8.

The pH Scale
Concentrated acids and bases are very hazardous. For example,
concentrated hydrochloric acid is so corrosive that it will burn through
clothing. A concentrated base is also highly corrosive. However,
hydrochloric acid is also found in your stomach, and baking soda is safe
enough to put in the food that you eat. A dilute solution of hydrochloric
acid is less acidic and less likely to react than a concentrated solution. How
D i d Yo u K n o w ?
can we determine how acidic or basic a substance is?
Chemists use the pH scale to represent how acidic or basic a solution The pH scale was so-named
is. Most acids and bases can be ranked on this scale. A very acidic solution because it represents the
has a very low pH value. A neutral solution, like pure water, has a pH of 7. “power of Hydrogen”— that is,
the concentration of hydrogen
A very basic (or alkaline) solution has a very high pH value. The pH values
ions — in a solution.
for a variety of common substances are shown in Figure 1.

Bleach

5) 5) ) 0) ) 0) .0) .6) 5) 3) ) ) ) .0) .0) .4) .5)

d (0. d (1. e (2.0 (3. e (3.8 s (4. ee (5 in (5 lk (6. (7.0) d (7. r (7.9a (8.2 x (9.1 a (10 r (11 (12 (13
i ci c s e i r o te d a i e h er
ac a jui ple win ato coff al ra m ate blo wa so r
bo agne
s an ac an
tte
ry ach mon ap
tom ck orm w sea aking m a cle ble cle
a m e la n f ni in
b sto l b b
lk o mo dra
mi am
Figure 1

The pH scale was developed in 1909 to allow scientists to compare the concentration of hydrogen
ions in various solutions.

296 Chapter 8
pH: A Logarithmic Scale
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale (Figure 2),
which means that every change of one unit on
the scale represents a tenfold effect on the
concentration of the solution. For example, an
increase of one on the scale represents dividing
the concentration by 10 (or 101), and a decrease
of two represents multiplying the concentration
by 100 (or 102).
As the pH decreases, the solution becomes
more acidic. A solution with a pH of 3 is 10 times
more acidic than a solution with a pH of 4 and
100 times more acidic than a solution with a pH
of 5. As the pH increases, the solution becomes
more basic. Thus, a solution with a pH of 13 is 10
times more basic than a solution with a pH of 12
and 100 times more basic than a solution with a
pH of 11.
The pH is defined according to the following
formula:
pH = −log10 [H+]
where the square brackets around the H+ ion
represent the “concentration of hydrogen ions in Figure 2
solution.” The units of concentration are mol/L
The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale. An increase of three units on the scale
(read as “moles per litre”). represents an earthquake that is 1000 times worse. The 1989 earthquake that
caused serious damage in parts of California measured 7.1 on the Richter scale.

Try This
Activity Dilution and pH
If your school lab is equipped with a pH meter • Repeat the process using a solution with a
that gives digital readouts of pH, you could use it pH of 13. (A 0.5% solution of sodium
to investigate the effects of dilution on pH. hydroxide would be appropriate.)
• Put on safety goggles and an apron. (b) Explain your results.
• Obtain 10 mL of a solution with a pH of 1.
(A 1% hydrochloric acid solution would be
Sodium hydroxide is corrosive. Any
appropriate.) Measure the exact pH of the
spills on the skin, in the eyes, or on
solution using the meter.
clothing should be washed immediately
• Dilute the solution by a factor of 10. For
with cold water. Report any spills to
example, place 10 mL of the acid in a
your teacher.
graduated cylinder and add 90 mL of water
to make 100 mL of solution. Measure the pH Hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Any
of this dilute solution. spills on the skin, in the eyes, or on
• Repeat the process with successive dilutions clothing should be washed immediately
of acid. Record and analyze your results with cold water. Report any spills to
using a table and graph. your teacher.
(a) Explain your results.

Acids and Bases 297

pH and Soil
Have you ever seen someone adding lime to soil? Lime (CaO) can be
added to acidic soil to make the soil more basic. As you learned in Chapter
3, the pH of soil determines the fertility of the soil. Plants differ in their
preference for soil acidity. For example, many leguminous crops prefer
neutral to slightly alkaline soils (pH of 7 to 10); corn and small grains
prefer slightly acidic soil (pH of 5 to 6); and potatoes and blueberries
prefer acidic soils (pH of less than 5). The sources of soil acidity include
organic matter decay, naturally occurring acids, and acid precipitation.
The correct management of soil pH is important for providing optimal
growing conditions for plants, maintaining optimal levels of
nutrients, and using fertilizers efficiently.

pH and Cosmetics
Have you ever heard pH mentioned in
advertisements for skin and hair products?
Many products advertise that they are “pH
balanced” or that they “restore your hair’s
natural pH” (Figure 3). Should you
believe such claims? What do they mean?
The acidity of a shampoo can have a
definite effect on hair. The clear outer
protein layer of hair is called the cuticle.
Very basic (high-pH) shampoos cause the
inner hair shaft to swell and push apart the
cuticle. The harsh bases used in hair
permanents and hair colouring have even
Figure 3
stronger effects. They can dissolve the cuticle
Some cosmetic products advertise their pH.
and damage the hair, making it dull and dry.
Acidic (low-pH) shampoos shrink the
inner shaft, causing the cuticle to lie flat and restoring the hair’s original D i d Yo u K n o w ?
flexibility and shine. However, low-pH shampoos are not for everyone.
People with thick, curly hair who would prefer their hair to be straighter Many acids are used in cosmetic
products. Alpha hydroxy acids
can benefit from more alkaline (higher-pH) shampoos, which soften and
(AHAs) are found in many
straighten the hair. popular face creams. Salicylic
The pH of soaps and other cosmetic products can also affect skin cells. acid is a white powder used in
The pH of skin normally ranges between 5 and 6. Using basic (high-pH) wart remover.
products can remove the outer layer of dead skin cells, which contain
protein molecules. The skin will look brighter and clearer. But frequent use
of basic products may remove too many layers of cells. Moreover, the top
layer of the skin contains natural acids that protect the skin from infection. Challenge
Too much use of very basic soaps can remove these protective acids.
1 Some personal care products
have a particular pH. Does the
pH of the product you have
chosen have any effect on its
marketability or its usefulness?

298 Chapter 8
 Try This
Activity Red Tornado
Put on your apron and safety goggles. spoon until it swirls like a tornado. Drop an
Add red cabbage juice to a tall clear Alka-Seltzer tablet into the mixture. Describe and
container. Add a small amount of vinegar until explain what you observe.
you get a red colour. Stir the mixture with a

Understanding Concepts 8. Look in your bathroom at home or in the local pharmacy to

find some examples of products that include information
1. In your own words, explain the meaning of the term “pH.”
about pH levels. Record your observations in a table with
2. What would you expect as an approximate pH value for the headings: Product, pH, and Use. What connections can
each of the following: you see between a product’s pH and its use?
(a) a very concentrated base; 9. Toothpastes are usually slightly basic (alkaline). Why does
(b) a dilute basic solution; this make sense? (Hint: Consider the types of compounds in
(c) a very concentrated acid; our mouths that may damage teeth.)
(b) a dilute acid solution;
Exploring
(e) tap water.
10. Use the pH formula to calculate the pH of solutions in
3. How much more acidic is a solution with a pH of 4.5 than a which the hydrogen ion concentration (in mol/L) is
solution with a pH of
(a) 0.1
(a) 5.5?
(b) 0.01
(b) 6.5?
(c) 0.001
4. How much more basic is a solution with a pH of 12.5 than a
(d) 1 x 10–5
solution with a pH of
(e) 1 x 10–4
(a) 10.5?
11. Summarize your calculations in question 10 as
(b) 8.5?
(a) a table
5. Look at Figure 1. Roughly how much more acidic is
(b) a graph
(a) stomach acid than tomatoes?
(c) a statement describing the relationship between con-
(b) lemon juice than apples? centration of hydrogen ions and pH.
6. Look at Figure 1. Roughly how much more basic is 12. You can investigate another way of looking at the acidity of
(a) borax than baking soda? solutions using the following equation:
(b) bleach than blood? [H+] = 10–pH
7. What happens to the pH of an acid when water is added Calculate the concentrations of hydrogen ion for the
to it? following pH values: 1.0, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 5.0.

Acids and Bases 299