Module (05) High-Voltage A.C PDF

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Module
05
High-Voltage A.C Circuit Breakers
Module(05)HighVoltageA.CCircuitBreakers Page1of35
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5.1INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the constructional aspects of circuit breakers have been briefly discussed. The theoreticalaspectsregardingtransientvariationofcurrentandvoltage,arcextinctionprocessand the various types of circuit breakers have been described in detail in other chapters. The circuit breakersareautomaticswitcheswhichcaninterruptfaultcurrents.Insomeapplicationslikesingle phase traction system, single pole circuit breakers are used. The part of the circuit breakers connected in one phase is called the 'pole'. A circuit breaker suitable for three phase system is calleda'triplepolecircuitbreaker'. Each pole of the circuit breaker comprises one or more 'interrupter' or 'arcextinguishing chambers'.Theinterruptersaremountedonsupportinsulators.Theinterrupterenclosesasetof 'fixedandmovingcontacts'.Themovingcontactscanbedrawnapartbymeansoftheoperating linksoftheoperatingmedium.Theoperatingmechanismofthecircuitbreakergivesthenecessary energyforopeningandclosingofcontactsofthecircuitbreakers. The arc produced by the separation of current carrying contacts is interrupted by a suitable medium and by adopting suitable techniques for arc extinction. The circuit breaker can be classifiedonthebasisofthearcextinctionmedium. 5.2THEFAULTCLEARINGPROCESS During the normal operating condition the circuit breaker can be opened or closed by a station operatorforthepurposeofswitchingandmaintenance.Duringtheabnormalorfaultyconditions the relays sense the fault and close the trip circuit of the circuit breaker. Thereafter the circuit breakeropens.Thecircuitbreakerhastwoworkingpositions,openandclosed.Thesecorrespond toopencircuitbreakercontactsandclosedcircuitbreakercontactsrespectively.Theoperationof automaticopeningandclosingthecontactisachievedbymeansoftheoperatingmechanismof the circuit breaker. As the relay contacts close, the triple circuit is closed and the operating mechanismofthecircuitbreakerstartstheopeningoperation. The contacts of the circuit breaker open and an arc is drawn between them. The arc is extinguished at some natural current zero of a.c. wave. The process of current interruption is completedwhenthearcisextinguishedandthecurrentreachesfinalzerovalue.Thefaultissaid tobecleared.Theprocessoffaultclearinghasthefollowingsequence: Fault Occurs: As the fault occurs, the fault impedance being low, the currents increase and the relaygetsactuated.Therelaytakessometimetocloseitscontacts.
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Relay contacts close the trip circuit of the circuit breaker closes and trip coil is energized. The operating mechanism starts operating for the opening operation. The circuit breaker contacts separate. Arc is drawn between the breaker contacts. The arc is extinguished in the circuit breaker by suitabletechniques.Thecurrentreachesfinalzeroasthearcisextinguishedanddoesnotrestrike again. 5.3TRIPCIRCUIT The basic connection of the circuitbreaker control, for the opening operation, is illustrated in Figure5.1.
Figure(5.1)SimplifiedDiagramofCircuitBreakerControlforOpeningOperation The protected circuit is shown by dashed line. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit, the relayconnectedtotheCTandPTactuatesandclosesitscontacts.Currentflowsfromthebattery (source) in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of the circuit breaker (C.B.) is energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening operation. Auxiliary switchisanimportantiteminthecircuit.
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5.4HISTORICALREVIEW Long ago, before 1875, the problem of the circuit breaking was relatively simple. The power systemswerebelow15kVandfaultMVA1wasoftheorderof250.Mercuryswitchesandknife switches were used for switching. Fuses gave short circuit protection. Today the power systems havebecomecomplexandhuge.Thevoltagesusedfortransmissionareoftheorderof220kV, 400 kV, 500 kV and 750 kV. The capacity of the circuit breakers on EHV lines is of the order of 35,000MVA.Today'scircuitbreakersarefaster(2cycles,2.5cycles). Theoilcircuitbreakerwasdevelopedaround1885.Intheoilcircuitbreakers,dielectricoilisused, forinsulationandforarcextinction.Later(1900),arcextinctiondeviceswereintroduced.Thearc extinctiondevicesaresemiclosedchambersofdielectricmaterial,whicharefixedtothecontacts forassistingthearcextinctioninoilcircuitbreakers.Minimumoilcircuitbreakersweredeveloped toreplacethebulkoil circuitbreakers.Today theminimumoilcircuitbreakersarebeingwidely used. The first short circuit testing plant was built in 1916 in Europe. The air blast circuit breakerwas developed in 1930's. In air blast circuit breakers, high pressure air is forced on the arc at the instantofthecontactseparationandarcgetsextinguishedbytheblasteffect.Theairblastcircuit breakershaveseveraladvantagessuchasfastoperation,highrupturingcapacityetc.TheAirBlast CircuitBreakerbecamequitepopularby1950. The invention of SF6 circuit breakers is a very important development in the circuit breaker technology. SF6 (sulphurhexafluoride) gas has good dielectric and arc quenching properties. DoublepressuretypeoutdoorSF6circuitbreakersweredevelopedbyWestinghouse,USAduring 1950's. This was followed by development of single pressure puer type SF6 circuit breakers (1970). Today SF6 circuit breakers and SF6 insulated metal enclosed switchgear are very widely usedforvoltagesfrom72.5kVto760kV. Vacuumwasknowntobeagooddielectricmedium.Buttocreatevacuumandmaintainvacuum wasaproblem.Vacuuminterruptershavebeendevelopedduring1960'sandarebeingusedfor applicationsbelow36kV. Otherinterestingdevelopmentsforlowandmediumvoltageapplicationsincludeminiaturecircuit breakers,mouldedcasecircuitbreakers,contactors,solidstateswitchingdevices.Miniaturecircuit breakersandmouldedcasecircuitbreakershavecertainadvantagesoverconventionalHRCfuses.
1
Fault MVA =
3 V I 10 6
where V is the service voltage in volts and I is the fault current in amperes Page4of35
Module(05)HighVoltageA.CCircuitBreakers
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Contactors have been developed for a wide range of a.c. and d.c. ratings. Solid state switching devicesarebeingincreasinglyusedinindustrialcontrols. 5.5CLASSIFICATIONBASEDONARCQUENCHINGMEDIUM Thecircuitbreakerscanbeclassifiedonthebasisofratedvoltages:Circuitbreakersbelowrated voltageof1000Varecalledlowvoltagecircuitbreakersandabove1000Varecalledhighvoltage circuitbreakers. Thetypeofthecircuitbreakerisusuallyidentifiedaccordingtothemediumofarcextinction.The classificationofthecircuitbreakersbasedonthemediumofarcextinctionisasfollows: AirBreakCircuitBreaker. MiniatureCircuitBreaker. OilCircuitBreaker(TankTypeorBulkOil). MinimumOilCircuitBreaker. AirBlastCircuitBreaker. SulphurHexafluorideCircuitBreaker (SinglePressureorDoublePressure). Vacuumcircuitbreaker.
Eachcircuitbreakerwillbestudiedthoroughlyinthesubsequentsections.Thesecircuitbreakers employvarioustechniquestoextinguishthearcresultingfromseparationofthecurrentcarrying contacts. The mode of arc extinction is either 'high resistance interruption' or 'zeropoint interruption'. HighResistanceInterruption:Inthisprocesstheresistanceofthearcisincreasedbylengthening andcoolingittosuchanextentthatthesystemvoltageisnolongerabletomaintainthearcand thearcgetsextinguished.Thistechniqueisemployedinairbreakcircuitbreakersandd.c.circuit breakers. Low Resistance or Zero Point Interruption: In this process, the arc gets extinguished at natural currentzeroofthealternatingcurrentwaveandispreventedfromrestrikingagainbyrapidbuild up of dielectric strength of the contact space. The process is employed in almost all a.c. circuit breakers. Each leading manufacturer of circuit breaker develops two or more types of circuit breakers for everyvoltageclass.Theconstructionofthecircuitbreakerdependsuponitstype(arcquenching medium),voltageratingandstructuralform.
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Airbreak circuit breakers: Utilize air at atmospheric pressure for arcextinction. Airblast circuit breakers:Utilizehighpressurecompressedairforarcextinction.Theyneedcompressedairplant. BulkoilandMinimumoilcircuitbreakers:UtilizeDielectricoil(Transformeroil)forarcextinction. InBulkoilcircuitbreakers,thecontactsareseparatedinsideasteeltankfilledwithdielectricoil.In minimumoil circuit breakers the contracts are separated in an insulating housing (interrupter) filledwithdielectricoil. SF6circuitbreakers:SulphurHexaFluoridegasisusedforarcextinction.Therearetwotypes: SinglepressurepuertypeSF6circuitbreakers,inwhichtheentirecircuitbreakerislledwithSF6 gas at single pressure (4 to 6 kg/cm2). The pressure and gas ow required for arc extinction is obtainedbypistonaction. DoublepressuretypeSF6circuitbreakerinwhichthegasfromhighpressuresystemisreleased into low pressure system over the arc during the arc quenching process. This type has been supersededbyputtertype. Vacuum circuit breakers: In vacuum circuit breaker the fixed and moving contacts are housed inside a permanently sealed vacuum interrupter. The arc is quenched as the contacts are separatedinhighvacuum. AbriefcomparisonbetweenthedierenttypesofcircuitbreakersisgiveninTable5.1. 5.6TECHNICALPARTICULARSOFACIRCUITBREAKER Acircuitbreakerisidentifiedbythefollowingparticulars:Typeofmediumforarcextinction. Ratedvoltage.Thiscorrespondstohighestpowerfrequencyvoltagebetweenphasetophase,e.g. 3.6kV,7.2kV,12kV,36kV,72.5kV,145kV,245kV. Ratedbreakingcurrent. Otherratedcharacteristics. Typeofconstruction. Indoormetalcladtype Outdoortype MetalcladSF6gasinsulatedtype. Typeofoperatingmechanism. Totalbreaktime,e.g.2cycle,3cycle,5cycle. Structuralform: Livetanktype Deadtanktype.
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Table(5.1)ComparisonofCircuitbreakers
Type 1. Air-break circuitbreaker Medium Air at atmospheric pressure Voltage, breaking capacity 430-600 V, 5-15-35 MVA recently 3.6-12 kV, 500 MVA Design Features Incorporates: Arc runners, arc splitters, magnetic coils Remarks Used for medium/low voltage, A.C., D.C., Industrial circuit-breakers. Have current limiting features. Used for low and medium voltages. Getting obsolete, used up to 12 kV, 500 MVA
Miniature C.B. 2. Tank type oil circuitbreaker
Air at atmospheric pressure Dielectric oil
430-600 V 12-36 kV
small size, current limiting feature One tank up to 36 kV, 3 tanks above 36 kV, fitted with arc control devices The circuit breaking chamber is separate from supporting chamber. Small size, arc control device used Unit type construction, several units per pole, auxiliary compressed air system required Live tank/Dead tank design, single pressure type preferred
3. Minimumoil circuitbreaker
Dielectric oil
3.6-245 kV
Used for metal enclosed switchgear up to 36 kV. Outdoor type between 36 and 245 kV Suitable for all EHV applications, fast openingclosing. Also for arc furnace duty Suitable for SF6 switchgear, and medium voltage switchgear. EHV circuit breaker. Maintenance free Suitable for a variety of applications from 3.6 kV up to 36 kV Recently developed, used in HVDC systems. Installed in USA
4. Air-blast circuitbreaker
Compressed air (20-30 kgf/cm2)
245 kV, 35,000 MVA up to1100 kV, 50,000 MVA, also 36 kV, 500 MVA
5. SF6 circuitbreakerSinglepressure puffer type 6. Vacuum circuitbreaker 7. H.V.D.C. circuitbreaker
SF6 gas (5 kgf/cm2)
145 kV, 7500 MVA 245 kV, 10,000 MVA 12 kV, 1000 MVA 36 kV, 2000 MVA
Vacuum
Preferred for indoor switchgear rated up to 36 kV, 750 MVA +500 kV DC, 15 kA/20 kA
Variety of designs, long life, modest maintenance Artificial current zero by switching in capacitors
Vacuum or SF6

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5.7ASSEMBLYOFOUTDOORCIRCUITBREAKERS Thedesignfeaturesofanindividualcircuitbreakerdependuponitsvoltage,otherratingsandthe type.Thecircuitbreakersmanufacturedbydifferentcompaniesmayhavequitedifferentdesign patterns. However, a general description of an EHV circuit breaker can be given to cover the various types. The low voltage circuit breakers have different design features as the voltage, capacityandfrequencyofoperationisdifferentfromthatoftheEHVcircuitbreakers. Figure 5.2 shows three identical poles of a circuit breaker assembled on a common frame. The distance between the poles is determined by the voltage between their conducting parts. The current carrying parts are supported by dielectric materials. The current is interrupted in closed chamberknownasarcextinctionchamber(item3)orinterrupter.Thecontacts(10)aregenerally inpairsoffixedcontactandmovingcontact. Circuitbreakerpole Operatingmechanism Interrupter Supportporcelain Conductor Terminals Operatingrod Insulatingoperatingrod Frame Contacts Transfer Linkages Figure(5.2)DiagramIllustratingtheAssemblyofanOutdoorCircuitBreaker Themovingcontactismovedmechanically.Toachievethisoperationofclosingandopening,an OperatingMechanismisnecessary.Thefunctionofoperatingmechanismistoopenandclosethe contactswhendesired.Theoperatingmechanismmaybecommonforthethreepolesormaybe separateoneforeachpole.
contacts
between
movingcontactsandterminal
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Inadditiontotheoperatingmechanism,thereisa'ControlCabinet'orwhatisknownas'Switch Cabinet'.Thevariouscontrol,interlocking,indicatingconnectionsarethroughthiscontrolcabinet placed near the breaker. Thus a complete threephase circuit breaker consists of the following subassemblies: ThreePoles OperatingMechanism ControlCabinet Auxiliaries 5.8STRUCTURALFORMOFCIRCUITBREAKERS Thestructuralformofacircuitbreakerdependsonitstype,ratedvoltage,typeofdesign,typeof operatingmechanismetc.Inindoor,metalcladswitchgear,thethreepolesofthecircuitbreaker aremountedonawithdrawaltruck.Suchconfigurationiscommonlyusedforratedvoltagesupto 36kV. For36kVandabove,outdoorcircuitbreakersarepreferred.Thestructuralformofoutdoorcircuit breakers depends on rated voltage, number of interrupters per pole and type of operating mechanism.Circuitbreakersofratedvoltagesuptoand145kVgenerallyhaveasingleinterrupter per pole. In such a structural form, the interrupter porcelain and support porcelain should withstandthepowerfrequencyandimpulsetestvoltagesinternallyandexternally.245kVcircuit breakers have two or more identical interrupter units (elements) per pole. The number of interrupters per pole depends upon the rated voltage and rated breaking current of the circuit breaker.Suchcircuitbreakerpolecomprisesidenticaltwininterrupterunitsmountedonasingle support porcelain column in T or Y formation. Such a structural form is preferred in outdoor minimum oil circuit breakers, airblast circuit breakers and live tank type outdoor SF6 circuit breakers. The configuration with modular construction has advantages with reference to the shortcircuit testing and the interchangeability of interrupter modules. The single twin interruptermodulecanbetestedforshortcircuitdutiesinsteadoftestingafullpolecomprising severaltwininterruptermodules.Thisiscalled'UnitTesting'or"ElementTesting'. In multibreak type construction, voltagegrading capacitor is connected across each interrupter for equalizing the voltage shared by the interrupter during interruption process. Preclosing resistors are also connected in parallel whenever necessary. The preinsertion resistors (Pre closing resistors) are necessary to limit overvoltages occurring during closing unloaded transmissionlines.
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Circuitbreakersforratedvoltageabove145kVgenerallyhaveindependentpoleoperation.The operatingmechanismofeachpoleisindependentandeachpolecanbetrippedindependentlyby aseparaterelay.Independentpoleoperationisdesirableforimprovingthestabilityofthepower system. Structural form of EHV metalclad SF6 insulated switchgear is quite dierent than conventionalequipmentdiscussedabove. 5.9ELECTRICALCONTACTSINCIRCUITBREAKERS Thepowercurrentpassesthroughtheconductingmaterialintheinterruptingchamber(Fig.5.3). Variouspartsthatarejoinedtogetherformtheconductingmaterial.Thedifferentjunctionsform theelectricalcontacts.Electricalcontactisobtainedbyplacingtwoconductingobjectsinphysical contact.Thiscanbedoneinseveralways.Eventhoughthereisawiderangeofcontactdesignsin interruptingchambers,theymaybegroupedinfourmajorcategories: Makebreakcontactswhichmaymakeorbreakunderload; Slidingcontactswhichmaintaincontactduringrelativemovement; Fixedcontactswhichmaybeclampedtogetherpermanentlyforyearsandneveropened. Demountablecontactswhichmakeorbreakoffload.Usuallyseeninmetalcladmedium voltageswitchgear.
Figure(5.3)FlowofCurrentthroughConductingMaterialinInterruptingChamber Figure5.4isasymbolicschematicofatypicalcontactarchitectureandclearlyshowsthecurrent flow through three of the main types of contacts during the sequence of events of an open operation.Inallthreetypes,thecontactismadebythetouchingsurfacesofeachcomponent.
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Figure(5.4)Schematicdiagramoftypicalcontactarchitecture 5.9.1MAKEBREAKCONTACTS The types of makebreak contacts can be subdivided by power rating, starting with the highest: Highcurrent,highvoltagecircuitbreakercontacts,whichdisconnectlargeelectricalloads, and produce arcs, are contained within special arcing chambers. These may be in air at normal pressure or in a blast of air, in Sulfur Hexauoride (SF6), in oil or another arc extinguishingmedium,includingavacuum. It includes a moving contact and a stationary contact. Usually one of them is a ring of sprungcoppercontactngers(insertiontype,Fig.5.5orbutttype),ortheotherisasolid rodofcopper.Thecontactsmaybetippedwithanarcresistantmaterialtoresisterosion from the highpower arc, and the surfaces may be plated (e.g. with silver) to improve conductivity. The mechanical properties of copper combined with its excellent electrical conductivity and good arcing endurance in oil have made it the preferred metal in this application.
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Figure(5.5)InsertionTypeContact In vacuum circuit breakers, the contacts are also generally copper, mixed with tungsten and specially shaped to ensure proper distribution of the electric field and movement of thearcroot.Smallerairbreakcircuitbreakers(mediumvoltage),usecopperinallinternal conducting parts, but the contacts are often faced with a silver based alloy to resist welding.Suchcircuitbreakers,beingprotectivedevices,rarelyopenorclose. 5.9.2SLIDINGCONTACTS(FIG.5.6) These can be of very different nature. High speed, heavy current types, they are usually foundinpowerinterrupterchambers.Thesecontactsmusthaveaveryhighresistanceto mechanicalwear,astheirrelativespeedmayreach10meterspersecondormore. 5.9.3FIXEDCONTACTS These include a wide range of bolted and crimped contacts. A clamped joint avoids the reduction in cross section caused by drilling to insert bolts, and gives a more uniform distribution of the contact force, making the contact more efficient and hence running cooler.Boltingisusedbecauseitischeapandconvenient.
Figure(5.6)SlidingTypeContact
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Crimpedjointsemploytheultimateextremeforceofcontactmaking,causingthemetalto flowandmakeapermanentconnection.Thetroublefreenatureofthesejoints,andthe simplicityandrapidityofthecrimpingoperationmakesthistypeofjointveryattractivefor permanentconnections.Boltedorcrimpedcontactsareusedininterruptingchambersto secureandtomaintaintheintegrityoftheelectricalcomponent. 5.9.4DEMOUNTABLECONTACTS Found in medium voltage metal clad breakers. It helps in taking the breaker off the networkbyeasilyslidingitoffthebusbarsformaintenancepurposes.Thishastobedone offload.
Figure(5.7)Demountabletypecontact These contacts, like the makebreak contacts, may be carrying high currents at high voltages(e.g.highvoltageisolatorsorhighormediumvoltagefusecontacts).Theyhaveto carrycurrentreliablyforlongperiods,withoutoverheatingorlossofcontact,butdonot makeorbreakcurrent.Theyarenotsubjectedtothestressofarcing;hencetheydonot gettheinherentcleaningactionassociatedwithit. Theyarefrequentlydesignedtohave somefrictionalactiononclosingtoremovesuperficialoxideorcorrosionfilmswhichmight impedecontact,andcopperanditsalloysarethemostfrequentlyusedmaterialsforthe bulkofdemountablecontacts. The characteristic of these contacts is that they have a high contact force, much higher thanforcircuitbreakersofsimilarcurrentrating,butnotsohighasthecontactforceina bolted contact, because of the excessive mechanical wear which would be caused when separatingthecontacts.
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5.9.5CONTACTRESISTANCE As we said, the contact occurs when two surfaces touch. For the electric current, if it is conductive material, it means a path for it to flow. Observation on a microscopic scale shows that the contact surface is actually rough even though it seems smooth to the unaided eye. In fact, as the microscope shows, the real contact between two surfaces happens through a number of small surfaces, called micro contacts (Fig. 5.8), spread randomlyinsidethelimitsofthevisiblecontactarea.Itisthesumoftheareasofallthe microcontactsthatconstitutestheeffectivecontactarea.
Figure(5.8)SchematicDiagramofMicroContactAreas Since the resistance of an electrical contact is inversely proportional to the contact area, thesmallertheeectiveareathegreatertheresistance(Fig.5.9).
Figure(5.9)SchematicDiagramoftheEffectiveAreainaContact 5.9.6EFFECTOFCONTACTRESISTANCE WhenacurrentIpassthroughanareaAthathasaresistanceR,theEnergyEabsorbedbyA is: E=RI2t wheretisthetimedurationofI.
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WeknowthattemperatureTisdirectlyrelatedtoEbythefollowingequation: E=T whereisafunctionoftheheatdissipationrate. ForaconstantcurrentIo,ifRincreases,Ethenincreases,leadingtoincreasingtemperature of the contact. If T continues to increase thematerial of the contactcan reach its melting point,leadingtoitsdestruction(Fig.5.10).
Figure(5.10)Contactdestruction 5.9.7ELEMENTSAFFECTINGTHECONTACTRESISTANCE 5.9.7.1OXIDATION Athinlayerofinsulatingoxidecoveringtheareaofasinglemicrocontactwouldhavelittle effectontheconductivityofthecontactasawhole.Assoonastheoxidelayerextendstoa significant number of microcontacts, the currentbearing area would reduce, thus increasing its resistance. Increased resistance will increase the contact temperature, leadingtoitsdestruction. Allambientatmospheresthatcontainsgasescapabletoreactwiththecontact'smaterial, suchasO2,SO2,H2O,H2S,etc.,wouldbefavorabletoproducingoxidelayerseventhough thecontactisclosed.Withtime,thegaswouldsucceedinpenetratingandreactingwith thecontactsurfacetodegradeitscharacteristicsandtoincreaseitsresistance. Figure5.11showstheresistancevalueincreasingwithtime.Aswecansee,theresistance changeisnotsignificantuntilacertainpointintimewherethedegradationincreasesfast. Similarresultsareobtainedforcoppercontactsinoil.
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These results show interesting behavior and indicate the urgency of a maintenance interventionwhenacontact'sresistancestartstoincrease. 5.9.7.2CONTACTWEAR Mechanically,itcanbeduetothemovementandfrictionofthecontactsandelectrically due to the arc effect (mainly the makebreak contact). Contact wear directly affects the contact resistance and makes it increase dramatically if the wear is in an advanced state (Fig.5.12).
Figure(5.11)ChangeofContactResistancewithTime
Figure(5.12)AdvancedWearinaContact 5.9.7.3FRETTING A form of accelerated oxidation is possible, if the contact surfaces experience a cycling movementrelativelytoeachother.Forexample,thecontactswouldnotcloseatthesame areaeachtime(Fig.5.13).
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Figure(5.13)Changeincontactarea This phenomenon was noticed long ago but its magnitude was recognized only recently. When a contact moves from its previous position, a part is exposed to the ambient atmosphere.Anoxidationlayerthenforms.Whenthecontactgoesbacktothisposition,it breaksthethinlayerandpushesitaside.Thisphenomenonrepeatsmanytimesuntilthe oxidation layer becomes of a significant thickness, enough to increase its resistance. The resistanceincreasesrapidlyrightafteritstartstochange.Figure5.14showssimilarcaseto gure5.11,butaccelerated.
Figure(5.14)Changeofcontactresistancewithtimeincaseoffrettingphenomenon 5.9.7.4CONTACTFORCE Asknown,theresistanceRisfunctionofthecontactmaterial'sresistivityandareaS,(R= /S). Sisthesumofallcontactpointsareas.Thecontactpointsareasarefunctionoftheapplied forceFandthematerialhardnessH,(kisaconstant).
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If F decreases, S decreases as well and R then increases. F can decrease due to different factors,forexample: Excessivewearofcontactsurface; Fatigueofcontactspringsovertime; Chemicalreactionofspringmaterialwithambientatmosphere; Looseormisalignedcontact,etc. Spring materials are thus an important element to take into consideration. By the same logic,animportantprecautiontotakeistoavoidlettingthespringbeacurrentpath,asthe increaseinitstemperaturewouldcauseaweaknessoftheresultantforceF. 5.9.7.5TEMPERATURE ForanincreasingtemperatureTofthecontacts,thematerialofthecontactsmaysoftento thepointwhereitwillreducethecontactforce,leadingtoaquickincreaseofthecontact resistance. 5.10OPERATINGMECHANISMS 5.10.1GENERAL Circuitbreakershavetwoworkingpositionsopenandclose.Duringtheclosingoperation, the circuit breaker contacts close against opposing forces. During the opening operation, theclosedcontactsareseparatedasearlyaspossible.Operatingmechanismsareprovided to achieve the opening and closing operations. The main requirement of the operating mechanismistoopenandclosethecontactsofthecircuitbreakerwithinaspecifiedtime. Theoperatingmechanismshallprovidethefollowingconsecutivefunctions: Chargingandstoringofenergy Releaseofenergy Transmissionofenergy Operationofthecontacts In addition, an operating mechanism shall provide control and signaling interface to a networks control and protection system. Operating mechanisms are also necessary for isolators.Figure5.15andFigure5.16showthelocationoftheoperatingmechanism.
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Figure5.15 Threepole operated circuit breaker with one interrupterperpole.
Figure5.16 One pole of a singlepole operated circuit breaker with twointerruptersperpole.
1.Breakingunit 2.Supportinsulator 3.Supportstructure 4.Operatingmechanism 5.Tripmechanism 6.Gassupervision(onoppositeside) 7.Pullrodwithprotectivetube 8.Positionindicator 9.Gradingcapacitor(ifrequired) 10.Preinsertionresistor(PIR)(ifrequired) 11.Primaryterminals
The circuit breaker operating mechanisms must be capable of dealing with large forces, at high speeds, with complete reliability even if the circuit breaker has remained idle for a prolonged duration. Theopeningshouldbefast,inordertoreducecircuitbreakertime.Theoperatingtimebetween instantofreceivingtripsignalandnalcontactseparationisoftheorderof0.03second,i.e.1.5 cyclesinmodernEHVcircuitbreakers.Inslowcircuitbreakersusedindistributionsystemtimecan beabout3cycles. Whileclosing,thecontactclosureshouldbefast,sure,withouthesitation,withadequatecontact pressure at the end of contact travel. If these conditions are not satisfied, contact welding can result.
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Theoperatingmechanismsshouldbecapableofgivingthespecifieddutyofthebreaker(sequence of opening and closing as specified in standard specifications). A requirement common to most circuit breakers, regardless of the type of operating mechanisms, is to carry out an openclose open(O0.3sCO)sequencewithnoexternalpowersupplytotheoperatingmechanism.The circuit breaker shall, after a closing operation, always be able to trip immediately without intentionaltimedelay.Forcircuitbreakersintendedforrapidautoreclosing,theoperatingduty cycleinaccordancewithIEC62271100is: O 0.3s CO 3minCO Thetimeof3ministhetimeneededfortheoperatingmechanismtorestoreitspowerafteraO 0.3sCO.Modernspringandhydraulicoperatingmechanismsdonotneed3mintorestoretheir power,asanalternativeIECspeciesthatthetimevalues15s. or1min.canalsobeused.The dead time of 0.3 s is based on the recovery time of the air surrounding an external arc in the system(i.e.ashortcircuit).SometimestheoperatingsequenceCO15sCOisspecified. Thebreakershouldalsopasstheoperationaltestswhichascertainthecapabilityoftheoperating mechanisms.Theinterlocksareprovidedbetweenbreakerisolatorandearthingswitch,soasto avoid wrong operation and to assure operation in a correct sequence. The functions of the operatingmechanismscanbesummarizedasfollows: 5.10.2CLOSINGOPERATION(C) Normally,closingthecircuitbreakercontactsduringnormalloadconditionsdoesnotcause any difficulty. The operating mechanism has to overcome friction and accelerate the moving masses. However, when the circuit breaker has to close against a short circuit, additionalthermalstressesandelectromagneticstressesareinvolved. InEHVcircuitbreakers,thearcisestablishedpriortofinalcontacttouch.Thisisknownas prearcing.Prearcingcauseshighertemperaturestresses.Thecontactsshouldclosewith sufficientspeedtominimizetheprearcing.
Toprovidemeanswherebythecircuitbreakercanbeclosedrapidly,withouthesitationat allcurrentsfromzerotoratedmakingcurrentcapacity. Toholdthecircuitbreakerinclosedpositionbytogglesorlatchestillthetrippingsignalis received. Toallowthecircuitbreakertoopenwithoutdelayimmediatelyonreceivingtrippingsignal. Toperformtheautoreclosurecycle. Toperformtherelatedfunctionssuchasindication,control.
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As soon as the contacts close on an existing shortcircuit, breaker issubjected to making current. The electromagnetic forces, setup by the making current, tend to repel the contacts. The circuit breaker should have rated making capacity, i.e. the highest peak current against which the circuit breaker can be closed at a given voltage. The making capacity ofthe circuit breaker depends upon the forceandspeed withwhich theclosing operationiscarriedout. Whileclosingthecircuitbreaker,theoperatingmechanismshouldhaveenoughpowerto overcometheopposingforcesandacceleratethemovingcontactassemblyrapidlywithin specifiedshorttime. Theopposingforcesduringclosingoperation: Electromagnetic forces between contacts: When the contacts touch during the closing operation,electromagneticforcesappearattheinstantofcontacttouch,theirmagnitude being proportional to square of the current and the direction being opposite to the direction closing. These forces are large if the breaker is closing on existing short circuit. Breakershouldbecapableofclosingonshortcircuit. Action of operating spring: The moving contacts of circuit breakers are opened by spring pressure.Whileclosing,thesespringsopposetheclosure.Inertiaofmovablesubassembly: The movable subassembly contacts, their holders, tension rods, operating links of operating mechanisms, etc. The mass of the subassemblies is quite large in EHV circuit breakers. And their inertia tries to oppose rapid acceleration. In modern EHV circuit breakers,thesepartsaremadeaslightaspossible. Opposing forces due to medium such as oil, SF6 gas: The movable subassembly has to moveindielectricmediumwhichis,insomecases,compressedoratarehighpressureand density.Thetotalforcesoftheoperatingmechanismshouldbemorethanthesumofthe abovementionedopposingforces.Friction:Staticanddynamic. 5.10.3OPENINGOPERATION(O) The opening operation is significant in the faultclearing process. As the trip coil is energized, the opening operation is initiated. The energy required for the opening operationisobtainedfromoneofthefollowingmethods: Openingspringschargedduringtheclosingoperation Highpressurehydraulicoilstoredinaccumulators
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Highpressurecompressedairstoredinauxiliaryairreceivers.
Thefunctionalrequirementsoftheopeningmechanismareasfollows: Theforcesandenergyshouldbeadequatetocaterofthefollowing: Opposingforcesduringopeningoperating Electromagneticforcesduetocontactgrip:Thefingercontactsarespringloadedandtheir grip opposes the movement of moving contract. During the shortcircuit condition, the electromagneticforcestendtoincreasethegripofthefingercontactassembly.Theforce ofcontactgripincreasesinproportiontosquareofcurrent.Henceitissignificantduring highershortcircuitcurrents. Friction: The various operating links, bearing surfaces, mating surfaces between movable and fixed parts, etc. offer static friction. The frictional component depends upon the coefficient of friction, smoothness of mating surfaces, configuration of moving parts etc. Highfrictioncanreducetheinitialspeedofmovingcontactwhichmayresultindisastrous consequenceoffailureofthecircuitbreakertoquenchthearc. Inertiaofmovableparts:Energyintheoperatingmechanismisutilizedinacceleratingthe movablesubassembliestorequiredspeed.Opposingforcesduetoquenchingmedium:The quenching medium (compressed air, dielectric oil, SF6 gas) itself may oer substantial opposingforcestothemovement. The operating mechanisms should be capable of overcoming these opposing forces end should achieve desired opening characteristic of contact travel during normal and short circuitopeningoperations. 5.10.4CLOSINGFOLLOWEDBYOPENINGOPERATING(CO) The rated operating sequence of the circuit breaker demands the operation 'CO'. The operating mechanism should have enough stored energy and capability to perform CO operationandratedoperatingsequenceundershortcircuitcondition.
Toacceleratethemovingmassesincludingcontactsandlinkagesrapidlytoachieve desiredopeningcharacteristic. Toachievedesiredspeedofcontactatcontactseparationandduringtheopening stroke(3to7m/s). Todampthespeedattheendofthetravelbydampers.
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5.10.5TYPESOFMECHANISMS The operating mechanisms in circuit breakers are either 'dependable' or 'stored energy' type.Dependentoperatingmechanismsdependoncontinuityofpowersupplyormanual forcesduringclosing.Theyareaccordinglycalledas: The stored energy type operating mechanisms are called independent operating mechanisms as they are independent of continuity of power supply or the skill of the operator.Insuchmechanisms,theenergyrequiredforclosingisstoredinachargedspring orincompressedgas/hydraulicoil. SpringOperatedMechanism: In the spring mechanism, the energy for open and close operation is stored in springs. When the mechanisms control system receives an open or close command, the energy storedinthespringwillbereleasedandtransmittedthroughasystemofleversandlinks andthecontactswillmovetotheopenorclosedposition. In most designs the closing spring has two tasks: to close the contacts, and at the same timetochargetheopeningspring(orsprings).Thusthecriteriastatedabovearefulfilled; thecircuitbreakerinclosedpositionisalwaysreadytotrip. AftertheO0.3sCOoperation,theclosingspringwillberechargedbyanelectricmotor, aprocedurethatlasts1020seconds.ThecircuitbreakerwillthenbereadyforanotherCO operation. OneexampleofaspringmechanismisshowninFigure5.17.Thistypeofmechanismhasa set of parallel helical wound springs with linear motion. The electric motor charges the springsviaanendlesschain.Whentheclosinglatchisreleased,theenergystoredinthe springsistransmittedviaarotatingcamdiscandasystemofleversandlinkstothecircuit breaker pole or poles. The trip spring is in this case located outside the operating mechanism. Instead of helical springs, clock springs may be applied. The function is the same as for the helical springs described above. Figure 5.18 shows a system with clock springforclosingoperation.Theadvantageofthespringoperatedmechanismisthatthe systemispurelymechanical;thereisnoriskofleakageofoilorgas,whichcouldjeopardize thereliability.Awellbalancedlatchingsystemprovidesstableoperatingtimes.
Dependablemanualoperatingmechanisms Dependablepowermechanisms
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Furthermore, the spring system is less sensitive to variations in temperature than pneumatic or hydraulic mechanisms are. This ensures stability even at extreme temperatures.Thespringmechanismhasfewercomponentsthanhydraulicandpneumatic mechanisms,whichimprovesitsreliability. MotorDrive: One of the most recentlydeveloped operating mechanisms is the electrical motor drive (Fig.5.19).Themotordriveusesaservomotortoperformasmoothandsilentoperationof the circuit breaker. The operation is actively controlled by a sensor which continuously readsthepositionofthemotorandadjuststhemotorcurrenttoobtainanoptimaltravel curve.Theenergyisstoredinacapacitorbankandcanbedeliveredinstantaneouslytothe converter,whichtransformsdcfromthecapacitorsandfeedsthemotorwithregulatedac.

Figure5.17 Springoperatingmechanismwithhelicalwound springs.Tripandclosespringsinchargedposition. ABBtypeBLG. 1.Linkgear 2.Tripspring 3.Closinglatchwith coil 4.Motor 8.Closesprings 4.Trippinglatchwith coil

Figure5.18 Springoperatingmechanismwithclock spring.ABBtypeBLK. 1.Tripspring 2.Linkgear 3.Closespring 5.Closinglatchwith coil 6.Trippinglatchwithcoil 7.Openingdamper 6.Motor 7.Openingdamper
5.Closingdamper
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Figure(5.19)BlockdiagramshowingfunctionoftheMotorDrive 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The major advantage of the motor drive is the minimized mechanical system, which reduces the service need to a minimum and makes the technology ideal for applications withfrequentoperation. PneumaticOperatedMechanism: The pneumaticoperated mechanism uses compressed air as energy storage, and pneumatic cylinders for operation. Solenoid valves allow the compressed air into the actuatingcylinderforclosingorforopening.Thecompressedairtankisreplenishedbya compressor unit. The use of pneumatic operating mechanisms is decreasing. Due to the high operating pressure, there is always a risk of leakage of air, particularly at low temperatures.Thereisalsoariskofcorrosionduetohumidityinthecompressedair.
Charger unit that converts supply voltage and feeds the capacitors and internal electronics. Capacitorunitstorestheenergyforoperation. Theconverterunittransformsdcfromthecapacitorstoacforthemotor. Servomotor that delivers the force to move the contacts, integrated position sensor givesinformationtothecontrolunit. The I/O unit takes care of signaling between the station control system and the operatingmechanism. Control unit that controls and regulates the motion of the contacts. The interlock functionsarealsohandledbythismodule. Linkgearthattransformsrotarymovementtolinearmovement.
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HydraulicOperatedMechanism: Thehydraulicmechanismusuallyhasoneoperatingcylinderwithadifferentialpiston.The oil is pressurized by a gas cushion in an accumulator, and the operating cylinder is controlledbyamainvalve. The hydraulic mechanism has the advantages of high energy and silent operation. However,therearealsosomedisadvantages.Thereareseveralcriticalcomponentswhich require specialized production facilities. The risk of leakage cannot be neglected as the operatingpressureisintherangeof3040MPa(300400bar).Itisnecessarynotonlyto checkthepressureassuchbutalsotosupervisetheoillevelintheaccumulatoror,inother words,thevolumeofthegascushion.Largevariationsintemperatureleadtovariationsin operatingtime. Until recently several manufacturers used hydraulic mechanisms for their SF6 circuit breakers.However,withtheintroductionofselfblastcircuitbreakers,therequirementof highenergyforoperationisdecreasingandthehydraulicmechanismsarelosinggroundto springoperatedmechanisms. HydraulicSpringOperatedMechanism: Thehydraulicspringoperatedmechanismisanoperatingmechanismcombininghydraulics and springs. Energy is stored in a spring set that is tensioned hydraulically. A differential piston, powered by oil that is pressurized by the spring package, is used to operate the circuit breaker during opening and closing. Figure 5.20 gives an example of such mechanism.
Figure(5.20)HydraulicspringOoperatedMechanism.ABBtypeHMB
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OtherTypesofOperatingMechanisms: In addition to the types of operating mechanisms mentioned above, there are other variants, e.g. a design which basically applies the same technology as the pneumatic mechanisms but with SF6 gas instead of air. Another design is the magnetic actuator mechanism,whichisappliedonlyforcertainmediumvoltagecircuitbreakers. 5.11INTERLOCKS,INDICATIONANDAUXILIARYSWITCH Interlockingdevicesarethosewhichmaketheoperationoftheswitchingdevicedependentupon thepositionoroperationofotherequipment.Interlocksareprovidedasasafetymeasureagainst erroneous operation of a switching device. The interlocks are of the following forms: Electrical interlock, Mechanical Interlock. Electrical interlock can be used between remote equipment. Mechanicalinterlockcanbeprovidedwheretheoperatingmechanismsofthetwoequipmentsare inneighborhood.Theelectricalinterlockcomprisescoilandbolt.Whenthecoilisenergized,the bolt is drawn by magnetic attraction and the interlocking is achieved. Interlocks are provided betweencircuitbreaker,isolatorandearthingswitchtoensurethefollowingsequence: Whileopening: Whileclosing: Thissequencemustbefollowedbecauseisolatorsarenoloaddisconnectingdevices.Theydonot havebreakingcapacity,nordotheyhavemakingcapacity.Hencebreakerperformstheopening andclosingduty. Indicator or indicating device indicates whether the switching device is in 'open' or 'closed' position.Suchindicationisavailableontheglasswindowonthecontrolcabinetnearthebreaker, in form of a flag marked open/close. On breaker panel, the indication is obtained by means of lamps. Thus, from the control room, the operator can know the position of circuit breakers and isolators.(BreakerPanelisinstalledincontrolroom.)
Firsttoopen:Circuitbreaker Nexttoopen:Isolato Thentheearthingswitch(ifany)toclose
Openearthingswitch Close:Isolator Thenclosecircuitbreaker.
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Auxiliaryswitcheshavestandardnumberofpairsofcontracts(6,8,and12).Auxiliaryswitchhas two positions 'open' and 'close' corresponding to the position of the circuit breaker. In each position, some auxiliary circuits are opened and some are closed. The auxiliary circuits serve severalpurposessuchas: Indication:Breakeropenorclosedbylamps,nearcircuitbreakerandataremoteplace.Electrical Interlocks: The breaker is interlocked electrically with isolators. The connections to solenoids in operating mechanism are made through the auxiliary switch. Connections for relaying, auxiliary circuitsofoperatingmechanisms.Thevariousterminalsareconnectedinaterminalblocksinthe operatingcubical. 5.12AUTORECLOSURE Manyfaultsonoverheadtransmissionlinesaretransientinnature.Statisticalevidenceshowsthat about90%offaultsonoverheadtransmissionlinesarecausedbylightningorbypassingofobjects nearorthroughlines(birds,vines,treebranchesetc.).Theseconditionsresultingarcingfaultsand the arc in the fault can be extinguished by deenergizing the line by simultaneous opening of circuit breakers on both ends of the line or on one end of the line. Since the cause of transient faultsmentionedabovedisappearsafterashorttimethecircuitbreakerscanbereclosedassoon as the arc in fault has been extinguished and the path has regained its dielectric strength. Reclosing of lines restores the supply. Continuity of service is the major advantage of autoreclosure.Ifthefaultistransientonethenormalconditionisrestoredbyautoreclosure.
Figure(5.21)SequenceofAutoreclosureforEHV,bulk PowerTransmissionLines,SingleShotScheme
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Highspeedtrippingandhighspeedreclosingimprovesthestabilityofpowersystem.Hencethe circuitbreakersandrelayingonEHVlinesareprovidedwithautoreclosingfeature.Testsonhigh voltage systems have shown that a reclosure in 12 cycles (0.24 sec) is practical, the period dependinguponthetimenecessarytodissipatetheionizedairofarcpath.TheAutoreclosingof EHVlinesisofhighspeedandsingleshot,i.e.onlyonereclosingisattempted(Fig.5.21). 5.13AUTORECLOSUREOFEHVCIRCUITBREAKERSFORTRANSMISSION [Voltages36to245kV,Breakingcapacities:25to40kA] Experienceshowsthatgenerallyminimumtimeof0.2secondmustbeallowedtoelapsetoenable thefaultzonetobecomedeionizedcompletely,henceadeadtimeof0.3secondhasbeenchosen asasafereclosuretime.Figure5.22illustratesatypicalcircuitbreakercontacttravelcharacteristic andalsogivesascheduleoftypicaloperatingtimesoftheabovecircuitbreaker.Incaseofsome otherrelayingthecyclemaydiffer.
Figure(5.22)FaultClearingandReclosingTimeSequence,ContactTravel. LookinginFig.5.22,thefollowingsequencecanbeobserved: Sequence Time No. 1 2 3 0 04 4 in Faultoccurs Relaytime Tripcircuitclosed Remarks Circuitbreaker closed. Protective gear startsoperating Fastrelaying Operatingmechanismstartstoopen
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1/100sec. Operation
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4 5 6 7 8 9 10
49 912 1236 27 36 40
Openingtimeofbreaker Totalbreaktime Deadtime Contactsstartclosing Circuitbreakerreclosed
Breakerisof4cycles 12cycles,fordeionization.CBremainsopen Will be opened again if fault persists and willlockopen
Contacttouchforreclose
Singleshotiscomplete,thecircuitbreakerwillremainclosediffaulthasvanished. CBwillopenagainiffaultpersistsandwillremainlockedopen
Several aspects need careful consideration while selecting autoreclosure schemes of EHV transmissionlines.Someoftheseaspectsarediscussedhereinbrief. Thefaultlevelsonsuchlinesarehigh(ascomparedwiththoseondistributionlines).Switchingof suchlinesresultsinovervoltagetransientswhichareharmfultoinsulationandshould,therefore, avoidedasfaraspossible.Thesynchronismbetweentwosidesofthecircuitbreakershouldnotbe lost.Asregardsthesystemconsiderations,thestabilityofthesystem(conditionofsynchronism) shouldnotbelostbythetimeofreclosing.Duetotheseaspects,theautoreclosureofEHVlineis generally SINGLESHOT AUTORECLOSURE. The breakers used for such autoreclosure are fast in opening,closing. Further, the circuit breakers at both ends of the line should reclose almost simultaneously. ThetimingofEHVautoreclosureisbasedonthefollowingrequirements: itshouldbeless,intheordertoavoidlossofsynchronismbetweeneithersidesoftheC.Bs thearcinC.B.andthatinthefaultshoulddeionizedbeforeallowingreclosure theoperatingmechanismsofC.B.toopenandtocloseshouldbecapableofachievingthedesired timeschedule C.Bsatbothendsofthelineshouldreclosesimultaneously. Deionization time for arc space in fault on overhead line depends on several aspects such as magnitude of fault current, servicevoltage, length of line wind condition, spacing of conductors etc.Generallythetimeallowedisbasedonratedvoltageoflineandisasfollows:
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VoltageofTransmissionline, RatedVoltageofC.B., (kV) 66 132 220 400 (kV) 72.5 145 245 420
MinimumDeionizationtime necessary,Hz 5 9 14 18
Thecircuitbreakersshouldbecapableofwithstandingtheelectrodynamicstressincasetheyare reclosingonanexistingshortcircuit.Thepressureinthereservoirgenerallyreducesafterthefirst opening;therebythereisareductioninbreakingcapacityforthesubsequentopening.Thisaspect shouldbetakencareofwhiledesigningthecircuitbreakerssuitableforautoreclosure. 5.14AUTORECLOSUREFORDISTRIBUTIONLINES Inruraldistribution,overheadlinesareused.Thespacingbetweenconductorsisrelativelyclose. The disturbances on such lines are generally transient, as described earlier. Autoreclosure is therefore, suitable in improving the continuity of service. The usual procedure was to reclose circuit breaker three times between 15 to 120 seconds. If the breaker trips after the third reclosure,itopensand remainsopen.Theattendanttherebyknowsthatthefaultispermanent and sends electricians to locate and correct the fault. The autoreclosure cycle is illustrated in Fig.5.23, but the sequence may vary in other cases. This practice is no more favored in modern distributionsystems.
Figure5.23Autoreclosurecycleofa12kVC.B.forruraldistribution
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5.15TRIPFREEFEATURE Suppose the breaker has been instructed to close by manual instruction by pushing of push button.Theoperatingmechanismwillstartoperatingforclosingoperation.Meanwhileafaulthas takenplaceandarelayclosesthetripcircuitofthebreaker.TheTripFreemechanismpermitsthe circuitbreakertobetrippedbytheprotectiverelayevenifitisundertheprocessofclosing.This feature is called Trip Free feature. Another feature of operating mechanisms is to prevent Pumping,i.e.alternatetrippingandclosingiftheclosingbuttonisheldclosedduringafault.Inoil circuitbreakersandpuertypeSF6circuitbreakers,thecontactsmaybeallowedtotouchduring theendoftheclosingstroke,beforethestartoftheopeningoperation. 5.16MATERIALSANDSOMEDESIGNASPECTS Thematerialsareimportantinswitchgearmanufacturing.Normallyalltheincomingmaterialsare tested in the factory before acceptance. Themanufacturer maintains with himall the necessary standardsofmaterialspecifications.Thesestandardsgivethespecificationsofchemical,electrical, metallurgical and mechanical properties of the corresponding materials. The heat treatment, surface treatment is equally important in the manufacturing process. The materials used in switchgearsingeneralandcircuitbreakerinparticularcanbeclassifiedinausualway: Circuitbreakerdesignisgenerallybackedbythevastdesigndata,theexperienceandtheresearch results.Beforedetaildesignoffunctionalsubassemblies,thestructuralformofthecircuitbreaker isdecided.Thedimensiondrawingsaremadethisisfollowedbydetaildesignofsubassemblies and components. Each subassembly and component is designed on the basis of its functional requirementsandtheinformationalreadyavailablewiththedesigners.Aftercompletionofdesign the prototypes are manufactured. The prototypes are subjected to rigorous development tests andfullseriesofTypeTests.
Conductingmaterials Dielectricorinsulatingmaterials Othermaterialsformanufacturing
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Table(5.2)MaterialsusedinCircuitBreakers Material
Porcelain
Applications
Enclosures for
Remarks
Interrupter Compressionstrength6000kgf/cm2.Tensile
support, support for busbars strength 3000 kgf/cm2. Ceramic material insulating tubes solid rods, made by firing clay, glazing and firing again. etc. EpoxyResin Suitableforoutdooruse. Support insulators for indoor Usedinsolidform.Obtainedbymixingwith applications, enclosures cover suitable hardener and curing a suitable encapsulation,etc. Glass fibre reinforced Insulating syntheticresin insulating interrupters Polytetra fluroethelene Nozzles for SF6 Breakers, Low friction; arc resistant; can be PTFE Electrolytic (99.9%purity) Electrical aluminum bearings,Pistonrings,etc. Copper Busbars, main moulded/machined. Pure PTFE is insulating usedwithvariousfillers. contacts conductingparts,terminals grade Busbars, conducting parts, casting, terminals, enclosures of SF6 GIS, enclosures of bus bars,enclosuresofbusducts TungstenCopper StainlessSteel Copperbismuth CopperChromium Copperberrylium Arcingcontacts 80% Tungsten, 20% copper, sintered material Enclosures of SF6 GIS pars enclosedcircuits Main contacts of Vacuum Highconductivity,lowweldingtendency interrupters,contactors drive tubes temperature, suitable fillers used. Not suitableforoutdooruse. rods, High tensile strength, withstand pressure, for dielectricstrength.
CURRENTSCARRYINGPARTS: Theseincludecontacts,contactstems,flanges,busbarsbushingconductors,connectorsetc.The designofconductingpartsisbasedonthefollowingrequirements: Temperature rise during normal continuous currenttemperature stresses during shorttime current(rateddurationofshortcircuits. Mechanicalstressduringopeningandclosingoperation. Mechanicalstressesduetoelectromagneticforcesundershortcircuitconditions.
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INSULATINGPARTS: These include interrupterenclosures insulating supports for interrupters, insulating supports to busbars, insulating pullrods, connecting the operating mechanism to the moving contracts, insulatingtubesenclosingthearccontroldevicesetc.Insulatingpartsaresubjectedtodielectric stressesandmechanicalstresses. 5.17DESIGNANDDEVELOPMENT Circuit breaker design and development is relatively longer and costlier process as it involves shortcircuit type tests and high voltage type tests. Circuit breakers are development by various leadingmanufacturers.PresentlytheresearchanddevelopmentisfocusedonSF6switchgearin EHV range and vacuum switchgear in medium voltage range. Besides product development, research is also in progress regarding system studies, testing procedures, reliability studies, materials etc. Details about design and development are beyond the scope of this manual; howeverthegeneralapproachismentionedinvariouschapters.Thedevelopmentofanewcircuit breakercomprisesthefollowingmajoractivities: Research: The research on arc quenching techniques, various thermal, electrical, mechanical stressesundervariousswitchingconditions,designprincipleforarcquenchingetc.Thisiscarried outinresearchlaboratories. Design and development of Prototypes: The structural configuration is decided first. Then the various subassemblies are designed and finally the complete breaker is designed. Full scale prototypes are manufactured. Development Testing: Various development tests are carriedout subassemblies,poles,mechanismandcompletebreaker. Type Tests for Certifications: These are exhaustive tests as per standards. Actual Installation in systemforobservingperformance. 5.18SUMMARY The circuit breaker assembly consists of switch cubicle, operating mechanism, poles, current carryingparts,dielectricpartsandotherpartsoftheassembly. The types of a.c. circuit breakers include (1) Airbreak circuit breaker, (2) Tank type oil circuit breaker, (3) Minimum oil circuit breaker, (4) Air blast circuit breaker, (5) SF6 circuit breaker, (6) Vacuuminterrupter.Thesearewidevarietiesofdesignsineachtype. Airbreakcircuitbreakersemployairatatmosphericpressureforarcextinction.Theyincorporate
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arcrunnersandblowoutsforlengtheningthearc.Theyarewidelyusedforlow/mediumvoltages andalsoforvoltagesupto12kV.Miniaturecircuitbreakersareusedfordomesticandcommercial applications. They are finding increasing use in motor protection, railway applications and low voltage switchgear. Minimum oil circuit breaker has been developed for wide range of rating between3.6to245kV.ABCBandSF6CBarepreferredforEHVapplications.Vacuuminterrupters andcircuitbreakersarefindingincreasinguseforawiderangeofapplicationsforratedvoltages upto36kV. SF6circuitbreakershavetwotypesofdesigns(1)doublepressuretype,(2)singlepressuretype (PufferType). The operating mechanisms play an important role in the operation of circuit breakers and isolators. The operating mechanisms are either 'dependent' or 'stored energy' type. Manual, springloadedmanual,motorwoundspringtype,pneumatic,hydraulic,etc.arethevarioustypes of operating mechanism. The operating mechanisms for EHV circuit breakers should be suitable forrapidautoreclosing. Thematerialsusedinswitchgearincludeconductingmateriallikeelectrolyticcopper,aluminum; insulating material like porcelain, epoxy resins. Arcing contacts of circuit breakers are made of coppertungstenalloy.Themaincontactsaremadeofelectrolyticcopper.
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Miniature C.B. 2. Tank type oil circuitbreaker

Air at atmospheric pressure Dielectric oil

Compressed air (20-30 kgf/cm2)

5. SF6 circuitbreakerSinglepressure puffer type 6. Vacuum circuitbreaker 7. H.V.D.C. circuitbreaker

SF6 gas (5 kgf/cm2)

Figure(5.9)SchematicDiagramoftheEffectiveAreainaContact 5.9.6EFFECTOFCONTACTRESISTANCE WhenacurrentIpassthroughanareaAthathasaresistanceR,theEnergyEabsorbedbyA is: E=RI2t wheretisthetimedurationofI.

Figure(5.14)Changeofcontactresistancewithtimeincaseoffrettingphenomenon 5.9.7.4CONTACTFORCE Asknown,theresistanceRisfunctionofthecontactmaterial'sresistivityandareaS,(R= /S). Sisthesumofallcontactpointsareas.Thecontactpointsareasarefunctionoftheapplied forceFandthematerialhardnessH,(kisaconstant).

Figure5.16 One pole of a singlepole operated circuit breaker with twointerruptersperpole.

Toacceleratethemovingmassesincludingcontactsandlinkagesrapidlytoachieve desiredopeningcharacteristic. Toachievedesiredspeedofcontactatcontactseparationandduringtheopening stroke(3to7m/s). Todampthespeedattheendofthetravelbydampers.

Firsttoopen:Circuitbreaker Nexttoopen:Isolato Thentheearthingswitch(ifany)toclose

Openearthingswitch Close:Isolator Thenclosecircuitbreaker.

Openingtimeofbreaker Totalbreaktime Deadtime Contactsstartclosing Circuitbreakerreclosed

Breakerisof4cycles 12cycles,fordeionization.CBremainsopen Will be opened again if fault persists and willlockopen

Conductingmaterials Dielectricorinsulatingmaterials Othermaterialsformanufacturing

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