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.7 2.5 3.0
Hole size inches 17-1/2 12-1/4 8-1/2 Inclination 0-10 10-30 30-60 60+
Table 3. Number of Circulations Required.
Principals of Extended Reach Drilling (ERD) ERD Milestone Achievements:

The technique has been very successful at drilling shallow ultra ERD wells at 5,500ft TVD:
2 x 10km+ wells at BP (Wytch Farm) 1998, 1999; 1 x 10km+ well drilled by Total (Ara) 1999;
Many operators have pushed the ERD Limit at 9-10,000ft TVD:

Phillips (Xijiang) - 8km, Norsk Hydro (Oseberg) - 7.8km; Woodside (Goodwyn) 8.3km, Statoil (Sleipner) - 7.4km; BP (Amberjack) - 6.8km, BP (Niakuk) - 6.0km, BP (Pompano) - 5.6km;
Fewer operators drilled highly deviated wells at 13-15,000ft TVD:

BP (Gyda) - 6.8km, HMDC (Hibernia) - 6.1km, BP (Yacheng) 6.0km;
Very few operators drilled deviated wells at >20,000ft TVD:
Shell (Auger) - 3.9km.
Figure 8.
Figure 9. Extended Reach Drilling Evolution.
Table 4. Top 20 ERD Wells (Correct as of May 2003).
Top Twenty ERD Wells

Horizontal Displacement (ft)
Rank
Measured Depth (ft)
TVD (ft)
Operator
Well
Location
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
35,196 34,728 33,182 1
37,001 36,693 34,967 31,441
5371 5436 5266 31,441
BP Total BP Lone Star BP Woodsid e Total RWEDEA Phillips Hunt Energy BP BP Norsk Hydro Total BP Maersk RWEDEA Phillips Phillips RWEDEA
M-16Z Ara CN-1 M-11 Bertha Rogers1 M-14 Goodwyn GWA-18 Kaus CS-1 Mittelplate D5 Xijiang 243 Cerf Ranch 1-9 M-05 M-15 30/6 C-26 Kaus CS-2 M-09 Dan MFF19C Mittelplate D4 Xijiang 243 A-17 Xijiang 243 A-18 Mittelplate D3
UK, Wytch Farm Argentina UK, Wytch Farm USA, Oklahoma UK, Wytch Farm Australia Argentina Germany South China Sea USA, Pecos Co. TX UK, Wytch Farm UK, Wytch Farm North Sea Argentina UK, Wytch Farm Denmark Germany China China Germany
29,324 27,250 26,840 26,725 26,446
31,355 30,439 28,501 29,511 30,308
5889 9501 4914 7188 9554
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
29,670 26361 26,138 25,764 25,195 25,108 25,081 24,839 24,823 24,649 24,590
29,670 28593 29,173 30,600 26,880 27,241 29,631 27,450 28,497 28,250 27,178
1 5285 5358 NA 4932 NA 7074 6798 9340 9287 6752
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Figure 10. Current Market Place.
Figure 11. Shallow versus Deep ERD Wells.
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ER Projects Typically Break Into Four Groups:

Small rig ERD; Very shallow ERD; Ultra-long ERD; Deep water ERD.
Figure 12. Current Marketplace Well Profiles.
Figure 13. ERD Development Types.
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What was once considered the envelope of ERD now only indicates the difference between standard and advanced technology. This envelope is being continuously enlarged, as technology boundaries are broken.
Figure 14. Comparison of Extended Reach Wells.
Deep Water and ERD Projects

Current limitations in deep water for ERD wells are ~1,200-4,000 ft Water Depth, ~2,000 ft BML with total Step-out Ratios of 2.5:1 being well within comfort envelope. Typically 15-21,000 ft Departure and 6,000 ft TVD; Such projects are using ERD technologies to minimise facilities, eliminate subsea tiebacks and develop multiple fields from the same SPAR. The current depth limitation is 5,400 ft of water with wells to the horizontal; Here the large capacity rigs are available, the limitations are in the down hole equipment and technologies.
Key Challenges
Key challenges for ERD in any environment are:
Equivalent circulating densities (ECDs); Shallow directional control; Hole cleaning (ER and riser ECDs); Fit-for-purpose practices now change and have a different set of priorities.
Application of ERD Applications

Extending life of mature fields by kicking off from old wells (producers / injectors); Controlling the environmental impact of drilling activity ie, eliminate drilling/production islands in sensitive areas (Wytch Farm, Alaska); Allows access to reserves in environmentally sensitive areas from small footprint locations; Permits satellite field developments from existing platforms; Increased production by staying in the payzone laterally;
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Reduction in the number of platforms, surface locations and subsea completions and total wells required to exploit fully a hydrocarbon reservoir.
Benefits
Allows economic access to reserves; Fewer pipelines and satellite production reduction in costly subsea equipment; Brings production forward; Allows re-assessment of opportunities previously thought uneconomic; Plan new bespoke ERD developments.
Figure 15. Typical Oil Production Increases from Field ERD Development.
Extended Reach Complexity

This is defined by:
Well design (HD/TVD, complexity, etc.); Water depth; Rig capabilities; Hole sizes and depths; Drilling fluid type and properties; Lithology factors; Location (logistics); Directional drilling strategy; Rig site practices.
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Figure 16. ERD Complexity Index.
Limitations
Constraints to successful ERD Include:
Excessive torque and drag (Conventional drilling tools are prone to twist-off); Applying weight to the drill bit gives less than optimal WOB transfer; Poor hole cleaning in long, high-angle hole sections; Possible buckling of casing or drill string; Running casing successfully to the bottom of the well; Guiding a wellbore accurately through the pay zone; Topside power packages less than fit for purpose; Prohibitive well costs due to the required trajectory and the resulting drilling rig specifications; Less than optimal directional control, particularly critical on some of the complex reservoirs; Environmental considerations; Wellbore instability.
Figure 17. ERD Technical Boundaries.
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Tension may be a primary concern in vertical wells, but in ERD, torsion may be the limiting factor. Running normal-weight drill pipe to apply weight to the bit in ERD can lead to buckling of the drill pipe and rapid failure.
Future Developments in ERD

Figure 18. Pushing the ERD Envelope.
Future ERD Opportunities
The next step will be to push the drilling technology boundary and overcome the technical challenges in completions and interventions, where wellbore, workovers and maintenance will be critical. The future for GeoSteering technology and rotary steerable tools is bright. Currently, these steerable systems are used primarily on relatively expensive extended-reach wells where they can provide a technical capability beyond the limit of standard motor-driven systems. Here, these systems can be run economically even if their cost is high. Further work will focus on increasing their reliability, upward telemetry systems and operating times while cutting costs. Todays bottlenecks represent the toughest challenges:
ECDs; Ultra deep casing runs; Practices design and implementation.
ECD (Equivalent Circulating Density) remains one of the big challenges in pushing the drilling envelope:
Initiatives have been taken to research low ECD drilling fluids.
Casing Challenges:
Push down with rotation and circulation is the next step; The limit in using top drive weight has almost been reached; The possibility of the combination of pushing and rotational forces increasing the probability of getting casing or liners successfully to TD. These have casing and connection design implications;
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As greater force is used, unanticipated forces are being applied to the casing string that increase the possibility of its failure.
Casing Deployed Logging:

A current joint project with a major operator leads to the development of a special composite eccentric shoe joint to house the logging tools; The shoe joint required the development of a de-centraliser that compensated for hole size and orientation to allow formation contact necessary for proper logging tool readings; Obtains true open hole logging results; Saves on logging and wiper trips; All drillable.
Under Balanced Drilling:

Improves hole cleaning; Increases ROP; Lowers or eliminates formation damage; Eliminates differential sticking of drill string; Is compatible with coiled tubing or conventional drilling techniques.
Expandable Tubulars:
The ability to go deeper with fewer diameter decreases, and taking this to the ultimate: - monobore to TD.
Steerable / Drillable Liners:

Partnerships are required to merge steering technology into the existing capabilities.
Subsurface Models:
The large-scale, 3-D subsurface visualisations and models; Well planning with all contingencies modelled and mapped in advance; Real-time updates of the models with LWD, to aid decision-making.
How ERD Drilling Research & Development Adds Value:

Helps define the limits of whats possible; Helps identify and manage risks; Provides predictive models for optimisation; Visualisation to aid understanding; Simulation Learning before Doing; Improved products and practices; Casing / liner drilling systems; Lighter / stronger drillpipe; Expandable tubulars;
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ECD reduction methods; Combinations of emerging technologies; Improved real-time modelling; Intelligent completions. Summary Getting ERD Right: Same as conventional drilling only different; Requires attention to detail at all stages; Need to identify and manage key risks; Appropriate use of technology helps; Need to refine models with real data; Need to get it right first time - often difficult to recover from hole problems; Teamwork is crucial.
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Horizontal and Extended Reach Wells