Fuels and combustion The consumption of energy by chemical and biochemical process industries are quite large The

e quite large The process energy requirements are met by the combustion of fossil fuels The fossil fuels consist chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, with small amounts of oxygen, nitrogen ,sulphur ,mineral matter and moisture. The composition of fuels vary widely depending upon the type and source of the fuels. During combustion ,the chemical energy stored in the fuels is released as heat energy. The combustion process is the rapid chemical reaction of oxygen with materials and is used generally for the purpose of liberating heat energy. Majority of fossil fuels are being used in transportation, industries heating and generation of electricity. Crude petroleum is refined into gasoline; diesel and jet fuel that power the worlds transportation system. Today, fossil fuels are considered to be non-renewable for the reason that their consumption rate is far in excess of the rate of their formation. Coal About 250 to 350 million years ago coal was formed on earth in hot, damped regions. Almost 27350 billion metric tones of known coal deposits occur on our planet. Out of which about 56% are located in Russia, 28% in USA and Canada. India has about 5% of worlds coal reserve and that too not of very good quality in term of heat capacity. West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madya Pradesh and Maharastra are the major coal producing states of India. Mainly, there are three types of coal: Anthracite or hard coal ( 90% carbon content) Bituminous or soft coal (85% carbon content)

Lignite or brown coal (70% carbon content) The present annual extraction rate of coal is about 3000 million metric tones, at this rate coal reserves may lasts for about 200 hundred years and if its use is increased by 2% per year then it will last for another 65 years.

Oil: Crude oil, also called petroleum, is a thick liquid found in underground rock formations. The petroleum industry extracts crude oil out of the ground and then refines it into products such as gasoline. Crude oil contains a complex mixture of compounds made of carbon chains with hydrogen molecules attached to each link in the chain. Extracted crude oil also contains small amounts of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen compounds mixed with the hydrocarbons. The principle of oil refining is to remove crude oils impurities, that is, anything that is not a hydrocarbon. The following nations hold the largest oil reserves, in order: Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Venezuela, Russia, Libya, and Nigeria.

Petroleum: Convenience of petroleum or mineral oil and its greater energy content as compared to coal on weight basis has made it the lifeline of global economy. Petroleum is cleaner fuel when compared to wood or coal as it burns completely and leaves no residue. Petroleum is unevenly distributed like any other mineral. There are 13 countries in the world having 67% of the petroleum reserves which together form the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) Six regions in the world are rich in petroleum USA, Mexico, Russia and West Asian countries. Saudi Arabia has one fourth of the world oil reserves.

The oil bearing potential of India is estimated to be above one million square kilometers is about one third of the total geographic area. Northern plains in the Ganga-Brahmaputra valley, the coastal strips together with their off-shore continental shelf (Bombay High), the plains of Gujarat, the Thar Desert and the area around Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the places where oil reserves exist..

Advantages and disadvantages of conventional oil: Advantage Disadvantage

Ample supply for 40-50years

Need to find substitute within

Low cost (with huge substitutes)

Air pollution when burnt, Releases carbon dioxide

Easily transported within and between countries , Efficient distribution system

Moderate water pollution

Low land use

Technology is well developed

Natural gas:

Natural gas mainly consists of Methane (CH4) along with other inflammable gases like Ethane and propane. Natural gas is least polluting due to its low Sulphur content and hence is cleanest source of energy. It is used both for domestic and industrial purposes. Natural gas is used as a fuel in thermal plants for generating electricity, as a source of hydrogen gas in fertilizer industry and as a source of carbon in tyre industry The total natural gas reserves of the world is about 600 000 billion m3, out of this Russia has 34%, Middle East 18%, North America 17%, Africa and Europe 9% each and Asia 6%. Annual production of natural gas is about 1250 billion m3 expected to last for about 50-100 years.

and hence it is

In India gas reserves are found in Tripura, Jaisalmer, off shore areas of Bombay and Krishna-Godavari Delta.

Advantages and disadvantages of Natural gas:

Advantage

Disadvantage

Ample supply for 125 years

Non renewable resource

High net energy yield

Methane ( a green house gas) can lea

Low cost (with huge substitutes)

Air pollution when burnt, Releases carbon dioxide

Less air pollution than other fossil fuels

Shipped across ocean as highly explos

Easily transported by pipelines

Requires pipelines

Low land use

Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Coal The proximate analysis of coal is an empirical procedure for analysis of coal in order to list the composition in terms of the following items, all expressed as percentages by weight of coal The different items are Moisture, Volatile matter, Ash and Fixed carbon . Moisture: The loss of weight when coal is heated in an oven at 105 degree C. Volatile matter: The loss in weight when coal sample is heated in a covered crucible for about seven minutes at 950 centigrade minus the weight of the moisture. Ash: The weight of residue obtained when the sample of coal is subjected to complete combustion in a muffle furnace at 700-750 degree centigrade. Fixed carbon: Calculated as 100-the sum of moisture, Volatile matter and ash already obtained. Or FC= 100-(M+VCM +A) FC -Fixed carbon M-Moisture A-Ash VCM-Volatile combustible matter Ultimate Analysis of Coal The ultimate analysis of coal gives the composition as the percentage by weight of the various elements such as C, H, N, O, S, etc. and the ash. The ultimate analysis

provides the necessary data required for material balance in the combustion of coal. The analysis is carried out by elaborate and standard chemical techniques. The carbon dioxide, water and sulphur dioxide formed by burning coal in a sufficient supply of oxygen determine respectively the amounts of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in coal. Carbon dioxide is absorbed in KOH solution to find the quantity of Carbon dioxide present. Water is found out by absorbing water in concentrated sulphuric acid or any suitable adsorbent like anhydrous calcium chloride or silica gel. Sulphur dioxide is absorbed in lead chromate. The nitrogen in coal is estimated by Kjeldahl method. The percentage of oxygen in the coal is found by subtracting the percentages of all other constituents from 100. Combustion Reaction Type I Problems: The compositions and quantities of the various streams entering the process are known. It is required to calculate the quantity and composition of streams leaving the process for a specified degree of completion of the operation.

Air with known excess Solid fuel, liquid fuel or gaseous fuel Flue gases, Exhaust gas Chimney gas, Product Gas, combustion gases Residue, cinder, ash Type II problems:

The composition of exit stream is known. The composition and quantities of entering streams are not known, partially known or completely known. It is required to calculate the composition and quantities of all the entering streams and degree of completion of reaction are to be determined. Steps to solve type I problems: 1. Select a suitable basis 2. Write the possible reactions 3. Calculate oxygen required for the reaction 4. Calculate the oxygen required from air and call it the theoretical oxygen 5. Calculate the oxygen supplied from the known excess used 6. Calculate nitrogen entering along with oxygen 7. Identify the gases leaving from reactions and input data 8. Calculate the quantity of all the components leaving 9. Calculate the % compositions and find the other quantities asked for Note: While calculating Oxygen required always assume complete conversion 1. A coal has the ultimate composition C-67.34%, H2-4.67%, O2-8.47%, N2-1.25%, S4.77% and the rest ash. Find the theoretical air fuel ratio. If 20% excess air is used find the composition of the flue gases leaving. 20% excess air C-67.34% H2-4.67% O2-8.47% N2-1.25% S-4.77% Ash-13.50% ash Flue gases

Basis: 100 kg coal Carbon entering= 67.34 kg= 67.34/12= 5.612 kg moles

H2 entering O2 entering N2 entering S entering Reactions:

= 4.67 kg = 4.67/2

= 2.335

kg moles kg moles kg moles kg moles

= 8.47 kg = 8.47/32 = 0.265 = 1.25 kg = 1.25/28 = 0.045 = 4.77 kg = 4.77/32 = 0.150 C+O2 S+O2 CO2 H2O SO2

H2+1/2 O2

O2 required= 5.612x1/1+2.335x1/2+0.150x1/1=6.53 kg moles O2 theoretical= O2 required O2 in fuel= 6.53-0.265=6.265 kg moles Air theoretical= O2 theoretical x100/21= 6.265x100/21= 29.833 kg moles Theoretical air fuel ratio (by weight) = 29.833x29/ 100= 8.652 O2 supplied with 20% excess= 6.265x1.2= 7.518 kg moles N2 from air= 7.518x79/21= 20.282 kg moles Gases leaving- CO2, H2O, SO2, O2, N2 Moles of CO2 leaving= Moles of CO2 produced=5.612 kg moles Moles of H2O leaving= Moles of H2O produced= 2.335 kg moles Moles of SO2 leaving= Moles ofSO2 produced =0.150 kg moles Moles O2 leaving = O2 supplied- O2 consumed= O2 in fuel + O2 from air- O2 consumed =0.265+7.518- 6.53 = 1.253 kg moles to completion) Moles N2 leaving= N2 in fuel + N2 from air= 0.045+20.282=20.327 kg moles Composition of flue gases: Component CO2 H2O SO2 O2 N2 Moles 5.612 2.335 0.150 1.253 20.327 29.677 Mole % 18.910 7.868 0.505 4.222 68.494 99.999 (O2 utilized = O2 required if the reaction goes

2. A furnace is to be designed to burn coke at the rate of 500 kg/hr. The composition of the coke used in the furnace is C-89%, ash 11%. The efficiency of the grate is such that only 90% of the carbon charged is burnt.25% excess air is supplied. Of the carbon burnt only 95% is oxidized to dioxide and 5% goes to carbon monoxide. Calculate the composition of flue gases from the furnace. Calculate the volumetric flow of the gases at a temperature of 250 C and 750 mm Hg pressure for the purpose of designing the stack. 25% excess air 500 kg/hr coke C-89%, ash-11% Flue gases

Ash Basis: 100 kg of coke Carbon present= 89 kg= 89/12= 7.417 kg moles C+O2 Mole O2 required= 7.417 kg moles Moles O2 supplied= 7.417x1.25=9.271 kg moles N2 supplied with O2 = 9.271x79/21= 34.877 kg moles Gases leaving: CO2, CO, O2, N2 Moles of CO2 leaving= moles of CO2 produced= 7.417x0.9x0.95= 6.342 kg moles Moles CO leaving= moles CO produced= 7.417x0.9x0.05= 0.334 kg moles Moles O2 leaving= moles O2 entering O2 consumed= O2 from air- O2 consumed =9.271- 6.342x1/1-0.334x1/2= 2.762 kg moles Moles N2 leaving= moles N2 from air= 34.877 kg moles Composition of gases: Component CO2 Moles 6.342 Mole % 14.311 CO2

CO O2 N2

0.334 2.762 34.877 44.315

0.754 6.233 78.702 100.000

3. A furnace uses coke containing 80% carbon, 0.5 % hydrogen and rest ash. The furnace operates with 50% excess air. The ash contains 4% unburned carbon. Of the carbon burnt 5% goes to monoxide. Calculate the composition of the flue gases. What is the quantity of ash produced per 100 kg of coke burned? 100 kg coke 80% carbon 0.5% Hydrogen 19.5% ash Flue gases 50% excess air

96% ash, 4% carbon Basis: 100 kg coke burnt Carbon present= 80 kg= 80/12= 7.5 kg moles Hydrogen present=0.5 kg= 0.5/2= 0.25 kg moles C+O2 H2+1/2 O2 CO2 H2O

O 2 required= 7.5x1/1+0.25x1/2= 7.625 kg moles O2 supplied= 7.625x1.5= 11.4375 kg moles N2 with O2= 11.4375x79/21= 43.027 kg moles Gases leaving: CO2, CO, H2O, O2, N2 Ash in fuel= ash in residue Carbon lost in residue=4/96x19.5= 0.8125 kg= 0.8125/12= 0.0677 kg moles Carbon burnt= 7.5- 0.0677= 7.4323 kg moles CO2 leaving=CO2 produced= 7.4323x0.95= 7.061 kg moles CO leaving= 7.4323x0.05= 0.3716 kg moles H2O leaving= 0.25x1/1=0.25 mole

O2 leaving= O2 entering- O2 consumed= 11.4375- 7.061x1/1-0.3716x1/2-0.25x1/2= 4.0657 kg moles N2 leaving= 43.027 kg moles Composition of gases leaving: Component CO2 CO H2O O2 N2 Moles 7.061 0.3716 0.25 4.0657 43.027 54.7753 Ash produced per 100 kg of coke= (100/96) x19.5= 20.3125 4. A producer gas made from coke has the following composition CO-28%, CO2- 3.5%, O2-0.5 % and the rest N2. The gas is burnt with such a quantity of air that the O2 from air is 25% in excess of that required for combustion. The combustion is 95% complete. Calculate the composition of the flue gases by volume and by weight for 100 kg of gas burnt. What is the density of the flue gas? Producer gas CO-28% CO2-3.5% O2-0.5%, N2-68% Basis: 100 moles of producer gas CO+ O2 Moles O2 required= 28x1/2=14 moles Moles O2 theoretical = O2 required- O2 in fuel= 14-0.5= 13.5 moles Mole O2 supplied= 13.5x1.25= 16.875 moles Moles N2 supplied= 16.875x79/21= 63.482 moles Gases leaving: CO2, CO, O2, N2 CO2 leaving= CO2 produced+ CO2 entering= 28x0.95+ 3.5= 26.6+3.5= 30.1 moles CO leaving = CO unreacted= 28x0.05= 1.4 moles O2 leaving= O2 entering-O2 consumed=0.5+16.875-26.6x1/2= 17.375-13.3=4.075 moles CO2 Flue gases 25% excess air 95% completion Mole% 12.891 0.678 0.456 7.423 78.552 99.999

Moles N2 leaving= 68+ 63.482= 131.482 moles Composition of flue gases Component CO2 CO O2 N2 moles 30.1 1.4 4.075 131.482 167.057 Mole% 18.018 0.838 2.439 78.705 100.000 Mole wt 44 28 32 28 weight 1324.4 39.2 130.4 3681.496 5175.496 Weight % 25.590 0.757 2.520 71.133 100.000

Composition of flue gases will be same irrespective of the quantity burnt. Density of the gases leaving at NTP= mass/volume at NTP = 5175.496/ 167.057x22.414= 1.382 kg/ m3 5.A petroleum refinery burns a gas mixture containing C5H12-7.5%, C4H10-10%, C3H815%, C2H6 -9%, CH4-55%, N2-3.5% at the rate of 200m3 measured at 4bars and 25C. The air rate is adjusted to have 20% excess air. The flue gases contain CO2 and CO in the ratio 20:1. Calculate the volume of air used at 1.5 bars and 30C and composition of flue gases.

Gas mixture C5H12-7.5% C4H10-10% C3H8-15% C2H6-9% CH4-55% N2-3.5%

20% excess air Flue gases CO2: CO=20:1

Basis: 100 moles of gas mixture entering Reactions

C5H12 +8O2 C4H10 +13/2O2 C3H8 +5O2 C2H6 +7/2O2 CH4 +2O2

5CO2+ 6H2O 4CO2+5H2O 3CO2+4H2O 2CO2+3H2O CO2+2H2O

O2 required =7.5x8+10x13/2+15x5+9x7/2+55x2= 60+65+75+31.5+110=341.5 moles O2 supplied=341.5x1.2 = 409.8 moles N2 supplied= 409.8x79/21= 1541.629 moles Gases leaving CO2, CO, H2O, O2, N2 Carbon in fuel= 5x7.5+4x10+3x15+2x9+1x55=195.5 Moles CO2 leaving = moles CO2 produced= 195.5x20/21= 186.19 Moles CO leaving= moles CO produced= 195.5x1/21=9.31 Water leaving= water produced=6x7.5+5x10+4x15+3x9+2x55= 45+50+60+27+110=292 O2 leaving= O2 supplied-O2 utilized= 409.8-186.19x1/1-9.31x1/2-292x1/2=72.955 Moles N2 leaving= moles N2 entering=3.5+1541.629=1545.129 Volume of gases entering at 4 bars and 25C= 100x22.414x1/4x298/273= 611.664 m3 Volume of air used at 1.5 bar and 30C= (409.8+1541.629)x22.414x1/1.5x303/273=32363.90 m3 Volume of air used per 200 m3 of gases entering= (32363.9/ 611.664)200= 10582.25 m3

Composition of gases leaving Components CO2 CO H2O O2 N2 Moles 186.19 9.31 292 72.955 1545.129 2105.584 Orsat analysis: Mole % 8.843 0.442 13.868 3.465 73.382 100.000

Orsat analysis is the analysis with out water and SO3 free. The flue gases contain water and SO3 if sulphur is present along with other products of combustion. In the presence of H2O vapor and SO3 the analysis will be difficult .Therefore H2O and SO3 are removed before analysis and the composition of other constituents are presented in flue gases. Such analysis is called orast analysis. Orsat apparatus is used for the analysis. Type II problems: Air in excess quantity Fuel Fuel Residue Select a suitable basis Carry out elemental balance for N, O, C or C, N, O depending on the problem Calculate theoretical O2 Calculate excess O2 and Calculate the other quantities asked for 6. A furnace is fired with a fuel oil. The orsat analysis of the flue gases indicated 10.6% CO2, 2.6%O2 and rest N2 by volume. Find C-H ratio of the fuel assuming that fuel oil does not contain nitrogen. Orsat analysis of flue gases given

Air excess Fuel oil Flue gases CO2-10.6%,O2-2.6%, N2-86.8%

Basis: 100 moles of dry flue gases N2 balance: N2 in flue gases= 86.8 moles N2 from air= 86.8 moles

O2 balance: O2 from air= 86.8x21/79 = 23.07 moles O 2 accounted in flue= 10.6x1/1+2.6= 13.2 moles O2 un accounted=23.07 -13.2= 9.87 moles, this O2 must have combined with H2 In flue to form water and has been eliminated before analysis H2 balance: Moles H2 in fuel = 9.87x2=19.74 moles C balance: Moles carbon in flue= 10.6 = moles of carbon in fuel C to H ratio (mole) in fuel= 10.6/ 19.74= 0.537 C to H ratio (weight) in fuel= 10.6x12/ 19.74x2= 3.222 7. A combustion chamber is fed with butane and excess Air. The combustion of butane is complete. The composition of combustion gases by volume is given below.CO29.39%, H2O 11.73%, O2-4.5% and N2-74.38%. Find the % excess air used and mole ratio of air to butane used Excess air Flue gases Butane CO2-9.39%,H2O-11.73%,O2-4.5%,N2-4.38% Basis: 100 moles of flue gases C4H8 + 6O2 N2 balance: Moles N2 in flue= 74.38 Moles N2 in fuel= 74.38 O2 balance: O2 from air= 74.38x21/79=19.772 moles Carbon balance: Moles of carbon in flue= 9.39 moles 4CO2+ 4H2O

Moles butane entering= 9.39/4 =2.3475 moles (formula of butane C4H8) O2 theoretical= 2.3475x6 = 14.085 moles % excess air= [(O2 supplied- O2 theoretical)/O2 theoretical] x100 = [(19.772-14.085)/14.085]x100=40.38% Air to butane ratio (mole) = (19.772x100/21)/ 2.3475= 40.108 8. The orsat analysis of flue gases is CO2-12.7% O2-7.1 %, N2-80.2%. Determine the % excess air used in the combustion. The N2 present in the flue gas is contributed by air only. O2 in excess Fuel Flue gases CO2-12.7%,O2-7.1%, N2-80.2% Basis: 100 moles of dry flue gases N2 balance: N2 in flue= 80.2 moles =N2 from air O2 balance: O2 from air= 80.2 x21/79=21.319 moles O2 excess= 7.1 moles O2 theoretical= 21.319- 7.1=17.219 % excess= (7.1/17.219)x100= 41.234 % 9. A coal containing C-67.9% H2-4.4% S-0.8% N2-13.21% O2- 7.9%, ash 4.5%, H2O1.29% is burnt in a furnace. The combustion dry gas has CO2-14.5%, O2-4.7% and rest N2. Calculate a. theoretical volume of air per 100 kg coal. b. % excess air. Excess air C-67.9% H2-4.4% S-0.8% N2-13.21% O2- 7.9%, ash 4.5%, H2O-1.29% Coal dry flue gas CO2-14.5 %, O2-4.7%, N2-80.8%

Basis: 100 kg coal Carbon in fuel= 67.9 kg = 67.9/12=5.658 kg moles Hydrogen in fuel= 4.4 kg= 4.4/2=2.2 kg moles Nitrogen in fuel= 13.21 kg= 13.21/28= 0.472 kg moles Oxygen in fuel=7.9 kg= 7.9/32=0.247 kg moles Water in fuel= 1.29 kg= 1.29/18= 0.072 kg moles Ash in fuel= 4.5 kg Carbon balance: Carbon in fuel= 5.658 kg mole Carbon in flue= 5.658 kg moles Moles of carbon in 100 moles of dry flue gases= 14.5 kg moles Moles of dry flue gases produced= (100/14.5)x5.658= 39.021 kg moles Moles CO2 in flue= 39.021x0.145=5.656 moles Moles of O 2 in flue= 39.021x0.047=1.838 Moles of N2 in flue= 39.021x0.808=31.527 moles N2 balance: N2 in fuel + N2 in air= N2 in flue O 2 balance: O2 from air= 31.055x21/79= 8.255 O2 theoretical= 5.658x1/1+2.2x1/2-0.247= 6.511 % excess air= [(O2 supplied-O2 theoretical)/O2 theoretical] x100= [(8.2556.511)/6.511]x100=26.765% Theoretical volume of air/100 kg coal= (6.511x100/21)22.414= 694.94 m3 at NTP 10. The gas obtained from the furnace fired with a hydrocarbon fuel analyses 10.2% CO2, 7.9% O2 and 81.9% N2 on dry basis. Calculate a. the % excess air b. carbon to hydrogen ratio c. kg of air supplied per kg of fuel burned. Excess air Hydrocarbon fuel dry flue gas CO2- 10.2 %, O2-7.9% N2-81.9% 0.472+ N2 from air= 31.527 Therefore N2 from air= 31.527-0.472= 31.055 moles

Basis: 100 kg moles dry flue gas N2 balance: N2 in flue= 81.9 moles N2 from air= 81.9 moles O2 balance: O2 from air= 81.9x21/79= 21.771 moles O2 accounted in flue= 10.2+7.9= 18.1 moles O2 un accounted= 21.771- 18.1= 3.671 which would have combined with H2 to form water Hydrogen in fuel= 3.671x2= 7.342 moles Carbon in fuel= 10.2 moles O2 theoretical= 10.2+ 3.671= 13.871 O2 excess= [(21.771-13.871)/ 13.871] x100= 56.953 Carbon to hydrogen ratio (mole) = 10.2/ 7.342= 1.389 Carbon to hydrogen ratio (weight) = 10.2x12/ 7.342x2= 122.4/14.684= 8.336 Kg air supplied per kg fuel burnt= (21.771+81.9)29/ (122.4+14.684) = 21.932 11. A sample of coal is found to contain 65% carbon, 12.7% ash by weight and the remaining H2 and water vapor. The refuse obtained after burning the fuel is found to have 8.6% carbon. Assume negligible oxygen is present in the coal. Flue gas analysis showed CO2-10.6%, O2-8.7% and N2-80.7% by volume. Calculate a. actual weight of flue gas produced by burning coal b. actual weight of dry air used for burning the coal c. amount of combustible H2 present in fuel d. % excess air. Excess air Coal C-65% Ash-12.7% H2 and H2O-22.3% Refuse- 8.6% C, 91.4% ash Basis: 100 kg of coal Ash balance: Flue gas CO2-10.6% O2- 8.7% N2-80.7%

Ash in fuel =12.7 kg = ash in refuse Carbon balance: Carbon present in fuel = 65 kg Carbon lost in refuse= (8.6/91.4)12.7= 1.195 kg Carbon burnt= 65-1.195= 63.805 kg= 63.805/12=5.317 kg moles Carbon present per 100 kg mole dry flue=10.6 moles Moles of dry flue gas produced = (100/10.6)5.317 = 50.16 moles CO2 in flue=50.16x0.106= 5.317 moles O2 in flue= 50.16x0.087=4.364 moles N2 in flue= 50.16x0.807=40.479 moles N2 balance: 20.3N2 from air= N2 in flue= 40.479 moles O2 balance: O2 from air= 40.479x21/79= 10.760 moles O2 accounted in flue= 5.317x1/1+4.364= 9.681 moles O2 un accounted= 10.760-9.681= 1.079 moles which would have combined with H2 to form water and eliminated before analysis Therefore moles H2 available in fuel= 1.079 x2= 2.158 moles Weight of H2 in fuel= 2.518x2= 5.036 kg Therefore weight of water in fuel= 20.3- 5.036 = 15.264 kg Water produced=2.158 moles Actual weight of flue produced= dry flue gases + water =5.317x44+4.364x32+40.479x28+2.158x18+15.264 = 233.948+139.648+1133.418+38.844+15.264=1561.122 kg Weight of dry air used= (10.760+40.479)29=1485.931 kg Weight of combustible H2 in fuel= 5.036 kg O2 theoretical=65/12x1/1+1.079=6.496 moles % excess= (10.76-6.496)/6.496x100= 65.64% 12. A solid fuel with composition by weight of C-78%, H2-6%, O2-9.8%, N2-1.2%, ash5% and is burnt in air. The products of combustion give an orsat analysis CO2-12.5%,

CO-0.09%, O2-5.6% and rest N2. The refuse removed from ash pit contains 30% carbon by weight. Find the actual air fuel ratio and % excess air.

Solid fuel C-78% H2-6% O2-9.8% N2-1.2% Ash-5% Refuse 30% C, 70% ash

Flue gas CO2- 12.5% CO-0.09% O2-5.6% N2-81.81%

Basis: 100 kg of solid fuel Moles of carbon entering= 78/12= 6.5 kg moles Carbon lost in refuse from an ash balance= (30/70)5= 2.143 kg= 2.143/12=0.179 kg moles Therefore carbon burnt= 6.5-0.179=6.321 kg moles Carbon present per 100 kg mole dry flue gas= 12.5+0.09= 12.59 kg mole Therefore dry flue produced= (100/ 12.59)x 6.321= 50.207 kg moles Moles CO2= 50.207x 0.125=6.276 kg moles Moles CO = 50.207x0.0009= 0.047 kg moles Moles of O2= 50.207x0.056= 2.8116 kg moles Moles N2= 50.207x0.8181= 41.074 kg moles N2 from air= N2 in flue-N2 in fuel= 41.074- 1.2/28=41.031 O2 from air= 41.031x21/79=10.907 kg moles Air fuel ratio= (41.031+10.907)29/ 100= 15.06 O2 theoretical= 6.5x1/1+6/2x1/2-9.8/32=6.5+1.5-0.306=7.694 % excess air= (10.907-7.694)/ 7.694x100= 41.76%

13. Wood having the analysis C-46%, O223%, ash-5% and rest being moisture and H2 is burnt in a furnace. The orsat analysis of flue gas obtained is CO2-14.9%, CO1.65%, O2-3.45% and N2-80%. Calculate a. complete analysis of wood used b. fuel to air ratio by weight c. % excess air used d. complete composition of stack gases. Wood C-46% O2-23% Ash-5% Moisture&H2= 26% CO2-14.9% CO-1.65% O2-3.45% N2-80 % Basis: 100 kg of wood: Carbon in wood= 46 kg=46/12= 3.833 kg moles O2 in wood=23 kg=23/32=0.719 kg moles Moles carbon per 100 kg mole dry flue gas= 14.9+1.65= 16.55 kg moles Moles dry flue produced by a carbon balance= (100/16.55)x3.833=23.23 kg moles Moles of CO2 in flue= 23.23x0.149= 3.361 kg moles Moles CO in flue= 23.23x0.0165= 0.383 kg moles Moles O2 in flue= 23.23x 0.0345= 0.801 kg moles Moles of N2 in flue= 23.23x0.8=18.584 kg moles N2 from air= N2 in flue= 18.584 kg moles O2 from air = 18.584x21/79= 4.940 kg moles O2 accounted in flue= 0.801 kg moles O2 un accounted= 4.940- 0.801= 4.139 kg moles Therefore combustible H2 present= 4.139x2= 8.278 kg moles Weight of H2 present in wood= 8.278x2= 16.556 kg Moisture present in wood= 26 -16.556 = 9.444 kg Fuel to air ratio (weight) = 100/ (18.584+4.940)29=0.147 excess air flue gas

O2 theoretical= 3.833x1/1-0.719=3.114 % excess= (4.94-3.114)/3.114x100= 58.64 % Composition of stack gases: Component CO2 CO H2O O2 N2 Total moles 3.361 0.383 8.278 0.801 18.584 31.407 Mole% 10.700 1.219 26.357 2.550 59.172

14. The analysis of the flue gas from a combustion reaction is as follows. CO2 -10.8%, CO-4%, O2-9.2% and N2-76% by volume. The producer gas burnt had the composition CO2-9.2%, C2H4-0.4%, CO-20.9%, H2-19.6%, CH4-1.9% and N2-48% on volume basis. Compute a.m3 of air used in combustion of 1 m3 of producer gas b. % excess air. Producer gas CO2-9.2% C2H4-0.4% CO-20.9% H2-19.6% CH4-1.9% N2-48% Basis: 100 moles of producer gas. Carbon balance: Carbon in fuel= 9.2x1/1+0.4x2+20.9x1+1.9x1= 32.8 moles Carbon per 100 moles of dry flue= 10.8+4= 14.8 moles Moles of dry flue gas produced= (100/ 14.8)32.8= 221.622 moles CO2 in flue= 221.622x0.108= 23.935 moles CO in fuel= 221.622x0.04=8.865 moles O2 in flue= 221.622x0.092=20.389 moles excess air Flue gas CO2-10.8 CO-4% O2-9.2% N2-76%

N2 in flue= 221.622x0.76=168.433 moles N2 balance: N2 from air=N2 in flue-N2 in fuel= 168.433-48= 120.433 moles O2 balance: O2 from air= 120.433x21/79= 32.014 moles m3 air used per m3 of producer gas= (120.433+32.014)22.414/ 100x22.414= 1.524 O2 theoretical= 0.4x3+20.9x1/2+19.6x1/2+1.9x2= 25.25 moles % excess air= (32.014-25.25)/25.25x100= 26.788%