Cardiovascular System; Respiratory System

Beginning with the left ventricle, blood is pumped through the aorta, then to many arteries which eventually become arterioles, which further branch into smaller capillaries. Blood from capillaries is collected into venules, which then form into larger veins which collect again into the superior and inferior vena cava. The vena cava empty the blood into the right atrium of the heart. This first half of circulation is referred to as systemic circulation. From the right atrium, blood is squeezed into the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary veins which deposit the blood into the left atrium, blood then fills the left ventricle, this second half of circulation was known as pulmonary circulation. Blood is propelled by the hydrostatic pressure created by the contraction of the heart. Heart rate is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. However, ANS does not initiate the contractions, contractions occur automatically, paced by a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells called the SA Node. (located in the right atrium). The parasympathetic VAGUS NERVE innervates the SA Node, slowing the contractions. AV Node is excited by action potential generated by the SA Node. o Baroreceptors monitor pressure, if aortic pressure is decreased, baroreceptors sense this and send an impulse to the medulla, medulla would then respond by activated the sympathetic nerves of the autonomic nervous system and norepinephrine is released at the SA Node which subsequently increases heart rate. Sympathetic nerve stimulation of the adrenal medulla is also done and epinephrine is also released.

Arteries are elastic and stretch as they fill with blood, they are wrapped in smooth muscle that is innervated by the sympathetic nervous system. Epinephrine is a powerful vasoconstrictor. Larger arteries have less smooth muscle. Arterioles provide major resistance to blood flow in the cardiovascular system. And are used to regulate blood pressure. Capillaries is the level of blood vessels where diffusion occurs. As blood flows into a capillary, the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure, and so fluid flows out of the capillaries and into the interstitium. As capillaries become closer to venules, osmotic pressure then becomes stronger than the hydrostatic pressure and the net flow of fluids reverses, and is now INTO the capillaries and out of the interstitium. Veins contain a far greater volume of blood than the arteries or arterioles, they hold about 64% of the total blood volume. Blood Velocity inversely proportional to cross sectional area. Veins have a cross sectional area four times larger than that of arteries, so blood velocity in veins will be very low compared to arteries. Total cross sectional area of capillaries is far greater than arteries or veins, which is why blood velocity is the lowest in capillaries. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Inspiration begins when the medulla oblongata signals the diaphragm to contract, forming negative gauge pressure. Intercostal muscles (rib muscles) also create negative gauge pressure. Detachment of lung from the parietal pleura will cause lung to collapse. Pharynx functions as a passageway for food and air. Larynx is the voice box. Trachea splits into left and right bronchi which brand out into tiny bronchioles which form clusters called alveolar sacs, which consist of tiny alveoli. CHEMISTRY OF GAS EXCHANGE In deoxygenated blood, the partial pressure of oxygen is less than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2>PO2) as this enters capillaries surrounding the alveoli of the lungs. The PO2 >>>> PCO2 in the alveoli, and as such, oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient from the alveoli and into the capillaries, also, carbon dioxide will also diffuse down its concentration gradient, going from the capillaries to the alveoli. The oxygenated blood that then leaves the capillaries now has PO 2>>PCO2. When PO2 is very high, you are in the alveoli. When PO2 is a bit lower, you are at the tissue level.

 In a hemoglobin/oxygen dissociation curve, the curve will shift to the right and downward when the blood pH is low (high CO2 in the blood, and acidosis). This means that hemoglobin will release the oxygen that it is carrying and bind to CO 2. Inside the lungs, the partial pressure of oxygen is much higher than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, this causes oxygen to flood the capillaries and carbon dioxide to leave the capillaries and enter the lungs (where they are expelled by exhalation). + The presence of carbon dioxide or H ions shifts the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right, indicating a lower oxygen affinity for hemoglobin. Carbon monoxide as an affinity for hemoglobin that is 200 times that of oxygen. Carbonic Anhydrase converts carbon dioxide into bicarbonate ions -> these releases a proton, decreasing blood pH.

Lymphatic System collects excess interstitial fluid and returns it to the blood. Proteins and large particles that cannot be taken up
by the capillaries are removed by the lymph system.