Twin-Screw Pumps vs.

Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps In this article the Twin-Screw pump will be explored and compared to centrifugal and reciprocating pumps. Primary areas of explanation will include development of energy, limitation of energy generation, effect of viscosity and flow characteristics. The Centrifugal Pump The centrifugal pump is the most widely used pump in industry, is well understood by users and accepted for most all applications. The pump is typically low in price, and available in a wide selection of sizes and configurations. Centrifugal pumps generate energy by accelerating the pumped fluid to high speed through the spinning impeller and converting the velocity energy to pressure energy. As a result, the pumps operate at high speeds which causes high fluid shear rates. Due to the generated head being a function of the energy imparted to the fluid by the spinning impeller, centrifugal pumps produce dynamic head, which is related to pressure as a function Figure 1 Centrifugal Pump Head of the fluids specific gravity. This dynamic head can be expressed as the force exerted on the bottom of a column of fluid in terms of meters of fluid. The head produced is a combination of impeller tip speed and pump design and is generally not a function of the pumped fluid, especially with thin fluids. For Typical Centrifugal Pump Curve instance, if a pump produces a head of 100 250 meters, it will produce 100 meters of head 200 regardless of the fluid pumped as illustrated in 150 Figure 1. This is a general statement and it must be noted that fluid viscosity and the presence of 100 solids will affect the total dynamic head.
Head - Meters Of Liquid 50 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Flow - M3/Hr

As the flow rate increases within the centrifugal pump impeller and case, there are additional energy losses such as eddy currents and friction which decrease the produced head as the flow rate through the pump increases. This results in the familiar shape of the typical centrifugal pump head/capacity curve as shown in Figure 2. Due to the high fluid shear rates, centrifugal pumps can become extremely inefficient when pumping fluids of higher viscosities when compared to Twin-Screw pumps. Figure 3 illustrates a typical effect of viscosity on efficiency of a centrifugal pump vs. a TwinScrew pump. In an application where a centrifugal pump requires 1000 Kw, a

Figure 2 Centrifugal Pump Curve

Viscosity Vs. Efficiency
80

Efficiency - %

2-Screw Pump

60
Centrifugal Pump

40

20

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Viscosity - cSt

Figure 3 Typical Efficiency Curves

Twin-Screw pump may only require 670 Kw. Based on the power difference energy curves in Figure 4 the centrifugal pump would require an additional annual energy cost of $100,000 for 8000 hour/year at $0.04/Kw-Hr. Single stage overhung centrifugal pumps in low pressure applications are typically lower in price than Twin-Screw pumps. At pressures above approximately 10-14 Bar, the pumps must be manufactured in multiple stages which begins to rapidly approach the price of positive displacement pumps. For Power Difference Vs. Cost $0.02 to $0.20 per Kw/Hr that reason, single stage centrifugal pumps 8000 Hours Operation Per Year are typically used at pressures below 14 300 BAR in low viscosity fluid applications. 250 $0.20 $0.10 $0.06 The reduction in efficiency at even modest 200 viscosities of 80-100 cSt requires 150 $0.04 alternative pumping technology be 100 $0.02 considered for any application with higher 50 fluid viscosities regardless of the pressure. 0
Cost - USD ($) x 1000 0

Centrifugal pumps are not self priming and if gas is present in the fluid the pump may Figure 4 Power Difference Energy Cost fill with air/gas and quit pumping (vapor lock). Centrifugal pumps have relatively high net positive suction head requirements as the flow increases and the pump approaches the best efficiency point. Net positive suction head requirements range from the capability to handle vacuums to requiring positive pressures and are a function of overall pump design and size. Common centrifugal pump materials of construction include steel or cast iron bearing frames, steel, stainless steel, iron or Ni-Resist wetted parts depending on the application. In general most centrifugal pumps use antifriction bearings. Both high axial and radial loads may be present and must be considered when making final bearing type and size selections. Typical antifriction bearing design lives are 20,000 to 100,000 L10 hours with lubrication by either grease or oil splash. Advantages of centrifugal pumps include wide acceptance for low viscosity applications, ability to handle various inlet conditions, operation at induction motor speeds, high temperature capability and being well understood by the users. The pump can handle a wide range of non-lubricating, lubricating, abrasive and corrosive fluids. At low viscosities the pump exhibits high mechanical efficiency. Installation and maintenance cost are typically low. Disadvantages include low efficiency at high viscosities, high fluid shear rates, limited pressure capability and vapor locking at moderate gas content or when suction pipe leaks are present.

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Power Difference - Kw

The Reciprocating Pump The reciprocating pump is a constant-speed, constant-torque pump with a constant output and are available in piston and plunger versions. Piston pumps are typically limited to flows of 100-120 M3 /Hr and pressures of 70 Bar or less with plunger pumps covering the 70 Bar to 2070 Bar range. This article is restricted to the piston pump since it more suitably covers the same hydraulic range as the Twin-Screw pump. A series of pistons are driven through an eccentric crankshaft with output determined by overall piston size, piston speed and number of pistons. Pump speeds are typically low in the several hundred RPM range. The pump generates energy by pushing a slug of fluid into the pump discharge piping system at whatever pressure is required to perform that action. As the piston retracts in the bore, the pump chamber volume increases which creates a low pressure region and opens the inlet valve and allows fluid to enter the chamber. At the end of the suction stroke, the low pressure region ceases to exist and the inlet valve closes. The piston then begins the discharge stroke which reduces the discharge chamber volume and forces the fluid to exit through the outlet valve and into the piping system. Figure 5 Piston Pump Cross Section The ability to generate pressure is only a function of the structural capacity of the pump and driver power. If system pressures become too high, catastrophic failure of the pump, piping or drive components can occur. For that reason, all piston pumps should have a relief valve installed in the discharge piping to prevent over pressurization. Volumetric efficiency is a function of valve slippage, packing leakage and (in some instances) fluid compressibility. Slip flow occurs within the pump as a result of back flow through the valves as they close. Viscosity, pump speed and pressure can also have an effect. Typical slipped flow ranges from 2 to 10% of total flow. Overall mechanical efficiencies are relatively high in the 80 to 90% range dependent on design and pressure differential. The resulting speed capacity curve is essentially a fixed flow at a fixed speed as illustrated in Figure 6.
Typical Reciprocating Pump Curve Head - Meters Of Liquid 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Flow - M3/Hr

Figure 6 Typical Piston Pump Curve

Due to the start/stop type operation of the piston movement, there is extensive variations in the flow rate which results in pressure pulsations. This variation in flow can be reduced by increasing the number of pistons. For that reason, piston pumps are typically manufactured in single chamber and multiple parallel chambers of 2 through 7 chambers or more . A common arrangement found in the oil fields is the 3 chamber or triplex pump. Flow variations for a 3 chamber pump are shown in Figure 7 while Table 1 shows the effects of pistons number vs. flow variations. These flow variations can result in pressure pulsations so severe that pulsation dampeners (accumulators) are required to smooth the pulses to a level at which other system components such as, piping, valves and structural components are not adversely effected. Fatigue failure of these critical components is a major concern when subjected to the cyclic loading of the pressure pulsations. Figure 7 Triplex Pump Flow Pulsations Net positive suction head requirements are generally similar to other pumps but an acceleration head factor must be included to insure the fluid is capable of filling the bore as the piston retracts or pump knocking will result. In general, positive inlet pressures are required. Common materials of construction include steel frames, steel, iron or bronze pistons and Ni-Resist cylinder liners. Pistons and liners may also employ various coatings such as chrome or ceramics to improve abrasion resistance. Piston pumps are designed in both sleeve and antifriction bearing configurations. Sleeve bearings are considered to have infinite life when properly installed and lubricated. However, sleeve bearings are designed to operate within a limited speed range and operation outside of this range (either higher or lower in rpm) can result in lost of the lubrication film and bearing failure. In order to start a pump with sleeve bearings, the pump must be first brought up to speed through a bypass line under no pressure load. Antifriction bearing pumps can be started without the need for a bypass line with typical bearing design lives of 30,000 to 50,000 L10 hours. Antifriction bearing lubrication is typically by splash if sufficient pump rpm is present. At low speed a force feed lubrication system may be required to insure proper bearing lubrication.

Advantages of the piston pump include being relatively well understood by the users, high mechanical efficiency and large acceptance by the oil industry. Disadvantages include pulsation levels, resulting vibration problems and low operating speed which requires gear box or V-Belt drives. Disadvantages may also include low flow capability depending on requirements. The installed cost can be high due to the need for multiple pumps, speed reducers and accumulators. Repair cost can be high and the pump may wear excessively when exposed to non-lubricating fluids (water) and abrasive slurries such as sandy crude oil. Leakage of pumpage past the packing rings on the piston rod also pose environmental concerns. The Twin-Screw Pump The Twin-Screw Pump, also called the Two-Screw pump, is a double ended positive displacement rotary pump. Both product lubricated and oil lubricated gear and bearings versions are available as illustrated in Figure 8. Some manufactures lubricate the nongear end bearings using grease. The pump incorporates either a one-piece integral body with the screw bores machined as part of the body or an external case with the screw bores machined in a replaceable liner. Normal pumping action splits the incoming suction flow at the inlet flange into two equal portions which are directed to the inlet end of the screws. Transfer chambers form as the meshed screw set rotates which conveys the pumped fluid axially to the discharge chamber in the center of the pump. Special high viscosity pump designs exist with the fluid entering the center of the screw set and discharging at the screw ends.

Product Lubricated Gears/Bearings With a Single Mechanical Seal

External Lubricated Gears/Bearing With Mechanical Seals or Packing

Figure 8 Two-Screw Pump Configurations

In doubled ended screw pumps, the axial hydraulic forces cancel out. If used, helical timing gears generate axial shaft forces which must be carried by the axial locator (ball or spherical roller) bearings. Hydraulic forces within the meshed screw set generate radial forces which bend the screws toward the bore. These forces are a function of pressure, screw pitch, shaft strength, bearing span and to a minimum degree the screw profile. Shaft bending direction is predictable and direction depends on the orientation of the bores as shown in Figure 9. The amount of bending is a direct function of pressure, screw pitch and shaft material modulus of elasticity, shaft diameter to the 4th power and bearing span to the 3rd power. The most important of these is the bearing span and for this reason, manufacturers offer short and long bearing bracket pump versions as shown in Figure 10. The Long-Bearing Figure 9 Shaft Bending Direction Pumps have longer bearing brackets which allows operation at higher pumpage temperature and installation of exotic sealing arrangements such as double mechanical seals or packing. In Short-Bearing pumps the bearing brackets are shorter which results in the bearing being held close to the pump body to minimize shaft bending. ShortBearing pumps are typically used for lower temperature applications that do not require exotic mechanical seals.

Long-Bearing Version Short-Bearing Version Figure 10 Long and Short Bearing Designs

To maximize pressure capability prior to the screws contacting the bore, manufacturers increase the distance between the screws and bore by machining extra metal (scalloping) out of one side of the bores or offseting the screws to one side of the bores to give extra room for the screws to bend. Scalloped and offset bore and screw arrangements are shown in Figure 11. To increase shaft overall strength and minimize bending, manufacturers have began to change from shell or pinned screws Scalloped Bores Offset Screws to integral (one-piece) Figure 11 Obtaining Screw Bending Clearance screws. The integral screw is stronger as multiple components are not involved with tolerances and fits and the overall shaft diameters at the seal areas can be maximized as illustrated in Figure 12. The advantages of the shell design including the ability to mix and match materials is minimal due to increases in material technologies. The shell screws also proved next to impossible to repair in the field due to difficulties in controlling runout and thread start locations. Therefore, virtually all repaired pinned screws are treated as integral screws during the repair process or were returned to the OEM to have new pinned screws made and installed on the shaft.

Figure 12 Pinned Vs. Integral Shafts

The Twin-Screw pump typically operate at induction motor speeds. The pump generates energy by trapping a pocket of fluid and transferring it from the suction chamber to the discharge chamber. As the fluid pocket traverses down the bore, the pressure increases linearly until discharge pressure is obtained in the discharge chamber. Due to internal clearances within the pump, some flow slips back from the higher pressure discharge chamber to the suction chamber. This slipped flow is a function of internal pump clearances, differential pressure, number of screw turns, viscosity and pump speed which results in a straight line performance curve as illustrated in Figure 13. The ability to

Head - Meters Of Liquid

generate pressure is a function of volumetric efficiency which should not drop below 50% and the structural capacity of the pump. As with the reciprocating pumps, a relief valve should be installed in the discharge piping to prevent over pressurization. Typical maximum flows for TwinScrew pumps is as high 3400 M3 /Hr with pressures to 100 Bar.

Typical Twin-Screw Pump Curve

250
43 cSt 2200 cSt

200 150 100 50 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

NPSH requirements are a function of Flow - M3/Hr pump design, pump size, speed, screw pitch and viscosity. NPSH requirements are typically significantly Figure 13 Typical Twin-Screw Pump Curve less than centrifugal pumps and may be one of the primary reasons for selection of this pumping technology. Pump efficiencies are typically high but decrease as viscosities increase due to increased frictional horsepower. However, efficiencies do not decrease as rapidly as centrifugal pumps as illustrated in Figure 3. By design, there is no metal-to-metal contact inside the pump. However, the screws may be designed to run in boundary layer lubrication conditions against the bores as described elsewhere in this article. Torque is transferred from the drive shaft to the driven shaft through a timing gear set located either in the product or an isolated cooling and lubricating chamber with the bearings. These gears synchronize the rotation of the pumping screws and hold the meshing clearance so no internal metallic contact occurs between the screws. The externally housed gears and bearings typically require no additional systems for cooling and lubricating. In some cases, high horsepower pumps may require auxiliary bearing and gear oil cooling systems. There are two different fundamental design variations of the Twin-Screw pump which can be categorized based on the bore length. For purposes of labeling, the author categorizes the pumps into either the Short-Bore Design or Long-Bore Design. Details of the Short-Bore and Long Bore Designs are outlined below. Short-Bore Design While each manufacturer has modifications to the basic design, Table 2 and Figure 14 detail the basic Short-Bore Design configuration. Table 2 Short-Bore Design Configuration Locator Bearings 2 Ball Anti-Friction Integral Body or Replaceable Liner Radial Bearings 2 Roller Anti-Friction Spur, Helical or Herringbone Gears Short Bore Length (3/4 to 1 times Bore Dia) Circular or Scalloped Bores Light To Non-Contacting Screw/Bore Screws Centered In Bore Diameter Corrosion and Abrasive Resistant Screw Coatings

Due to the short bores, Short-Bore Design pumps are typically designed as either noncontacting between the screws and bores or light contacting. As pressures increase there is the possibility the screws may run in boundary layer lubrication conditions against the bore. Screw and bore coatings or treatments are typically used only to improve corrosion or abrasion resistance. Advantages of the ShortBore Design include shorter bores which reduce cost and the ability to mix and match screw and liner materials to eliminate the necessity of screw and/or bore coatings. Figure 14 Typical Short-Bore/Short-Bearing Design Long-Bore Design Configuration - While each manufacturer has modifications to the basic design, Table 3 and Figure 15 detail the basic Long-Bore Design. Table 3 Long-Bore Design Configuration Locator Bearings 1 or 2 Spherical Roller Integral One-Piece Body or Ball Anti-Friction Radial Bearings - 4 or 5 Heavy Duty Roller Spur or Herringbone Gears Anti-Friction Long Bore Length (1-1/2 times Bore Dia) Circular Bores Non-Contacting to Heavy Contacting Screws Offset To One Side Of Body Bore Screw/Bore Extensive Use Of Screw Coatings and Extensive Use Of Body Bore Coatings and Treatments Treatments

Figure 15 Typical Long-Bore/Long-Bearing Design

Due to the long bores and bearing span, the shafts may bend more in the Long-Bore Design as compared to the Short-Bore Design for equivalent size pumps under similar conditions. This may require the screws to run against the body bores in boundary layer lubrication conditions and necessitate extensive usage of screw O.D. coatings and body coatings/treatments. Limitations to the screw/body bore loading is based on manufacturers priority empirical data for materials of construction and past experience. Advantages of the Long-Bore Design include longer bores which allow longer screw pitches and therefore greater flow capacity in a smaller diameter screw. At shorter leads more screw turns are present which results in lower pressure differentials per turn which reduces slipped flow and wear rates. Some applications such as high pressure thin fluids (i.e. naphtha), require the Long-Bore Design to allow sufficient screw turns to minimize slipped flow and allow acceptable volumetric efficiency. Bearings are also typically heavier duty when compared to the Short-Bore Design pump. Table 3 Twin-Screw Pump Advantages Dry Running (for limited time periods) Low Noise and Fluid Pulsations Self Priming, Capable of Stripping Can Handle High Gas Content Fluids Services and Slugging Flows Lubricating, Non-Lubricating, Corrosive Screw Pitch Changes Allow Different Flow and Abrasive Fluids Rates Abrasive and Non-Abrasive Slurries No Metal-To-Metal Contact Operate At Induction Motor Speeds Flow Varies With Speed Low NPSH Requirements Multiple Sealing Arrangements High Temperature Capability Slow Pressure Buildup High Flow and Pressure Capability Internal and External Bearing Arrangements High Efficiency (Lower Electrical Cost) Horizontal and Vertical Pump Arrangements Low Fluid Shear Rates Reverse Operation Possible Multi-Phase Capability Low Starting Torque Disadvantages of the Twin-Screw pumps may include cost, a relatively complicated design, use of 4 mechanical seals for external bearing designs and not being understood by most users. System Requirements Hydraulic systems, piping, valves, filters, etc. require energy to move fluid through the system. This is a combination of velocity energy to accelerate the fluid, friction and elevation change. As the flow increases, the energy requirements increase as shown in Figure 16. Note that the curve starts at 50 meters of liquid which in this specific example is the elevation change in fluid level.
Typical System Requirement Curve
250 200 150
System 2

Head - Meters Of Liquid

100 50
System 1

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Flow - M3/Hr

Figure 16 System Head Requirement Curve

Head - Meters Of Liquid

Overlaying the different pump curves onto the system curves show how each type of pumping technology reacts as the system changes. This is illustrated in Figure 17 in which the centrifugal pumps flow varies 20% dependent on the system requirements while the Twin-Screw varies less than 5% and the Piston pumps flow remains approximately the same. Based on a viscosity of 330 cSt the centrifugal pump is the most inefficient while the piston pump is the most efficient. Assuming an energy cost of $0.04 per KW-Hr and an 8000 Hour year, the centrifugal pump would have an additional energy cost of approximately $56,400 Typical System Requirement Curve over the Twin-Screw pump. The System 2 System 1 piston pump is the most efficient but 250 Centrifugal approximately 6 pumps in parallel 200 operation would be required to produce 150 the 600 M3 /Hr flow rate.
100 50
Piston 2-Screw

Table 4 below outlines the performance of the selected pumps based on the projected performance data assuming an 8000 hour year with an energy cost of $0.04/Kw-Hr.

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Flow - M3/Hr

Figure 17 Pump System Performance

Pump Type Centrifugal Piston Twin-Screw

Table 4 Typical Performance Overview At 330 cSt System 1 System 2 Quantity Flow Power Energy Flow Power Pumps M3 /Hr Kw Cost M3 /Hr Kw 1 600 485 $155,200 485 492 6 600 255 $86,100 600 346 1 600 309 $98,800 575 379

Energy Cost $157,440 $110,720 $121,280

Note: Energy cost demand charge is not included in the above cost projections. References: Pump Handbook, Igor J. Karassik, MaGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1976, Section 3.1 Power Pumps Cameron Hydraulic Data, 16th Edition, C.R. Westaway and A.W. Loomis, IngersollRand, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 1979, Section 1 Hydraulics

About The Author: Stephen Smith has over 28 years of pump experience as both a manufacturer and user. He is a graduate of Columbus State University and Wingate University and a registered professional engineer in the state of North Carolina. Mr. Smith is currently the Screw Pump Specialist for Flowserve Corporation. Previous positive displacement positions included Chief Engineer-Twin Screw Products for Imo Pump and Warren Pumps and Engineering Manager at Brunswick Defense for a Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit which used a variety of pumping technologies including reciprocating and centrifugal pumps. Prior to that, Mr. Smith was V.P. Engineering for Pekor Pumps, a manufacturer of centrifugal slurry and dredge pumps.