STOMACH - An enlarged segment of the digestive tract in the left superior part of the abdomen - Functions primarily as a storage

and mixing chamber for ingested food. o Fundus the most superior part of the stomach o Body the largest part of the stomach which turns to the right forming a greater curvature on the left and lesser curvature on the right o Cardiac opening opening from the esophagus into the stomach o Cardiac sphincter thick ring of smooth muscle surrounding the cardiac opening that prevents regurgitation/backflow of chyme into the esophagus o Pyloric opening opening from the stomach into the small intestine o Pyloric sphincter a relatively thick ring of smooth muscle surrounding the pyloric opening that when partially relaxed allows the chyme to get into the duodenum. Muscular layer of the stomach: Longitudinal layer (outer) Circular layer (middle) Oblique layer (inner) Rugae large folds in the stomach that allows the mucosa and submucosa to stretch. These folds disappear as the stomach is filled Gastric pits - Opening for gastric glands Epithelial cells of the stomach: 1. Surface mucous cells 2. Mucous neck cells 3. Parietal cells Gastric glands 4. Endocrine cells 5. Chief cells Surface mucous cells - Lines the gastric pits and are at the inner surface of the stomach - Produce mucus which coats and protect the stomach Mucous neck cells - Produce mucus Parietal cells - Produce hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor Endocrine cells - Produce regulatory hormones Chief cells - Produce pepsinogen which is a precursor of the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin. Secretions of the stomach: Mucus

Hydrochloric acid Pepsinogen Intrinsic factor Gastrin

Chyme - A semifluid mixture of food and stomach secretions Hydrochloric acid - Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomach - the low pH kills microorganisms Pepsinogen - Converted by HCl to the active enzyme pepsin Pepsin - Breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form smaller peptide chains - Exhibits optimum enzymatic activity at pH 2.0 Intrinsic factor - Binds with vitamin B12 and makes it more readily absorbed in the small intestines. Vitamin B12 - Important in DNA synthesis and RBC production Gastrin - A hormone that helps regulate stomach secretions - Stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl and intrinsic factor - Stimulates chief cells to secrete pepsinogen Regulation of Stomach Secretions: - Divided into 3 phases: cephalic, gastric, intestinal - About 2-3 L of gastric secretions is produced each day Cephalic phase - This phase is anticipatory and prepares the stomach to receive food.
1. The taste, smell, or thought of food or tactile sensations of food in the mouth stimulate the medulla oblongata. 2. Parasympathetic action potentials are carried by the vagus nerves to the stomach where enteric plexus neurons are activated. 3. Postganglionic neurons stimulate secretion by parietal and chief cells and stimulate gastrin and histamine secretion by endocrine cells. 4. Gastrin is carried through the circulation back to the stomach ,where, along with histamine, it stimulates secretion. [refer to the figure below]

carried by the vagus nerves to the medulla oblongata, where they inhibit parasympathetic action potentials thereby decreasing gastric secretions. 3. Local reflexes activated by H+or lipids also inhibit gastric secretion. 4. Secretin and cholecystokinin produced by the duodenum decrease gastric secretions in the stomach. [refer to the figure below]

Gastric phase - Period of greatest gastric secretion

1. Distention of the stomach stimulates mechanoreceptors (stretch receptors) and activates a parasympathetic reflex. Action potentials generated by the mechano-receptors are carried by the vagus nerves to the medulla oblongata 2. The medulla oblongata increases action potentials in the vagus nerves that stimulate secretions by parietal and chief cells and stimulate gastrin and histamine secretion by endocrine cells 3. Distention of the stomach also activates local reflexes that increase stomach secretions 4. Gastrin is carried through the circulation back to the stomach, where, along with histamine, it stimulates secretion. [refer to the figure below]

Secretin - Released from the duodenum - Inhibits gastric secretions - Stimulates bile secretion by the liver - Inititates the release of wartery pancreatic solution that contains bicarbonate (HCO3) Cholecystokinin - Initiated by the presence of fatty acids in the duodenum - Stimulates the gallbladder to contract and release bile into the duodenum - Stimulates pancreas to release enzyme-rich solution Types of stomach movement: Mixing waves due to relatively weak contractions which thoroughly mix ingested food with stomach secretions to form chyme. Persistaltic waves due to stronger contractions which force the chyme toward and through the pyloric sphincter The more fluid part of the chyme is pushed toward the pyloric sphincter, whereas the more solid moves back toward the body.

Intestinal phase - This phase primarily inhibits gastric secretions

1. Chyme in the duodenum with a pH less than 2.0 or containing fat digestion products (lipids) inhibits gastric secretions by three mechanisms (24). 2. Chemoreceptors in the duodenum are stimulated by H+ (low pH) or lipids. Action potentials generated by the chemoreceptors are

SMALL INTESTINE - About 6 meters long and consists of 3 parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. o Duodenum 25 cm long; where most absorption occurs. o Jejunum 2.5 meters long o Ileum 3.5 meters long - A major site of digestion and absorption of food.

4 major cell types of the mucosa of small intestine: Absorptive cells produce digestive enzymes and absorb digested food Goblet cells produce protective mucus Granular cells help protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria Endocrine cells produce regulatory hormones Lacteal - Lymphatic capillary present within the tissue core of each villus along with the blood capillary network. Peyers Patches - Cluster of lymph nodules which are numerous in the ileum - Protect the intestinal tract from harmful microorganisms Ileocecal junction - Junction between ileum and large intestine - Has a ring of smooth muscle (ileocecal sphincter) Ileocecal valve - Allows material to move form the ileum to the large intestine. Secretions of the small intestine: Peptidase break peptide bonds in proteins to form amino acids Disaccharidases break down disaccharides into monosaccharides Mucus produced by duodenal glands and goblet cells Movement in the small intestine: Peristaltic contractions cause along the small intestine Segmental contractions propagated only for short distances and function to mix intestinal contents

Hepatic artery - Brings oxygen-rich blood to the liver Hepatic portal vein - Carries blood that is oxygen poor but rich in absorbed nutrients from the digestive tract to the liver Hepatic veins - Carries blood from the liver to the inferior vena cava Hepatic ducts - Transport bile out of the liver - Right & left hepatic ducts combine to form the common hepatic duct. - Cystic duct (from the gallbladder) + common hepatic duct = common bile duct. Bile - Produced by the hepatocytes - Neutralizes stomach acids, emulsifies fats - The liver secretes about 600 1000 mL each day Bilirubin - Bile pigment that results from the breakdown of hemoglobin

PANCREAS - An endocrine and exocrine gland. o Endocrine = control blood nutrient levels o Exocrine = produce bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes Islets of Langerhans - Produce insulin from beta cells and glucagon from alpha cells. Acini - Produce digestive enzymes Pancreatic duct - Formed from joined ducts that are connected to clusters of acini. - Joins the common bile duct and empties into the duodenum. Exocrine secretions of the Pancreas: Bicarbonate (HCO3) - Neutralize the acidic chime that enters the small intestine Trypsin Continue protein Chymotrypsin digestion Carboxypeptidase Pancreatic amylase - continues polysaccharide digestion Pancreatic lipases continues lipid digestion Nucleases reduce DNA and RNA to nucleotides

LIVER - Is divided into 2 major lobes (left and right lobes) which are separated by a connective tissue called the falciform. - Has 2 smaller lobes called the caudate and quadrate. Functions of the liver Explanation: Bile emulsifies fats Bile contains excretory products (bile pigments, cholesterol, fats) Nutrient Liver stores sugar in the form of storage glycogen Nutrient Liver converts vitamin D to its active conversion form, fats to phospholipids Detoxification Liver remove ammonia from circulation and convert it to urea Synthesis Liver synthesizes albumin, fibrinogen, and clotting factors Function: Digestion Excretion