1176

IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, Vol. 36, No. 1, February 1989

MONTE CARLO SIMULATION OF GAMMA RAY SPECTRA FROM SEMICONDUCTOR DETECTORS

F. Olschner, J.C. Lund, and I. Stern Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. 44 Hunt St., Watertown, MA 02172

INTRODUCTION Although the physical effects occurring within semiconductor gamma ray detectors are separately well understood, it is not always clear exactly how the effects combine to create the sometimes complicated gamma ray pulse height spectra measured in the laboratory. A useful tool to study this is a computerized simulation of the gamma ray detector. In such simulations various physical effects can be "turned on" or "off', allowing the effects to be studied separately. Reliable simulation algorithms can be used to optimize a detector geometry o r configuration, significantly reducing the experimental effort usually associated with detector development. Pulse height spectrum simulations can also be useful in the creation of detector response matrices. These matrices are necessary to reconstruct actual energy spectra from the measured energy spectra. Although other methods have been used [ 11, we chose to use a Morite Cw-lo type algorithm to simulate detector performance. Monte Carlo is well suited to simulate the natural stochastic processes in gamma ray interactions [2]. SIMULATED EFFECTS The simulations in this study were conducted assuming "bulk type" radiation detectors. Bulk detectors consist of parallel contacts on opposite sides o f ii uniform high resistivity semiconducting crystal. An applied potential yields a uniform electric field within the detector. In this study the detectors were assumed to be of rectangular geometry, but the algorithm could easily be adapted for detectors of other shapes. The Monte Carlo simulation program described here was written in Pascal [3] and run on an IBM PC compatible microcomputer with numeric coprocessor. Over 15 events per second could be simulated. The various physical events occurring within a semiconductor gamma ray detector are simulated in a naturally sequential manner. Specifically, the algorithm simulates such effects as exponentially absorbed radiation, the possibilities of multiple Compton scattering within the detector, charge carrier trapping, and electronic noise (Gaussian). A point source of gamma radiation in the range of a few keV to a few MeV is assumed, as is the absence of any material other than the detector. The algorithm could be adapted, however, to simulate extended sources and scattering from nearby materials.
Calculate t h e

SIMULATION MECHANICS Subroutines within the simulation program fall into two categories. In the first are subroutines which compute the energy deposition within the detector due to the incident gamma rays. These take into account Compton and photoelectric interactions and use methods described below. Subroutines in the second category compute the amplitudes of the charge pulses due to the previously calculated energy deposition. These subroutines are based on a model of semiconductor detector performance that considers the trapping of electrons and holes in the semiconductor detector. As is diagrammed in figure 1, incoming monoenergetic gamma rays interact within the detector at random positions having interaction probabilities consistent with exponentially absorbed radiation. The type of interaction (photoelectric or Compton) is randomly determined, consistent with their relative probabilities at the specified energy.

I
charqe using t h e Hecht eqn.

Determlne where t h e incoming g a m m a ray la Stopped Determine

gamma ray interacts

De\erminethedi~ection

1
1

c h e r g e u5mg t h e

t o t a l collected c h a r g e

Figure 1. Flow chart illustrating the processes of gamma ray spectrum simulation utilized in this study.

0018-9499/89/0200-1176$01 .OO

1989 IEEE

I177

The charge collection efficiency within the detector is a function of the position within the detector and is given by

Lvhere U/Q0is the charge collection efficiency, x is the distance from the negative contact, d is the detector thickness, V is the ) ) the bias voltage, and ( p ~and~( p ~are ~ mobility-trapping time products for electrons and holes respectively [4>5,6.7]. Values tor ( p ~and~( p ~may be measured beforehand o r they may ) ) ~ he determined by fitting simulated spectra to measured spectra. If it is determined that ii Compton interaction occurs, the direction of the scattered gamma ray is randomly determined, consistent with the probabilities predicted by Klein-Nishina [SI. The e n e r g from Compton electrons is assumed to be quickly absorbed by the semiconductor, with their enerLy going directly into the production of free charge carriers (electron-hole pairs) within the detector. This is also assumed to he true of the photoelectrons. Using the position of each o f these interactions within the detector. the charge collection efficiency is calculated from ecpicrfion 1. The "charge collected" for this interaction is calculated by multiplying the charge collection efficiency by the energy of the scattered electron. lJsing the scattered gamma ray's chosen direction, its next interaction point is randomly chosen in ii manner consistent with the fact that such radiation is also exponentially iibsorbed. If this interaction point lies outside the detector houndaries, the scattered gamma ray is considered to have escaped. If not. the type of interaction must then be chosen (photoelectric or Conipton), etc.. This process continues until the gainma rays are photoelectrically absorbed OJ they escape. The total "charge collected" is then calculated, adding up this quantity from each of the interactions. Finally this quantity is stored (or "binned") in a histogram which serves a s the final pul!,e height spectrum after many events are simulated.
OTHER SIMULATION PROGRAMS

These large programs are also quite comprehensive, in that different types o f radiation are simulated over large energy ranges. The simulations performed iiz this slicdy are rather specialized in that only gamma rays froin a few keV to approximately 1 MeV are accurately simulated. In this enerky range photoelectric and Compton interactions predominate. For this reason our simulations. which were performed under these circumstances. agree well with measured semiconductor ganimi ray detector pulse height spectra.
COMPARISON OF THE SIMULATION WITH LABORATORY RESULTS

The simulations in this study were made using parameters identical to detectors availabk in the laboratory so that comparisons could be made between the simulations and actual semiconductor gamnia ray pulse height spectra. Cncimium telluride (CdTe) semiconductor detectors were used for the comparison. F&ire -3 shows ii 137Cs(662 keV gamma ray) pulse height spectrum overlapping ;I Monte Carlo simulation. F@re 3 is a (1'2 and 136 k e v garnnia rays) pulse height spectrum and simulation. The results of the CO in p U t e r si in U I at i o ri agree we I I \vi t h ex pe ri ni e n ta I spectra. however some anomalies were ohserved.

57c0

- 4 t

a ,

! ?

3 2 -

-E
3

1 01 0

200

400

600

collected energy (keV)

2.0 I
o -measured

-simulated

There exist a few very large Monte Carlo photon and particle transport simulation computer programs [9.10,11,12]. These programs a r e very detailed and simulate many physical effects. They accurately accomplish the task of computing the pxitions within the detector of particle or gamma interactions and the resulting enerby deposited to the detector at these points. Swierkowski [I31 has used SANDYL [Y] to simulate the pulse height spectra of high-Z detectors irradiated by '37Cs (662 keV gamma rays) having different geometries with some success. These programs have a few drawbacks. however. They are quite large (usually tens of thousands of lines of FORTRAN code) and require fast computers with largc memories. These programs usually run fairly slowly, although the run time is dependent upon the degree of complexity of the problem being simulated.

-1.0

+ a ,
L 0

7
3

0.5 nnl
U.U

I? U
350

.
400
450

? L

500

550

600

650

collected energy (keV)

F i p r c 2. 14ca\urcd '"Cs ( 6 0 2 kcV p i n i n i a ray) pulw height spectrum ovcr1,ipping ;I \ i n i u l a ~ i o n . .A CdTe detector \w\ used to nieiihiirc the \ p i ' i t t i i n i . the dimcngiona 01 \\hieh \\ere 1 nini thick s10 m m width x 1 0 ninl depth. Bia\ vollagc = 3 H I \'. (,UT), =?slO-' cni2 V ~ ' j 1 1 ~ ) ~ ~ . =7u10 cni' V". Elcitronic n o i w i n thc CdTc dclcclor \\'I\ mca\ured to he 6 Lev (FWHM), ho\\cicr the aimulation hc\t f i t the d ~ t a when 3 kcV (FLVHM) of Gaussian hroiidcning \%a$used. Figure 3 \ho\vs a detail of ligurc 21, illuhli-ating thc \ c r y ~ o o agrccment hct\\c.cn the hpcctra ohwmcd at highcr energies. d

'

1178

As can be seen in the pulse height spectra in figures 2 arid 3, the fit between simulated and measured pulse height spectra is not as good at lower energies. There are two
probable reasons for this discrepancy. T h e first, and probably most significant, is our omission of charge carrier detrapping effects from the simulation. T h e "bump" in the measured 57C0 spectrum in figure 3 is almost certainly due to charge carrier detrapping because it's position was observed to change with the linear amplifier's time constants. Although charge carrier detrapping effects are difficult to predict [14], we feel that computerized simulations may afford numerical methods effective in determining a solution and efforts are currently underway to include detrapping in our simulations.

CONCLUSIONS

Computer simulations of semiconductor gamma ray detector pulse height spectra are useful for a number of reasons. Some of these are:

1.)

T h e response matrix [15] of a detector can be calculated by simulating monoenergetic gamma ray spectra at various energies. Measurement of certain detector properties can be determined by fitting simulations to measured pulse height spectra. Optimal detector geometries can be determined quickly by simulation. Difficult or impractical to build detectors can be studied without actual construction.

2.)

3.)

Gl.0 -

.C
4

0.8

4.)

4 0.6 0
4

a l

O, 0.4 -

-+
0

5 0.2 0

120 140

0.0 I 0 20 40 60 80 100 collected energy (keV)

~~

In this study, Monte Carlo techniques were used to simulate gamma ray pulse height spectra from rectangularly shaped CdTe detectors in the energy range of a few keV to approximately 1 MeV. T h e simulation results were found to agree well with measured CdTe gamma ray pulse height spectra. Deviations of the simulations from the measured spectra may be due to physical effects which are not simulated. These include:

Figure 3. Measured 57Co (122 and 136 keV gamma rays) pulse height spectrum ovcrlapping a simulation. A CdTe detector was used to measure the spectrum, the dimensions of which were 2 m m thick x10 m m width x 10 mm depth. Bias voltage = 250 V. @ T ) ~ =2x10-' cm2 V I , @T),, = 7 ~ 1 0 cm2 -~ V-'. Electronic noise in the CdTe detector was measured to be 6 keV (FWHM), which is equal to the amount of Gaussian broadcning simulated. Compton evcnts are not prominent in this spcctrum, as the Compton shoulder encrgy is approximately 40 keV.

1.) 2.)
3.)

Scattering from nearby objects in the laboratory Charge detrapping effects within the detector X-ray fluorescence Auger electron production

4.)

5.)
Another possible cause for the discrepancy between simulated and measured spectra are scattered gamma rays from nearby objects (backscatter) which are measured but not simulated. These photons would enhance the low energy region of the pulse height spectrum. Fluorescence X-ray escape may also account for some of the discrepancy at low energy. Noise in the detection electronics is certainly a source of Gaussian broadening in the measured pulse height spectra, however other more subtle sources may also exist. Inhomogeneities in p7, for example, will result in broadened pulse height spectra. In the simulations, the broadening parameter is not determinable a priori, but is fit to the measured data. T h e same is true for (p7), and ( p ~ ) In fact, ~ measurement of a detector's pulse height spectra has proven to be an simple method of determining p7 in a semiconductor detector material.

1 Pair production (if Egamma> MeV)

Coherent scattering

6.)

Advantages of this simulation method are the compactness of the code (allowing the use of microcomputers) and the speed of operation (approximately 15 events per second). We would like to acknowledge helpful discussions with Frank Sinclair and Mike Squillante, and to thank Jim Kozlotsky for his help in preparing this manuscript.

1179

REFERENCES

R. Bell, Nucl. Inst. and Meth., 93, p. A-2, (1971). M. Kalos and P. Whitlock, Monte Carlo Methods, p. 3, Wiley, (1986). Borland International Inc., Turbo Pascal 3.0, (Scotts Valley, CA, 1983).

K. Hecht, 2. Physik, 77,235, (1932).

R. Hofstadter, Nucleonics, 9, (1949). W. Akutagawa and K. Zanio, J. Appl. Phys., 40, p. 3838, (1969). R.C. Whited, M.M. Schieber, Nucl. Inst. and Meth. 162. p 133, (1979).

L.L. Carter and E.D. Cashwell, Particle-Trans"

Simulation with the Monte Carlo Method, ERDA, Oak Ridge, TN, (1 975). H.M. Colbert, SANDYL: A Computer Program for CalculatinP Combined Photon-Electron Transport in Complex Systems, Sandia Report SLL-74-0012, (1974).

J.F. Briesmeister, ed. MCNP- A General Monte Carlo for Neutron and Photon Transport, Los Alanios National Laboratory Report LA-7396-M (Rev. 2) (1986).
W.R. Nelson, H. Hirayama, and D.W.O. Rogers, The EGS4 Code System, SLAC Report SLAC-265 (1985). J.A. Halbleib, T.A. Mehlhorn, ITS: The Integrated TIGER Series of Coupled ElectronPhoton Monte Carlo Transport Codes, Sandia Report SANDS% 0573, (1984). S.P Swierkowski, I E E E Trans. Nuc. Sci., NS-23 p. 131. (1976). K. Zanio, "Cadmium Telluride", in Semiconductors and Semimetals. Vol. 13, ed. by R.K. Willardson and A.C. Beer, p. 178. Academic Press, (1978).

G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, p. 733, Wiley, (1979).