Herbs In Africa

Conservation and Cooperation

These articles have been published in Science In Africa www.scienceinafric a.co.za
A series of articles which outline the basic requirements, for small scale, sustainable cultivation, and processing techniques, for rural communities.

By Ivor Hughes
To give to each Nation its own type of medicine, the theoracam best suited to it, as it behooves, for I can well realize that my prescriptions may turn out to be ineffectual among the foreign Nations, and that foreign recipes may turn out to be ineffetual in our Nation. That is to say that I write for Europe, and I do not know whether Asia and Africa may profit from it. Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) Even in the face of adversity and injustice, the African peoples have been fecund. This is evidenced by large African populations in North America, the Carribean and the United Kingdom. These groupings of Afro peoples, represent a very large, and lucrative market for indigenous remedies. However before these markets can be tapped, a continuity of supply must be assured. That continuity cannot be achieved by the wild harvesting of medicinal plants. Such procedures end in the extinction of countless species. On the other hand, the large-scale mono-cropping of medicinal species, which need inputs of artificial fertilisers, and large scale spraying of dangerous and expensive biocides is not a sustainable practice. The results of those policies are clearly visible in the form of a destabilised weather pattern, and a degraded environment. Inevitably, wide-spread famine and disease is the result in developing nations. Most of these problems are caused by first world economic criteria applied to every nation across the board. Science in the service of multinational corporations, becomes malignant rather than benign. In a short series of articles it is intended to outline the basic requirements, for small scale, sustainable cultivation, and processing techniques, for rural communities. No large inputs of capital expenditure and inappropriate technology are required. In other words, what is required, is the willing cooperation of small communities and the application of appropriate technology. This means tapping the Natural Science knowledge that is passed from

generation to generation. Forget about large scale corporate financial muscle. No Westernised company that tries to use Afro-ethnic knowledge can have the credibility of the real deal ! Appropriate Technology In a community that does not have access to corporate power, water, and sewage disposal, the technology offered by first world countries is obviously not appropriate to the situation. Appropriate technology in a zero situation, is people, land, a shovel, and seeds, and a need to ensure the continuity of the community. From that point on, any community may bootstrap their way into a viable situation without resorting to the money lender/debt trap. The technology is Solar or Helio technology. From the power of the Sun, and the power of Nature, all is possible. This, without disturbing that cooperative essence, of the structure of life on our planet. Business is Business Cooperation within small communities to meet common goals is a natural process. However any community that wishes to engage in commercial activities outside the boundaries of the community will need a framework in order to interact with larger scale commercial activity. Free legal advice and assistance for communities may be accessed via the Global Cooperative Movement. The cooperative structure not only defines the individuals rights, duties and rewards but also allows them a legally recognised business framework. Within this framework they can trade across national borders. However what is appropriate, is that any budding community must first trade within their natural boundaries. That means that their first markets stem from the healer within the community. In other words everyone must cooperate in common cause. Market Scope The herb grower has a degree of flexibility and market options which are unmatched by any other branch of agriculture or horticulture, the options may be divided into 4 main categories: 1. Food and flavours. 2. Cosmetics, perfumes and Toiletries. 3. Natural Medicines. 4. Industrial intermediates eg Dyes, tanning agents, insecticides and craft materials. It will be understood that those categories are further subdividable and when combined with the number of herb species traded then the options are diverse. However to access the options the grower must be able to process the crop. By employing one or more of the following techniques the grower may considerably value-add the primary product:

The Process Dehydration - (Removal of water) Distillation - (Steam, Water, Separation) Extraction - (Use of solvents) Compounding - (Manufacturing combination products) The techniques are simple and usually no more complicated than those methods employed in a domestic kitchen. The Technology The technology required fits the following criteria: It can be owner constructed It can be owner maintained It has low construction and maintenance costs It has a low environmental impact. Much of the technological hardware equates to scaled up domestic kitchen apparatus. Crop Yields and Economic Potential Crops yields are subject to many variables eg:;

In addition, the drying ratio between root, leaf and flower will vary from species to species, nonetheless the grower needs a general guide upon which to provide a forecast of economical potential. The following table was compiled across a number of seasons and can be used to represent fair average yields for forecast purposes.

Tinctures and Extracts

The tinctures and extracts are the basis of many diverse products Types of Extract The base form of all extracts is liquid and is classified into types as follows; A. The Liquid Extract is the strongest type of plant liquid made, its ratio of the plant material to solvent is 1:1, i.e., 1 gram crude drug represents 1 ml of the liquid extract. For technical reasons it may only be further concentrated by evaporation of the solvent. Occasionally a 1:2 preparation, i.e., 1 g crude drug equals 2 ml liquid is called an extract, this is incorrect and leads to confusion.When the term extract is used here, it means a 1:1 preparation. B. The Tincture is the most common form of plant liquid. An official definition of a tincture is that it has a drug/solvent ratio of 1:4 and that the solvent be a minimum 45% by volume.There are some difficulties with that definition because there are strong tinctures, i.e., 1:2 or 1:3 or they may go from 1:5 through 1:10. International protocol on potent plant drugs, e.g., Belladonna, Digitalis, Strophanthus etc. is agreed upon 1:10. The international protocol was established for obvious reasons. Preparations above 1:10 are little more; than preserved concentrated infusions. C. The Essential Oils represent a fraction of 1% of the total plant constituents and are not representative of a plant's therapeutic range. They are undoubtedly the finest natural bactericide, that because of their potency can be dangerous in the wrong hands.Therefore if taken internally they can be extremely toxic and if used without dilution externally, the result will be damage to dermal or mucous tissue. D. The Expressed Plant Juices enjoyed popularity in the early years of the 20th century but were gradually abandoned because of their limitations. They are brisk and vigorous in action; this may be attributed to the live enzyme content and as such bear comparison with fresh fruit and vegetable juices, however strict dosage restraints must be adopted otherwise harm may result. The preserved juices are problematical. E. The Concentrated Infusions and Decoctions are prepared with water as the solvent. If taken in that form they are classed as recentium (recent) or alternatively they are preserved with alcohol 20%. They are the basis of pills and ointments. F. The Pasty or Dry Extracts are prepared from liquid extracts by evaporation. They must be prepared with extreme care lest irremediable damage occurs. There are three types; (1) Soft. (2) Semi-soft. (3) Dry. Methods of Preparation for the Extracts

Dry Yield Converted to Liquid Yield On the assumption of 100 kg of dried material, a liquid extract will yield 100 litres of extract. On the same amount of dried material, a 1 in 4 tincture will yield 400 litres of tincture. A Homeopathic mother tincture is 1 in 10. (There are a few odd exceptions). Therefore, the original 100 kg of dried material will yield 1000 litres of the mother tincture. It may be seen that the original 100 kg of dried material has suddenly started to be commercially viable. An average consumer-ready bottle of a tincture or extract has a volume of 15 ml. Accordingly, 1 litre will yield on average 65 x 15ml bottles (allowing for evaporation during the bottling process). The bottles may be filled with nothing more than the usual type of spirits dispenser found in hotels and public houses Appropriate technology is all around us. Grow slowly, but think big..

Dehydration

Dehydration as an art is very old, the origins of which are lost in time. As a science it is relatively young being less than 100 years old. As a process it is fundamental to most herb growing operations. The drying phase is the point at which an otherwise satisfactory crop may be ruined or its economic value considerably reduced and yet it is the one process which is most often botched with some quite appalling materials appearing in the market place. The Benefits of Dehydration The ownership of a dehydrator confers upon the herb grower a degree of market flexibility which is unmatched by any other branch of horticulture. Some of the benefits are as follows:

The crop is stabilised and may be stored for up to nine months. No necessity to sell the crop onto a glutted market. The crop bulk is reduced with good savings on transport. The crop is greatly increased in value. The marketing options are considerably expanded. The Aim Of Dehydration

Good dehydration practice seeks to preserve the herb metabolites in as near to their natural state as possible. Therefore the water content of the material must be quickly and efficiently reduced to a level where biochemical reactions cease and micro-organisms are unable to function. The temperatures employed must be so regulated that the metabolite and cosmetic integrity of the material is not damaged, therefore the grower must not only have knowledge of dehydration theory and the apparatus employed but must also understand the characteristics of the material upon which they work. The Living Herb As living entities herbs are incredibly complex. A single cell with the addition of a few basic elements can manufacture in seconds a dazzling array of intricate compounds, even one of which could take a modern research laboratory many years of painstaking work to reproduce, if indeed they could be reproduced at all. It is well that we remember that the chemical expertise demonstrated by a single blade of grass is as yet beyond our knowledge. Photosynthesis The word 'photosynthesis', means literally, 'made from light' and by that ultimate transmutation the green plant may be seen as the supreme planetary alchemist. The green plant alone has mastered the secret of the transmutation of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into food. All life forms are dependant on the power of the leaf. There are certain kinds of bacteria that are classed as autotrophs ie, able to synthesize food from inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulphide; however the hydrogen sulphide which is used instead of water, is produced from the breakdown of green plant protein by sulphide bacteria, so they too are dependent on the green plant for life. In that respect they may be seen as the bacterial equivalent of the fungus. Primary and Secondary Compounds Primary compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are to be found in all living organisms, whereas the natural distribution of the secondary compounds such as alkaloids and glycosides etc, is somewhat more sporadic, however the secondary compounds are produced in great variety by the green plants. Several thousand of them have been identified, what is

surprising is that they have been synthesized from just 6 major chemical groups, yet they are able to elicit all known pharmacological responses. General Plant Metabolism Metabolism is the term applied to the sum total of chemical activity that occurs within the plant. Herbs like humans must eat, drink, respire, reproduce and die. Water as the arbiter of life performs the same function within the herb as does the blood stream within the human system. The plant is able to exercise a high degree of control of the water throughout its system. When the weather is hot and water plentiful, its rate of transpiration is rapid. Experiments have shown the metabolic rate of an organism is considerably increased by a rise in the temperature, the rate of many reactions being doubled by a 10C rise. The evaporation effect of transpiration is cooling therefore the plant is able to modify its internal temperature and reduce its metabolic rate. When the weather is hot and water is short, the plant is able to reduce its rate of transpiration and within limits control its metabolic rate. The herbs, stem and upper surface of its leaves are covered in much the same way as human skin with thousands of tiny pores called stomata (pl.). the stoma may be opened or closed by 2 sickle shaped guard cells, which line the edges of the stoma. The guard cells are activated by internal or environmental cues or a combination of both. The stomata allow the exchange of gas and vapours between the plant and the atmosphere. The skin or epidermis that surround the stomata secretes a waxy cuticle that inhibits the evaporation of water from the epidermal area of the leaf. For that reason around 95% of the plants respiration and transpiration is via the stomata, however in young or partially developed leaves, or for shade loving plants, then the cuticular exchange of gas or vapours could be as high as 50%.

The stomata are normally open during daylight hours and closed at night, however they will also close if the plant is in anyway damaged or subjected to environmental stress. Water vapour on being discharged from the stomata will linger around the plant and form what is known as the boundary layer. The depth of the boundary layer

will vary from specie to specie and will only form in still air, a light air movement being sufficient to disperse it. Enzymes, the plant chemists Enzymes are classed as complex proteins and nearly all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism are ordered by enzymes. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature (thermolabile), with many being destroyed at temperatures in excess of 70C. The minimum temperature at which enzyme activity will cease is 0C or freezing point. The optimum temperature at which enzyme activity is at its greatest is 30C. The temperatures given are not absolute for it is not only the degree of temperature that is important but also the duration. As previously stated, metabolism is the sum total of chemical reactions within the plant. Metabolism is of two orders; Anabolic ~ which is a constructive process involving the building up of complex molecules from simpler structures. Catabolic ~ which is akin to a destructive process in which complex molecules are broken down into their component parts. Harvesting shock initiates intense biochemical activity, the dynamic equilibrium of the herb is disrupted as the enzymes commence to fire in random order. Anabolic reactions cease and the catabolic reactions predominate as the herb starts to die. During that process, the important secondary compounds are systematically reduced to primary compounds and from there they decompose to the original elemental state. Therefore from harvesting onwards the herbs potency, or lack of it, is a function of time, with up to 35% of the herbs pharmacological activity reduced in 12 hours, however this biochemical activity must be mediated by water. Remove the water and the biochemical activity will cease. Dehydration Times and Temperatures.

The water content of the freshly harvested herb must be swiftly and efficiently reduced to 8 or 9% of its total, at which point enzyme activity will cease, the herbal material may then be considered stable. Heat is necessary for the evaporation of water, however the method, the degree and the duration of the heat applied is of prime importance in the production of a quality crop. Many of the herbs secondary compounds are thermolabile (Decompose) when exposed to excessively high temperatures, conversely low temperatures are equally destructive because the extended drying time promotes excessive enzyme activity. As a general rule drying times in excess of 10 hours are detrimental. Dehydration, Basic Information

Differing species of herb exhibit differing characteristics not only in shape and form but also in the structural composition of its parts, eg soft, hard, fleshy, dense, fibrous, waxy, thick, thin etc; all of which may be considerably modified by geo-climatic factors which will vary from site to site, therefore it is not

possible to raise the treatment of any specie to the level of dogma. Good dehydration practice is as much an art as it is a science and because of the considerable number of variables involved it has not been possible to reduce the practice to a series of tidy mathematical equations. The human mind can weigh and judge imponderables, then arrive at a working solution, therein lies the art. Therefore the operator of dehydration equipment must temper the science with observation and experience.

Part three in a series of articles which outline the basic requirements, for small scale, sustainable cultivation, and processing techniques, for rural communities continues. Extracting with Solvents Apart from the crude drugs, the base materials of compounding, are its solvents and carriers. The solvents are alcohol (ethanol) and distilled water. The carriers are solutions, emulsions, mucilages, syrups, water and alcohol. An essential part of some carrier substances are the fixed oils and waxes. By far, the most important substance is alcohol, without it, a complete extraction of herb constituents is not possible. Solvents used for Extraction Purposes From the standpoint of pharmacy, the purpose of a solvent is to remove from a solid, either in part or in its entirety, such substances that may be rendered to a liquid. In chemistry the solvent is known as the 'SOLUTION' and the extracted material as the "SOLUTE'. In pharmacy the solvent used for extraction is referred to as the "MENSTRUUM'. When the material has been extracted, the menstruum is known as the "VEHICLE' or "CARRIER" of the extracted material. The use of solvents allows quite precise manipulation of herbal material and without their use, herbal therapeutics would not have advanced far beyond a primitive art. Solvents of various kinds are in widespread use throughout industry and many households, in the form of stain removers and oven cleaners, etc. Solvents differ widely from each other, not only in differing boiling points, but how they act or react with substances in which they come in contact. In order to maintain the synergy of herbal preparations, it is vitally important that the plant compounds do not decompose, dissociate or complex when in contact with a solvent. Solvents used for Herbal Preparations The majority of solvents are toxic to a greater or lesser degree. It should also be remembered that it is not possible to remove all traces of a solvent from an extracted substance. There are no perfect solvents, each one has its drawbacks. When considering the suitability of a solvent it should meet the following criteria; 1~ It should display low toxicity to higher life forms. 2~ It should not cause the extract to complex or dissociate. 3~ It should be preservative in action. 4~ It should promote rapid physiologic absorption of the extract. 5~ It should be easily evaporated at a low heat. Alcohol (Ethanol) will meet all of the above criteria. Alcohol The alcohol of the British Pharmacopoeia, is a 95% mixture of ethanol and water, which is obtained by the distillation of fermented sugars or by synthesis. It

is a clear, colorless, volatile liquid. It has a burning taste, with a characteristic odor and boils around 78C. It is miscible with water in all proportions, however, when mixing with water, a contraction of volume and a rise in temperature occurs. The mixture must cool to 20C before it is adjusted to its final volume. Its Specific Gravity (SG) at 20/20C (atmosphere 20C - liquid 20C), is 0.8119, for practical purposes we can say 0.800, its molecular formula is C H OH. Synthetic alcohol can be manufactured by various chemical routes, from different starting substances including ethylene, ethyl amine or ethyl iodide. The most common starting substance is ethylene which is converted to ethanol in the presence of water and sulphuric acid. The alcohol produced by such methods is cheaper, and therefore, attractive. On analysis, its formula is C H OH. The physiological effects are manifestly different to those of alcohol produced by fermentation methods. What is produced is determined by the strain of the yeast and the material (substrata) upon which the yeast must work. The perfumers preference, is for a grain based alcohol to produce the ethereal and elusive top notes of fine perfumes. Whereas, for the herbal pharmacist, a fruit or herb based alcohol is the preferred solvent. Alcohol from Carbohydrate The carbohydrates are found as complexes in all higher plants, those that occur in the lower plants, such as the ferns, mosses and their allies, are substantially the same, therefore, with the correct treatment, we may use them as fermentation substrata, with or without, the addition of sucrose. Remember that carbohydrate synthesis in plants is photosynthesis. This is an important point for the Spagyric Pharmacist, because the alcohol used to extract a plant, is made from the same species. The following table may be used as a rule of thumb to estimate the amount of plant material required, to produce a given amount of alcohol.

The rule is; that all such plant parts must be treated with amylase to convert the carbohydrate to fermentable sugars. We may see from the above table, that the leaf part of the plant contains the least amount of carbohydrate. Enzymes The conversion of sugars by yeast to alcohol, is performed by enzymes; over a dozen have been identified; the total of which is called the ?ZYMASE COMPLEX', all of which are involved in the fermentation process.

Not all of the functions are understood. The most important enzymes, from the alcohol production point of view, may be summarized as follows. It should be understood, that the clear cut divisions between substances and sugars that are shown in table only indicate the major type of sugar to be found in a plant, for they will undoubtedly contain a complex of sugars. Production Routes Honey, Malt or Molasses may be treated as mono-saccharide. Commence the process at the 2nd treatment.

Remember the amylase, like yeast is heat sensitive, therefore, a polysaccharide liquid should be allowed to cool to 25C before adding the amylase. To test if the starch has been converted to sugars, half fill a test tube with the liquid and add 1 or 2 drops of tincture of iodine. If the starch is present it will be indicated by a purple/black color change. If a significant change is noted, leave the ferment liquid for a few hours longer to allow the amylase to complete its task. If the color change is persistent, add more amylase. When the fermentation has ceased the resulting liquid is then distilled. Distillation Distillation is an ancient technique known to many cultures. Western science historians usually credit its discovery to the Arabs in the 11th or 12th century AD. However translations of far older Indian and Chinese medical documents mention products that would need spirits of wine to produce. Therefore would it be reasonable to assume the technique arrived in Arabia from points East and

then percolated into Europe, via Spain, which then, were strongly influenced by Arab culture. It is a fact that all of our technology is no more than a shadowy reflection of a natural process, e.g., distillation is a micro emulation of the planetary rain cycle. The essential process involves a reversible change of state, i.e., Liquid -->,Vapor-->, Liquid A liquid is subjected to heat to produce a vapor. The vapor is then rapidly cooled to produce a liquid. The apparatus used in a laboratory is known as a distillation train. Fractional Distillation Fractional distillation is another technique which is used to separate the different components of a mixture. Separation may also be achieved by simple distillation, but the technique is discontinuous and can become tedious. Whereas the fractional technique is a continuous process that conserves time and energy. In herbology, the major use to which the technique is put, is for the fractional distillation of ethanol. However, for more advanced work, fractional distillation under reduced pressure may be used for certain of the perfume oils. And for the production of granulated extracts. The preparation of ethanol, employing the simple distillation technique, will on condensation produce a liquid which contains some 60 to 70 % water, depending on the care taken. Water evaporates at all temperatures above 0C and water vapor will be carried over with the ethanol. The collected distillate must then be redistilled a number of times to free the ethanol from as much of the water as possible. Traditionally the old herbologists would distill seven times. However, by employing a fractional column, high strength ethanol may be produced in a single distillation. From the 95% alcohol we produce the purified or rectified spirit of the Pharmacopeia, which is 90% alcohol freed from impurities and fusel oils; the diluting medium is double distilled water.

Introduction

The techniques for the preservation of foods, along with the manufacture of stone and bone tools, must rank amongst the very earliest of humankind's technological achievements. Combination smoking and sun drying, was a common technique of huntergatherer cultures, which still finds widespread usage today. Strips of lean meat (jerky or biltong) may be quickly and efficiently preserved in situ, by smoking and sun drying. The process of haymaking in temperate climates, is sun drying on a large scale. The sun drying of medicinal plants, or parts, is an extremely destructive process, during which, up to 85% of the plants bio-activity may be lost in a 12 hour period. Compare that with warm air drying, where the economic loss may be reduced to 35%, or with skill, to as little as 15% within the same period of time. The Production of Warm Air - Simple Drying Shed. In the early days of large scale herbal cultivation, such sheds were commonplace. The introduced innovations were the provision of heated air and drying racks which replaced the bunching and hanging of the herbs undercover. For the first time the commercial herb grower had a modicum of control over his main production process. The gains were considerable. The grower could plan harvesting and dehydration schedules and operate on a 24 hour basis at peak harvesting times. Temperature control was rudimentary and relied upon the opening and closing of convection vents and doors, and the damping controls on the combustion stoves. Ergonomically they left much to be desired and the crop dried in an uneven manner. This necessitated much turning and moving of the harvested material. Today the technology has advanced considerably and many high-tech solutions are available. However many of those solutions are not appropriate to the needs of small scale community production. Appropriate Dehydrator Technology. Solar Vertical Stack Dryer. New Zealand 1984. The photograph is of my first, owner built solar dehydrator, which I operated across 3 seasons. The sheathing was weather treated plywood. The solar air heating panel to the front of the apparatus was constructed from scavenged materials. The solar heat collecting plate was made from corrugated roofing iron, painted matt black. It operated on the principle of warm air convection. I was able, during

sunny weather, to heat the drying chamber to 40C. That was usually, on average, 15C above ambient temperature. Crude temperature control was achieved by means of an adjustable, ambient air flap, opposite, and at the same height as the solar air inlet. The stack, which stands above the drying chamber, houses two cheap plastic domestic bathroom convection fans to assist the warm moisture laden air to be vented to the atmosphere. The fans are powered by warm air convection and not electricity. The shape of the drying chamber roof and the narrowing of the stack was intended to increase the air velocity needed, to carry the vaporised water into the atmosphere Observations and Comments The sheathing was three ply. So that in those months that it was used operationally. Considerable solar heat gain was garnered. It was also light in weight. The apparatus was constructed so that it could be easily stripped down, and reassembled at a new site. Therefore it would have potential to be manufactured in kit sets. Now that sounds like a good community project to me! The dryer is simple. However some thought must be given to the size of the drying chamber, which in turn influences the dehydrator herb loading. The size of the chamber must also bear some relationship to the size of the cultivation. This in order to prepare a proper harvesting and dehydration schedule. The size of the drying chamber will influence the size of the solar panel. The panel must be sized to give the required heat gain needed for successful operation. It produced herb of good aroma and cosmetic quality. The negatives were, it was only operational from sunrise to sunset. There was always a risk of dew point being reached in the dehydrator during the hours of darkness. I would close the dehydrator down at dusk. This I did by closing off the air inlet from the solar panel vent and opening the dehydrator door in order to cool the heated herb down to ambient temperature. This decreased the risk of dew point in the dehydrator. The door was then closed and the ambient air inlet flap opened slightly. Operations commenced again 45 minutes after dawn. Different Types of Dehydrators

The Hybrid System Considerable savings in energy may be achieved by including a solar air heating panel as the air inlet for the heating plenum.

The horizontal stack and tunnel dryer are fuel burners and use electricity powered axial flow fans. The horizontal stack is side loaded. Pride of place

must go to the tunnel dryer, for use on the larger commercial cultivation. It can be constructed from adobe or mud bricks, soil cement bricks or concrete blocks. It has a Solar hot air panel which forms the roof. The furnace is constructed from a suitably modified 200L oil drum, which makes it economic in operation. The major expense is the power required for the fans. A system of vents allows for precise temperature adjustments and the recirculation of air. The dehydrator climate may be modified at will to allow the operator precise air and temperature control through the various drying phases. The moisture laden warm air on exit may be suitably condensed to produce single distilled water which bears a relationship to the herb from which it has been stripped. As such, after a further single distillation, it may be used as part of a hydro-alcoholic solvent, to extract the herb from which it was recovered. Useful Data Enthalpy of Evaporation.

Solar Gain Chart

Conversion Technology

Combustion and Fuel Values Combustion, or burning, is a chemical process involving carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen reacts with the fuel and produces combustion products, some of which contribute to ozone layer damage. The reaction is sensed as heat and light. Combustibles may be solid, liquid or gaseous; and the fuel energy values that follow should be read as mean global values, because the hydrocarbon chemical content of fossil fuels, eg,. coal, oil or gas, vary according to the geographical source. The same situation applies to bio-mass fuels, eg., wood or ethanol. Fuel Energy Values

Extraction Apparatus.
The procedures and apparatus required for extraction purposes are simple. Skills required would be carpentry, and light engineering skills, such as metal cutting, drilling, and welding. When considering the economics of small scale processing plant, there are four factors that need to be balanced. 1. Construction Cost ~ The costs may be reduced by utilizing used dairy or food processing equipment. The main cost is for welding services. 2. Operational Cost ~ Energy use is a prime cost. Unwanted heat loss will add considerably to energy use, as will bad design. Faulty design produces increased labor costs, e.g., difficult load/unload procedures. 3. Maintenance ~ Parts and fittings that are awkward and difficult to clean will add considerably to labor costs. 4. Durability ~ Fragile parts such as sight glasses should have adequate

protection. Seals and breakable joints that have to be dismantled should be of good quality. Stopcocks, taps and valves should be corrosion proof. Contamination problems may easily arise because of the nature of the substances involved in the processing, from chemical action of one substance on another, e.g., heavy metals leached from the equipment are in themselves toxic contaminants, which may then trigger a further reaction in the substance being operated on. Great care should be taken in the selection of materials that will be in contact with solvents or herb extracts. If using plastics or rubbers, then ask the supplier for the specifications of use. Do not use glaze ware unless you know what type of glaze it is.There are also several physical factors that need to be considered, e.g., A. Strength and Weight ~ Will the equipment be fixed or portable? Will the equipment be able to withstand any stresses placed upon it? B. It's Durability ~ Parts that are in contact with liquids and vapors must be resistant to corrosion. Metals that are prone to rust should as far as possible be avoided. C. Thermal Expansion and Conductivity ~ When mating materials, which are different, remember that they will have differing thermal expansion rates. That will produce stress or fatigue with an increased risk of fracture. Distillation equipment and condensers should possess good thermal conductivity. D. Cleansing and Sterilizing ~ Smooth polished surfaces will simplify cleaning and sterilizing and help in the prevention of the formation of heat resistant films. Two of the most commonly used materials for plant construction are copper and stainless steel. If considering copper, then it is most important that all linings in contact with the herbal materials, liquids or vapors, must be tin plated. Copper is a heavy metal that can cause liver damage. (hepatoxic). Stainless steel will meet all criteria. Costs may be kept to a minimum by purchasing and modifying used vats, fittings and tubing. Austenitic Stainless Steels. When nickel is added to stainless steel in sufficient amounts the crystal structure changes to "austenite". The basic composition of austenitic stainless steels is 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Austenitic grades are the most commonly used stainless steels accounting for more than 70% of production, type 304 is the most commonly specified grade. A higher grade is type 316 Basic properties. excellent corrosion resistance excellent weldability (all processes) excellent formability, fabricability and ductility

excellent cleanability, and hygiene characteristics good high and excellent low temperature properties non magnetic (if annealed) hardenable by cold work only Percolation is a method of extraction achieved by the downward displacement of soluble extractive by a suitable solvent through a suitably comminuted drug plant. The process is a combination of maceration and percolation and is sometimes referred to as a process of "Macero-Percolation'. Not all plant drugs are suitable for the process (see Section 11-21). There are 7 distinct operations involved, they are in order of operation; 1. Comminution. The principles of size reduction are covered in section 11-16. Remember if the particles are too fine a solid cake may occur, this will surface area exposed to a solvent. effect the downward flow of menstruum and will most certainly lead to the formation of 'dry pockets' within the body of the material which will escape extraction. It the material is too coarse then interstices are formed through which there is a speedy percolation of menstruum which produces an incomplete extraction and will require excessive volumes of menstruum to exhaust the marc. The Principles of Size Reduction The methods of size reduction (comminution) and the classification of particles obtained are covered later in the article. A major factor in the solubility of a substance is the amount of surface area exposed to a solvent. The greater the exposed surface, the faster and more complete is its entry into solution, e.g. The cube has 6 sides each side is 100 cm2 -: area exposed is 6 x 100 cm2 = 600 cm2. We slice the cube into 8 equal portions. The surface area for each cube is 6x 25 cm2 = 150 cm2 -:- 8x 150 cm2 = 1200 cm2 Therefore we have doubled the surface area. The degree of comminution required will also depend on the composition of the crude drug e.g. is it hard or soft ?, is it thick or thin ? If the drug is leaves or petals then it will be easily penetrated by the solvent, therefore the degree of comminution need not be great, whereas hard and woody substances will

require a greater reduction in size. Some substances such as aloes or gum resins need only be crushed, therefore it is a matter of becoming familiar with the material being operated on. The following categories will serve as a general guide. (A) Broken or Crushed. Gums, resins and inspissated juices. Most seeds and fruits. (B) Sliced or Small Cut. Rinds, skins, pith, stalks. (C) Rasped. This type of size reduction is of dubious value and is only officially used for quassia which is a hard wood. From personal experience the tedium may be avoided by pulverizing such substances. (D) Powders. Rhizomes, roots, barks, woods, corms. There are 5 official grades of powder. Table 11-16A

Further details may be found in Section 6-45. For extraction purposes we may ignore the 80 and 120 mesh with the 25 and 45 mesh being most often used. The final consideration for the degree of comminution needed is the menstruum or solvent to be used for the extraction. Remember that our solvents are water, alcohol or a combination, i.e., dilute alcohol. The tissue of crude drugs in the dried state will contain around 4 to 5% moisture (see Section 4-17) if it has been properly conditioned, therefore if water or a dilute alcohol is used as the menstruum it will penetrate and spread rapidly through the plant tissue; whereas strong alcohol i.e., 50% by volume or over in

the initial stages will cause a shrinkage or hardening of the tissue because the water is pulled to the surface thus shrinking the interior. This phenomenon may be explained by the fact that ethanol molecules have a hydrophilic tail. Apparatus for Size Reduction and Particle Classification. Classification by Sieve. Classification by sieve, may be used directly for particle reduction if using whole dried herb. Sieves are further used for size classification of materials that have been subjected to other means of size reduction. Size Reduction. Small scale size reduction may be achieved by the use of a mortar or pestle or on a larger scale, the same method that is used to produce mealie from dried maize in a village situation. For larger scale work a suitable ball mill may be constructed from scrap parts. It may be powered by hand, pedal, or other motive force such as a suitably geared lawn mower engine or the electric motor taken from a discarded washing machine. The general principle is :

Alternatively an agricultural feed mill will also serve the purpose but it will require an engine or electric motor to operate the apparatus. Size reduction is achieved by fixed or swinging beater arms revolving at speed within a chamber.

The diagram represents a typical piece of laboratory extraction ware. It will be seen that the principle is simplicity itself. Larger scale apparatus may be constructed from discarded milking equipment. 50 or 100 litre containers would meet the needs of the larger cultivation. It is not necessary for the extractor

body to be tapered. However a domed bottom as shown in the diagram would facilitate the efficient extraction of the herbal material. The Hammer Mill.

Small Scale Extraction Apparatus. Choosing an Appropriate Extraction Process. When considering a crude drug for extraction purposes thought must be given to whether the drug is classified as 'organized' or 'unorganized' . If the drug has no clearly defined cellular construction it is unorganized. The maceration process is the only method suitable for unorganized drugs such as gums, resins, oleoresins etc. Such materials are unsuitable for percolation because the residues would block the percolation process. The same restriction will also apply to crude organized drugs that produce large amounts of mucilage e.g. flax or psyllium seed. In other cases if a drug for whatever reason cannot be reduced to a powder then it is not suitable for a percolation process. Some drug materials e.g. Garlic and squill are extremely hygroscopic and in the presence of water tend to fuse into lumps which make them unsuitable for the percolation process. Tinctures from Unorganized Drugs. Maceration is the only feasible method of producing a tincture from an unorganized drug such as gum benzoin or propolis resin. Further information on the exudates will be found in Sections 9-16, and 9-51 et seq. 9-57. The marc from the exudates is usually slimy or gummy and may also consist of various types of debris e.g. insect parts, fragments of soil or plant parts. The gums are insoluble in alcohol while the resins or oleo-resins will pass completely into solution. The gum and debris will sink to the bottom of the maceration vessel. The separation of the supernatant liquid is usually by simple decantation or if required by filtration. There is no advantage to be gained by attempting to press the marc because all of the soluble constituents have entered into solution. 2. Imbibition. The word is derived from the Latin meaning 'to drink in'. The comminuted drug thoroughly moistened with a portion of the menstruum. This is best done in a lidded container of a suitable size. The moistened drug is allowed to stand for a period of four hours to allow the drug to imbibe the

menstruum and thereby swell to its maximum capacity. The container used should be large enough to accommodate the expansion of the drug. 3. Packing. On completion of imbibition the drug should be passed through a number 10 sieve (Table 6-45A) to break up any lumps that may have formed. The drug is then transferred to the percolation vessel in portions. Each portion should be firmly packed but not so firmly that liquid is forced from the drug but sufficient to exclude any air pockets. 4. Maceration. Open the stop cock on the bottom of the percolator and pour in the menstruum in portions and allow to percolate through the packed drug. If the menstruum drips through the stop cock in less than 10 minutes, the drug is too loosely packed. If the first drop takes 25 minutes or more then the drug is too tightly packed. If all is well, then close the stop cock and pour in sufficient menstruum to leave a layer 1 or 2 cm deep over the drug. Cover the percolator and leave to macerate for 48 hours in a warm dark place at a temperature not exceeding 25C.