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APPENDIX APPENDIX C C
STABILITY STABILITY AND AND CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS STANDARDS
C-1 INTRODUCTION
Classification societies and regulatory bodies set standards for ship stability and strength criteria. A casualtys condition may be gaged against
such standards; in some instances the standards may be used to estimate a ships pre-casualty condition. Standards establishing requirements
for stability, minimum freeboard, and longitudinal strength are the most important to the salvor.
Standards for Navy ships are established by various codes of the Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), and promulgated in General
Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy (GENSPECs), S9AA0-AA-SPN-010, Naval Ship Engineering Center Design Data Sheets
(DDS), and NAVSEA (Code 55Z) Ship Design Standards (SDS). The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46 (46 CFR) establishes stability,
load line, and construction requirements for vessels operating in U.S. waters, with the U.S. Coast Guard designated as the enforcing agency.
Standards issued by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) are advisory unless adopted by national regulatory bodies; some U.S Coast
Guard stability standards are based on IMO standards. Similarly, construction and freeboard standards of the classification societies are advisory,
or conditions of society classification, unless adopted by regulatory bodies. 46 CFR requires general compliance with ABS construction
standards for ships of U.S. registry; ABS is also the load line assigning authority for the U.S. Coast Guard.
It is not always possible to restore a damaged vessels stability, reserve buoyancy, or strength to an established standard. Navy, Coast Guard,
IMO, and ABS standards are discussed in the following paragraphs to provide guidance for evaluating casualties. These standards were
developed to ensure adequate stability and strength throughout a vessels service life, and therefore anticipate severe conditions that may be
avoided by careful route planning and timing. Strength and stability standards should be used to estimate a casualtys suitability to steam or
be towed along a proposed route to a repair facility, or for continued service. An evaluation can lead to recommendations to restrict the tow
route or operating area to sheltered waters, limit offcenter weight, maximum turning speed, etc., or to estimates of the maximum wind or sea
state the casualty can be expected to survive. Strength and stability standards also provide guidance for the operation and employment of barges
or other craft converted for salvage useparticularly improvised lift craft, crane barges, and harbor craft used in exposed locations.
C-2 STABILITY STANDARDS
For safe operation, a vessel must have a certain minimum stability during normal service. Recommended or required minimum stability criteria
are established by various regulatory and advisory bodies. The adequacy of a vessels stability can be gaged by metacentric height and certain
characteristics of the stability curve. Stability criteria can be divided into the following groups:
GM or Initial Stability. GM is the most basic stability criterion and one of the first parameters used to quantify a ships stability.
Many national, military, and international stability standards specify a minimum GM as part of their requirements.
GZ or Quasi-dynamic Stability. GZ criteria generally specify minimum righting arms at specific angles of heel, a minimum
positive range of stability, or minimum righting energy (area under the curve).
Energy Balance. Energy balance criteria are based on the concept that the righting energy or area must be equal to or greater
than the upsetting energy.
Wave-adjusted Stability. Many ship forms experience a reduction of stability in following or quartering seas. Criteria to account
for these effects are in various stages of development, and usually involve calculation of the righting arm curve based on a
specified wave form, or corrections to the statical stability curve by use of a form factor.
Dynamic Motion Stability Methods. Research indicates that static or quasi-dynamic models may not predict the complex
dynamic behavior of ships in a seaway accurately enough to establish stability criteria to prevent capsize. Methods are being
developed to model ship behavior in a seaway.
The intent of these standards is to ensure that vessels have sufficient righting energy to resist overturning by disturbing forces that can be
reasonably expected in normal service, and that they will have residual stability after specified damage. Stability requirements vary with vessel
type and conditions of service. Most maritime nations and regulatory agencies have established wind heel or weather criteria to limit heel
resulting from the upsetting moment created by wind pressure on the side profile of a ship coupled with a drag force on the underwater hull.
Stability criteria also exist for vessels subject to topside icing or that engage in towing, lifting heavy weights, high-speed turns, and for residual
stability following specified damage. Different stability criteria may be used as the standard for similar ships and conditions by different
agencies. For example, the U. S. Coast Guard weather criteria require a minimum GM for a given wind pressure and vessel profile; the U. S.
Navy criteria specify minimum righting energy and upsetting-arm-to-righting-arm ratio.
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C-2.1 U.S. Navy Stability Standards.
ARM
HEEL ANGLE, , DEG
RIGHTING
ARM, GZ
WIND HEEL
ARM, L
W
C
<_
0.6GZ
MAX
25
OR
r
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
A
2
A
1
Figure C-1. USN Wind Heel Criteria.
Stability standards for Navy ships are
promulgated in the Naval Ship Engineering
Center Design Data Sheet (DDS) 079-1 (the
following standards are taken from DDS
079-1 of 1 August 1975). Criteria are
established for beam winds combined with
rolling, lifting heavy weights over the side,
towing, crowding of personnel to one side,
high-speed turning, and topside icing.
C-2.1.1 Wind Heel Combined With
Rolling. Criteria are based on a
comparison of the ships righting arm (GZ)
curve and the wind heeling arm curve as
shown in Figure C-1. The wind heeling
arm curve is drawn from:
L
w
= 0.0035V
2
AHcos
2
/
where:
L
w
= wind heeling arm at angle , ft
V = wind velocity, knots
A = projected lateral sail area above the waterline, ft
2
H = lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half draft) to center of above-water sail area, ft
= displacement, lbs = tons 2240
= angle of inclination, degrees
Stability is considered adequate if:
The heeling arm at the intersection of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (point C) is not greater than six-tenths of the maximum
righting arm, and
Area A
1
is not less than 1.4 times area A
2
where A
2
extends 25 degrees (or the roll angle
r
, if known) to windward from point C.
A steady wind heeling arm greater than the ships righting arm would capsize the ship; the requirement that the heeling arm be no greater than
six-tenths the maximum righting arm is intended to provide a margin for gusts and for the inexact nature of the heeling arm calculation. The
ship is assumed to be rolling 25 degrees about the wind heel angle. Area A
2
is a measure of the energy imparted to the ship by the wind and
the ships righting moment in returning to point C. The margin of 40 percent in area A
1
is intended to account for gusts and calculation
inaccuracies.
For design purposes, beam winds of 50 to 100 knots are used to develop the heeling arm curve, depending on the classification and service
(ocean, coastwise, harbor). Damage Control Books for newer Navy ships include plots of standard wind heel arm and comparison to the wind
heel criteria for various conditions of loading. To evaluate casualty stability, the maximum anticipated winds should be used, or several trial
wind speeds should be used to determine the maximum acceptable wind.
C-2.1.2 Offcenter Weight Criteria. Stability standards are prescribed for lifting heavy weights over the side and for personnel crowding to
one side. The criteria are the same for both cases, although for slightly different reasons. Both are designed to ensure adequate resistance to
transient rolling forces when the ship is already heeled by an offcenter weight, and are equally applicable to any offcenter weight, such as shifted
cargo or flooding. To apply the criteria, the righting arm curve is corrected for the rise in KG and increased displacement caused by the weight
added at the lifting point. The heeling arm is calculated by:
where:
L
h
=
wdcos

L
h
= heeling arm at angle due to offcenter weight or lift, ft
w = weight of offcenter weight or lift, tons
d = distance from centerline to offcenter weight, ft
= displacement, including weight of lift or other added weight, lton
= angle of inclination, degrees
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The righting arm and heeling arm curves
Figure C-2. USN Offcenter Weight Criteria.
ARM
HEEL ANGLE, , DEG
RIGHTING ARM, GZ
HEEL ARM, L
h
<_
0.6GZ
MAX
C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
A
3
A
1
are drawn as shown in Figure C-2.
Stability is considered adequate if:
The angle of heel (point C)
does not exceed 15 degrees,
The heeling arm at point C is
not greater than six-tenths of
the maximum righting arm,
and
The reserve of quasi-dynamic
stability (shaded Area A
1
) is
not less than four-tenths of the total area between the righting arm curve and the horizontal axis (Area A
3
).
The margin provided by limiting heeling arm and providing a minimum reserve of quasi-dynamic stability allows for inadvertent overloading
of the lifting system or unanticipated heeling disturbances. Heel angles greater than 15 degrees will interfere with shipboard operations.
C-2.1.3 Towline Pull for Tugs. The U. S. Coast Guard formula for calculating heeling arm caused by towline pull on tugs is used to develop
the heeling arm curve:
where:
L
t
=
2N(SHP D)
2/3
shcos
38
L
t
= heeling arm due to towline pull at angle , ft
N = number of propellers
SHP = shaft horsepower per shaft
D = propeller diameter, ft
s = fraction of propeller slip stream deflected by rudder, normally taken as 0.55
h = vertical distance from propeller shaft centerline at rudder to towing bitts, ft
= displacement, lton
= angle of inclination, degrees
Criteria for adequate stability are the same as for offcenter weight (Paragraph C-2.1.3, Figure C-2), except that the range of the righting arm
is terminated at the angle where unrestricted downflooding can occur. These criteria can be applied to a vessel subject to a lateral towline pull,
such as a stranded vessel being rotated, by replacing the term 2N(SHP D)
2/3
s by the athwartships towline pull, in long tons.
C-2.1.4 High-speed Turning. The heeling arm resulting from the centrifugal force acting on a ship in a turn is:
where:
L
R
=
V
2
Hcos
Rg
L
R
= heeling arm due to high-speed turn, ft
V = ship speed, ft/sec
H = vertical distance from ships center of gravity to center of lateral resistance (half-draft), ft
= angle of inclination, degrees
R = radius of turning circle, ft
g = gravitational acceleration constant, 32.2 ft/sec
2
Criteria for adequate stability are the same as for offcenter weight (Paragraph C-2.1.3, Figure C-2).
C-2.1.5 Topside Icing. The criterion for topside icing is less definitive than the other criteria because an upper limit for ice accumulation
cannot be estimatedice will continue to form as long as conditions favor icing. Since high winds often accompany icing conditions, the best
approach is to plot the stability curve corrected for the increase in KG and offcenter weight caused by ice accumulation, and then determine
the maximum beam wind that meets the wind heel criterion.
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C-2.1.6 Residual (Damage) Stability. Criteria for stability after damagei.e., floodingfall into two categories; ships with side protective
systems, such as aircraft carriers, and smaller ships without side protective systems. The term damage stability is adopted to denote standards,
calculations, and discussions of hypothetical conditions of damage as a function of design, as opposed to a salvage assessment of an actual
damaged condition.
Ships without side protective systems are
Figure C-3. USN Damage Stability Criteria.
12 OR
r
45 OR
f
ARM
C
D
RIGHTING ARM, GZ
WIND HEEL ARM
HEEL ANGLE, , DEG
0
10
20 30 40 50
A
2
A
1
assumed to have suffered damage and
flooding to their standard of subdivision.
Limiting (before damage) drafts are
assigned and marked to ensure that the
margin line will not be immersed if the
ship suffers damage to her standard of
subdivision. The righting arm curve is
drawn to account for the flooding and with
an additional reduction of 0.05cos to
account for unknown asymmetrical flooding
or transverse shift of loose material. A
wind heeling arm curve is drawn as
described earlier. For design, standard
wind velocities are used for various
displacements. For salvage calculations,
anticipated winds should be used, regardless
of displacement. Damage stability is
considered adequate, if after damage:
Static heel angle without wind
Figure C-4. Assumed After Damage Roll Angle.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 10 20
DISPLACEMENT (LTON x 1000)

,
A
N
G
L
E
O
F
R
O
L
L
-
D
E
G
R
E
E
S
30 40 50 60 70 80
effects (point C) does not
exceed 15 degrees,
Wind heel angle (point D)
does not exceed 20 degrees,
and
Area A
1
, as shown in Figure
C-3, is at least 1.4 times area
A
2
.
Area A
1
terminates at 45 degrees or at the
downflooding angle, whichever is less; area
A
2
terminates 12 degrees or the expected roll
angle (whichever is greater) to windward of
the wind heel angle. Assumed roll angles
are taken from the curve in Figure C-4. The
curve, which plots roll angle against
displacement, is not based on theoretical
calculations, but represents reasonable roll
angles for ships of various displacements in
moderates seas (4 foot waves).
The 20-degree heel criterion is based on the following reasoning. General Specifications for Ships of the U. S. Navy (GENSPECs) require
machinery and equipment to be designed and installed to operate satisfactorily and continuously without damage or excessive wear with the ship
listing to 15 degrees. It can be reasonably assumed that equipment will continue to function or can be made to function for some time with
a list of 20 to 25 degrees. Battle-damaged ships have been towed with lists of 20 degrees or greater; such lists did not prevent damage control
and salvage efforts.
Limiting drafts for ships with side protective systems are governed by freeboard requirements associated with the side protective system, rather
than reserve buoyancy. Ships with side protective systems are large ships with large reserve buoyancies, but are inherently subject to offcenter
flooding. These ships are designed to be able to rapidly counterballast and reduce list caused by offcenter flooding. Damage stability criteria
are principally concerned with limiting heel for operational considerations rather than with the likelihood of capsize. Damage stability of ships
with side protective systems is analyzed by assuming flooding due to either:
Widespread and separated damage on one side that reaches but does not penetrate the holding bulkhead (the innermost longitudinal
bulkhead of the side protective system), bulkhead, or
Damage that penetrates the holding bulkhead.
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Damage stability for ships with side protective systems is assessed by examining stability curves drawn for the ship with the two types of damage
described above to ensure that there is sufficient righting energy to withstand wind and wave heeling moments.
C-2.2 U.S. Coast Guard Stability Standards. U. S. Coast Guard stability standards for commercial ships are listed in the U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 46, Subchapter S, Parts 170 through 174 (46 CFR S 170-174). The following standards are taken from 1 October 1991 edition
of 46 CFR. A general Weather Criterion applies to all vessels, and various other criteria are applied to different classes of vessels.
C-2.2.1 Weather Criteria. With some exceptions, all vessels must have a metacentric height equal to or greater than that given by the
relationship below in all loading and operating conditions.
where:
GM
PAH
tanT
P = 0.005 + (L/14,200)
2
lton/ft
2
= 0.055 + (L/1309)
2
mton/m
2
for ocean service, Great Lakes winter service, or service on exposed
waters
= 0.0033 + (L/14,200)
2
lton/ft
2
= 0.036 + (L/1309)
2
mton/m
2
for Great Lakes summer service, or service on partially protected
waters (waters within 20 NM of a harbor of safe refuge)
= 0.0025 + (L/14,200)
2
lton/ft
2
= 0.028 + (L/1309)
2
mton/m
2
for service on protected waters (rivers, harbors, lakes, etc)
L = length between perpendiculars, ft or m
A = projected lateral sail area of the vessel and deck cargo above the waterline, ft
2
or m
2
H = lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half draft) to center of sail area, ft or m
= displacement, lton or mton
T = 14 degrees or the angle of heel at which one-half the freeboard to the deck edge is immersed, whichever is less
Vessels under 328 feet (100 meters) may be required to meet one of the two following criteria.
Criterion A:
Initial GM not less than 0.49 feet (0.15 meters),
Righting arm of at least 0.66 (0.2 meters) feet at an angle of heel of 30 degrees or greater,
Maximum righting arm at an angle of heel of 25 degrees or greater,
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 30 degrees not less than 10.3 foot-degrees (3.15 meter-degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle (whichever is less) not less than 16.9 foot-degrees
(5.15 meter-degrees), and
Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and 40 degrees or the downflooding angle, not less than 5.6 foot-degrees (1.72 meter-
degrees).
Criterion B:
Initial GM not less than 0.49 feet (0.15 meter-degrees),
Maximum righting arm at an angle of heel not less than 15 degrees,
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, not less than 16.9 foot-degrees
(5.15 meter-degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and 40 degrees or the downflooding angle not less than 5.6 foot-degrees (1.72 meter-
degrees), and
Area in foot-degrees under the righting arm curve up to the angle of maximum righting arm not less than:
A = 10.3 + 0.187(30 - angle of maximum righting arm) foot-degrees
= 3.15 + 0.057(30 - angle of maximum righting arm) meter-degrees
No additional stability criteria are established for general cargo vessels. There are special requirements, (including damage stability criteria in
some cases) for passenger-carrying vessels, bulk cargo carriers, vessels engaged in lifting and towing, deck cargo barges, offshore drilling rigs,
and other specialized craft. The criteria applied to passenger vessels are primarily designed to limit heel to small values to ensure the safety
of passengers and allow lifeboats to be launched; these criteria have little application to salvage and will not be discussed here. Some of the
other pertinent criteria are discussed below.
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C-2.2.2 Bulk Carriers. There are no
Table C-1. Factors for Calculation of Minimum GM for Grain Carriers.
Displacement Maximum Breadth of Slack Surfaces, ft
long tons 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10,000 0.0094 0.0184 0.0317 0.0504 0.0752 0.1070 0.1468
20,000 0.0047 0.0092 0.0159 0.0252 0.0376 0.0535 0.0739
30,000 0.0031 0.0061 0.0106 0.0168 0.0251 0.0357 0.0489
40,000 0.0023 0.0046 0.0079 0.0126 0.0188 0.0268 0.0367
50,000 0.0019 0.0038 0.0063 0.0101 0.0150 0.0214 0.0294
60,000 0.0016 0.0031 0.0053 0.0084 0.0125 0.0178 0.0245
70,000 0.0013 0.0026 0.0045 0.0072 0.0107 0.0153 0.0210
80,000 0.0012 0.0023 0.0040 0.0063 0.0094 0.0134 0.0184
90,000 0.0010 0.0020 0.0035 0.0056 0.0084 0.0119 0.0163
100,000 0.0009 0.0018 0.0032 0.0050 0.0075 0.0107 0.0147
Note: Table has been abbreviated by deleting columns for 45-, 55-, 65-, 75-, and 85-foot breadths
intact stability criteria for tankers and ore
carriers, but there are minimum GM
requirements for grain carriers on ocean
voyages and damage stability requirements
for all bulk carriers. Required GM values
for grain carriers, other than those operating
solely on the Great Lakes or in U.S. inland
waters, are given by:
GM fL
where:
L = total length of all slack
surfaces, ft
f = factor based on vessel
displacement, and length and
breadth of slack surfaces,
from Table C-1.
If the ratio of freeboard to beam is less than 0.268, the values for f from Table C-1 are adjusted by multiplying by 0.268 and dividing by the
ratio of freeboard to beam. If cargo spaces are divided by a centerline bulkhead, one-fourth the tabular values are used. The tabular values
are calculated for wheat, with a stowage factor of approximately 47 cubic feet per long ton. For other grains, the tabular values are reduced
by multiplying by the following factors:
Corn, rye, soybeans (stowage factor 50) 0.9
Barley (stowage factor 56) 0.8
Oats (stowage factor 70) 0.6
For damage stability requirements, bulk carriers are assumed to have suffered solid flooding to their standard of subdivision. Stability is adequate
if, after damage:
Metacentric height (GM) is not less than 2 inches,
The waterline in final condition of sinkage, heel, and trim is below any opening that would permit unrestricted flooding that is
not closed by a watertight fitting,
Static heel angle does not exceed:
(1) 25 degrees (30 degrees if there is no deck edge immersion) for tankers carrying ordinary cargoes, or
(2) 15 degrees (17 degrees if there is no deck edge immersion) for tankers carrying hazardous liquids and Great Lakes dry bulk
carriers,
The range of positive stability extends 20 degrees beyond the angle of static heel, and
The maximum righting arm beyond the angle of static heel is at least 3.94 inches for tankers or 4 inches for Great Lakes dry bulk
carriers.
C-2.2.3 Tank Barges. Quasi-dynamic stability criteria are applied to tank barges where the vertical center of gravity of the cargo is above
the weather deck (cargo carried in large tanks on deck or in hoppers). The area under the righting arm curve from 0 to the angle of maximum
righting arm or the downflooding angle, whichever is less, must be at least:
5 foot-degrees for river service,
10 foot-degrees for Great Lakes summer service, or service on lakes, bays, and sounds, or
15 foot-degrees for ocean or Great Lakes winter service.
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If the vertical center of gravity of the cargo is below the weather deck (conventional built-in tanks, or tanks in a deep hopper), a minimum GM
is specified:
where:
GM
KB
F
e
K = 0.3 for river service
= 0.4 for Great Lakes summer service, or service on lakes, bays, and sounds
= 0.5 for ocean or Great Lakes winter service
B = beam, ft
F
e
= effective freeboard to the deck edge or top of expansion trunks, ft
A minimum intact longitudinal metacentric
Figure C-5. USCG Lifting Criteria.
NOTE: L
1
AND GZ
2
PLOTTED TO DETERMINE STATIC HEEL ANGLE
c
,
AND DO NOT BOUND RIGHTING ENERGY AREAS.

f
ARM
GZ
1
GZ
2
HEEL ANGLE
L
1
L
2
= HEELING ARM WITH HOOK LOAD AND COUNTER BALLAST
= HEELING ARM WITH COUNTER BALLAST ONLY
= RIGHTING ARM WITHOUT HOOK LOAD
= RIGHTING ARM WITH HOOK LOAD
GZ
1
GZ
2
L
1
L
2
A
1
A
2
height is required for all tank barges:
where:
GM
L

0.02(LOA)
2
T
LOA = length overall, ft
T = draft, ft
Damage stability of tank barges is
considered adequate, if after damage to its
standard of subdivision, the barge does not
heel or trim so that the deck edge is
immersed, and metacentric height is not
less than two inches.
C-2.2.4 Deck Cargo Barges. For each
condition of loading, the area under the
righting arm curve from 0 to the angle of
maximum righting arm, 40 degrees, or the
downflooding angle, whichever is less,
must be at least:
10 foot-degrees for service on
protected or partially
protected waters, or
15 foot-degrees for service on
exposed waters.
C-2.2.5 Lifting. Criteria are applied to floating cranes and other craft designed to make heavy lifts over the side. Lifting craft not equipped
with counterballasting systems must meet the same criteria as those applied to deck cargo barges.
An energy balance criterion is used for lifting craft equipped with counterballasting systems, as shown in Figure C-5, to ensure that the vessel
can withstand the heeling moment imposed by the counterballast in the event of sudden loss of the hook load. Righting arm curves are drawn
corresponding to the vessel displacement without hook load (GZ
1
) and displacement with hook load (GZ
2
). Two heeling moment curves are
drawn as shown. L
1
is the heeling arm due to the combined effect of hook load and counterballast:
where:
L
1
=
(w
H
d
H
w
B
d
B
) cos

H
w
H
= hook load, tons
d
H
= distance from centerline to head or boom or lift point, ft
w
B
= ballast weight, tons
d
B
= distance from centerline to center of gravity of ballast, ft

H
= displacement, including hook load and ballast, tons
= angle of inclination, degrees
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L
2
is the heeling arm due to the weight of counterballast:
where:
L
2
=
w
B
d
B
cos

= displacement, including ballast but excluding hook load, tons

Stability is adequate if:
A
2
> A
1
+ K
where:
A
2
= righting energy opposing counterballast, up to the downflooding angle (
f
) on the counterballast side, ft-deg
A
1
= righting energy opposing combined hook load and counterballast, up to the static heel angle (
c
) on the hook side, ft-deg
K = 0 for operation on protected waters
= 7 ft-deg for operation on partially protected and exposed waters
C-2.2.6 Towing. Both minimum GM and quasi-dynamic criteria are applied to towing vessels. Tugs are required to have a minimum GM
equal to one-half the maximum towline heeling arm divided by the ratio of freeboard to beam:
where:
GM
N(SHP D)
2/3
sh
38(F/B)
GM = metacentric height, ft
N = number of propellers
SHP = shaft horsepower per shaft
D = propeller diameter, ft
s = fraction of propeller slip stream deflected by rudder, normally taken as 0.55
h = vertical distance from propeller shaft centerline at rudder to towing bitts, ft
= displacement, lton
F = freeboard, ft
B = beam, ft
Tugs must also meet the additional requirements of weather criterion A described for ships under 328 feet (Paragraph C-2.2.1), and have a
positive range of stability to at least 60 degrees. In addition, the towline heeling arm curve is plotted against the righting arm curve as described
under the U.S. Navy towing criterion (Paragraph C-2.1.3). Stability is adequate if:
The heel angle is less than the downflooding angle, and
The residual righting energy up to the smallest of the downflooding angle, 40 degrees, or the heel angle is at least two foot-
degrees.
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C-2.2.7 Mobile Offshore Drilling Units. Mobile offshore drilling units are required to have a GM of at least 2 inches (50 mm), and to meet
a wind heel energy balance criterion similar to the Navy criterion. The wind heel moment H
m
is the sum of heeling moments H
i
resulting from
wind pressure on individual exposed areas on the unit:
where:
H
m
= H
i
= p
i
A
i
h
i
H
i
= p
i
A
i
h
i
= kV
2
(C
s
C
h
Ah)
i
H
i
= wind heel moment for an exposed surface on the unit, ft-lb or kgf-m
k = 0.00338 lb/ft
2
-kt
2
(0.0623 kg-sec
2
/m
4
)
p = wind pressure acting on area A, lbs/ft
2
or kgf/m
2
(see Paragraph 3-5 for wind pressure calculations for unusual shapes)
A = projected area of an exposed surface on the unit, ft
2
or m
2
V = wind velocity
= 70 kts (36 m/sec) for normal operating conditions
= 100 kts (51.5 m/sec) for severe storm conditions
= 50 kts (25.8 m/sec) for damage conditions
C
s
= shape coefficient from Table 3-1
C
h
= height coefficient from Table 3-2
h = lever arm from center of underwater lateral resistance (half-draft) to center of wind pressure on area A, ft or m
Stability is adequate if area A
1
is not less
Figure C-6. USCG Criteria for Mobile Offshore Drilling Units.
WIND HEEL
MOMENT CURVE
FIRST
INTERCEPT
RIGHTING
MOMENT CURVE
SECOND
INTERCEPT
SECOND
INTERCEPT
ANGLE
HEEL ANGLE
0

f
M
O
M
E
N
T
A
1
A
2
than 1.4 times area A
2
, shown in Figure C-
6. A
1
is the area under the righting arm
curve from 0 to the downflooding angle,
f
,
or the second intercept of the righting arm
and heeling arm curves, whichever is less;
A
2
is the area under the heeling arm curve
from 0 to the downflooding angle or the
second intercept of the righting arm and
heeling arm curves, whichever is less.
C-2.3 IMO Stability Standards. The two
most important IMO stability standards are
IMO Resolutions A.167 and A.562,
summarized below.
C-2.3.1 IMO Resolution A.167. A.167 is
a set of righting arm and GM criteria
adopted in 1968 for ships under 100 meters
in length. These criteria have been used
extensively by several national authorities
for ships of all lengths, and are the basis for the U. S. Coast Guard criteria for ships under 100 meters. The resolution is currently being
extended to ships of unrestricted length. Stability is adequate if:
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 30 degrees is not less than 0.055 meter-radians (10.34 foot-degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve from 0 to 40 degrees or the downflooding angle is not less than 0.09 meter-radians (16.92 foot-
degrees),
Area under the righting arm curve between 30 and the lesser of 40 degrees or the downflooding angle is not less than 0.03 meter
radians (5.64 foot-degrees),
Righting arm is at least 0.2 meters (0.66 feet) at an angle equal to or greater than 30 degrees,
Maximum righting arm occurs at an angle preferably exceeding 30 degrees but not less than 25 degrees, and
Initial metacentric height is not less than 0.15 meters (0.49 feet) for cargo vessels, or 0.35 meters (1.15 feet) for fishing vessels.
C-9
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C-2.3.2 IMO Resolution A.562. A.562 is
Figure C-7. IMO Wind Heel Criteria.

0
ARM
GZ
HEEL ANGLE
Lw
1
Lw
2
A
1
A
2
an energy balance criterion similar to the
U.S. Navy wind heel criterion. The
criterion was approved by IMO in 1985 and
is recommended for cargo and passenger
vessels over 24 meters, and fishing vessels
over 45 meters in length. The vessel is
assumed to be heeled to an angle,
0
, by a
steady wind heeling arm L
w1
, and to be
rolling to an angle
1
to either side of the
wind heel angle, as shown in Figure C-7.
A gust wind heeling arm L
w2
is then
applied. Unlike the Navy criterion, the
wind heeling arms are assumed to be
constant and independent of heel angle:
L
W1
=
0.0514AH

L
W2
= 1.5L
W1
where:
L
w1
= steady wind heeling arm, meters
L
w2
= gust heeling arm, meters
A = projected lateral sail area of ship and cargo above the water, m
2
H = lever arm from center of underwater resistance to center of sail area, m
= displacement, metric tons
The angle of roll,
1
, is calculated by:
where:

1
= 109kX
1
X
2
rs

1
= angle of roll, deg
X
1
= dimensionless factor based on beam to draft ratio, from Table C-2
X
2
= dimensionless factor based block coefficient, from Table C-2
k = dimensionless factor based on bilge and keel geometry
= 1.0 for a round-bilged ship without bilge or bar keels
= 0.7 for a ship with hard bilges
= as shown in Table C-3 for ships with bilge keels, bar keels, or both
s = dimensionless factor based on rolling period, T
R
, from Table C-3
r = 0.73 0.6(OG)/T
m
OG = distance from center of gravity to the waterline (+ if G is above the waterline, - if G is below the waterline), length
T
m
= mean molded draft, length, consistent with OG
Stability is adequate if:
Steady wind heel angle,
0
, is less than 16 degrees or the angle where 80 percent of the freeboard to the deck edge is immersed,
whichever is less,
Area A
1
is greater than area A
2
.
Both areas are bounded by the righting arm curve and the gust wind heeling arm curve. Area A
1
terminates at
2
, equal to the lesser of 50
degrees or the downflooding angle
f
; area A
2
terminates at the expected roll angle,
1
, to windward of the wind heel angle.
C-10
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table C-2. Values for Factors X
1
and X
2
for IMO Resolution A.562.
Values for X
1
Values for X
2
B/T
m
X
1
C
B
X
2
2.4 1.00 0.45 0.75
2.5 0.98 0.50 0.82
2.6 0.96 0.55 0.89
2.7 0.95 0.60 0.95
2.8 0.93 0.65 0.97
2.9 0.91 0.70 1.00
3.0 0.90
3.1 0.88
3.2 0.86
B = molded beam, m
T
m
= molded draft, m
C
B
= block coefficient
3.3 0.84
3.4 0.82
3.5 0.80
Table C-3. Values for Factors k, and s for IMO Resolution A.562.
Values for k Values for s
A
k
100
LWL(B)
k T
R
s
0.0 1.00 6 0.100
1.0 0.98 7 0.098
1.5 0.95 8 0.093
2.0 0.88 12 0.065
2.5 0.79 14 0.053
3.0 0.74 16 0.044
3.5 0.72 18 0.038
4.0 0.70 20 0.035
B = molded beam, m
T
m
= molded draft, m
A
k
= total area of bilge keels and/or lateral area of bar keel, m
2
T
R
= rolling period, sec
GM = metacentric height, corrected for free surface, m
T
R
=
2CB
GM
where:
C = 0.373 0.023
B
T
m
0.043
LWL
100
C-11
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C-3 LOAD LINES AND LIMITING DRAFT MARKS
The purpose of a load line or other limiting draft mark is to provide a simple visual check that a laden vessel has sufficient watertight volume
above the waterline for safe operation. A certain minimum watertight volume is required for three reasons:
1 The watertight volume provides reserve buoyancy so that the ship can rise as it passes through waves. This helps to reduce
the amount of water that comes on board.
2 The amount of freeboard influences the length of the righting arm and range of stability. With too little freeboard, stability
is reduced below acceptable levels.
3 Reserve buoyancy is required to prevent or delay foundering in the event of underwater damage and/or flooding.
Standards for load line determination for commercial vessels were established by the International Load Line Convention of 1966 and are
implemented by national agencies. In the United States, load line regulations are promulgated as Title 46 of the US Code of Federal
Regulations, Subchapter E. The basic U.S. load line regulations are summarized in the following paragraphs. The American Bureau of Shipping
(ABS) is the load line assigning authority for the U.S. Coast Guard. Limiting draft determinations for Navy ships, governed by Design Data
Sheet DDS 079-1, Stability and Buoyancy of U.S. Naval Surface Ships and Ship Design Standard SDS 079-2, Minimum Freeboard, are described
in Paragraph C-3.2.
Figure C-8. Load Line Marks.
A B
TF
T
S
W
WNA
FORWARD
(a) INTERNATIONAL
AND UNLIMITED
COASTWISE
LOAD LINE MARK
DECK
LINE
MIDSHIPS
F
21"
9" 9"
1"
12"
12"
18"
A B S
MS
MS
FW
SW
W
S
W
I
I
FORWARD
(b) GREAT LAKES LOAD
LINE MARK
(e) USN LIMITING
DRAFT MARK
DECK
LINE
MIDSHIPS
26"
9" 9"
1"
15"
15"
21"
A B
S
SS
CS
CW
T
TF
F
FW
W
FORWARD
(c) COMBINED SPECIAL
SERVICE AND UNLIMITED
COASTWISE LOAD
LINE MARK
DECK
LINE
MIDSHIPS
21" 21"
9"
9"
9"
9"
1"
1"
12"
12"
18"
A B
S S
S
MS
MS
FW SW FW
GL
W
W
SS
W
I
I
FORWARD
(d) COMBINED GREAT
LAKES AND SPECIAL
SERVICE COASTWISE
LOAD LINE MARK
DECK
LINE
MIDSHIPS
21" 26"
9"
9"
9"
9" 1"
1"
15"
15"
21"
C-3.1 Load Lines. Minimum freeboard is measured from the freeboard deck amidships and marked with a load line, like those shown in Figure
C-8. The freeboard deck is normally the highest continuous watertight deck, but may be a lower deck so long as it is continuous and watertight.
On ships where the weather deck is obscured by a bulwark or a lower deck is the freeboard deck, the freeboard deck line is indicated by a short
horizontal line on the side plating directly above the load line.
Because maximum deadweight, and consequently the earning capacity, of a ship is directly related to the minimum allowable freeboard
(maximum draft), authorities are anxious to be fair and exact in assigning load lines. The rules for load line assignment are therefore somewhat
complicated and will not be described in detail here. Required freeboard depends on the form of the ship, and the calculation of minimum
freeboard involves water density, length, breadth, depth, sheer, size of watertight superstructures, and other geometric features of the ship. This
calculation determines the minimum summer freeboard in salt water or basic load line. This freeboard is marked amidships on both sides of
the ship by an eighteen inch long horizontal line passing through the center of a twelve inch disk. Letters to either side of the disk indicate
the assigning authority (AB for the American Bureau of Shipping, LR for Lloyds Register, NV for det Norske Veritas, etc). Load line
assignment rules include minimum standards for watertight closures, hatch covers, freeing ports, ventilators, scuttles, light ports, and other fittings
to ensure that the freeboard volume is truly watertight and effective in providing reserve buoyancy and stability. Figure C-8(a) shows a load
line mark for a vessel certified for ocean and unlimited coastwise service.
C-12
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-3.1.1 Seasonal and Regional Load Lines. More severe sea and weather conditions will require higher freeboard to provide the same margin
of safety, while lower freeboard will provide sufficient safety in less severe conditions. Since sea and weather conditions can be broadly
predicted for season and region, marks forward of the load line disk show minimum required freeboard for tropical (T), winter (W), and winter
North Atlantic (WNA). The summer (S) line marks the same freeboard as the basic load line through the center of the disk. The lines are one
inch high and nine inches wide; required freeboard is marked at the top of the line. A load line map divides the worlds oceans into zones and
shows at what times of year each zone can be considered to be summer, winter, winter north atlantic, or tropical. The same information is
available in narrative form in 46 CFR, Subchapter E, Subpart 42.30.
Freshwater (F) and tropical fresh water (TF) marks are included for use when the ship loads in fresh water for an ocean voyage. A ship loaded
to the freshwater mark in fresh water will rise to her summer load line as she transits into seawater. There is also an allowance for freeboard
to be gained as fuel and other stores are consumed during the transit from port of loading to the open sea. The fresh water load marks are
intended for use in transits from a fresh water port to the open sea, where reductions in reserve buoyancy, stability, and damage resistance are
considered acceptable for a short transit through relatively protected waters. Vessels conducting extended operations on large bodies of fresh
water should not be loaded to their fresh water load lines. Since fresh water is less dense than salt water, reserve buoyancy is already decreased
with the vessel loaded to her basic load line in fresh water. Vessels operating solely on the Great Lakes are assigned special Great Lakes load
lines as described in Paragraph C-3.1.4.
Fresh water load lines are calculated for an assumed specific gravity of 1.000 (seawater is normally taken as 1.025). If a ship is loaded in
brackish water or fresh water with specific gravity higher than 1.000 to the fresh water (or tropical fresh water) mark, the summer (or tropical)
load line will be immersed when the ship reaches seawater.
C-3.1.2 Subdivision Load Lines. During a vessels design, water tight bulkheads are located so that a specified number of compartments
(standard of subdivision) can be flooded without submerging the margin line, located just below the freeboard deck. Standard of subdivision
calculations are made assuming the ship is floating at a specific waterline called the subdivision load line. The validity of a ships standard
of subdivision depends on the ships waterline being at or below the subdivision load line and on the integrity of the compartment boundaries.
A subdivision load line has no meaning and is not affixed to a vessel if it lies above other load line marks. If the subdivision load line lies
below other load line marks, the minimum freeboard is based on the subdivision load line mark, and other marks are not affixed.
C-3.1.3 Scantling Drafts. The maximum draft amidships to which a vessel can be loaded without overstressing the hull is called the scantling
draft. If the scantling draft mark lies below any other load line marks, these marks are meaningless and are not affixed. Minimum freeboard
is then based on the scantling draft.
C-3.1.4 Great Lakes Load Lines. Vessels assigned international or unlimited coastwise load lines may operate freely on the Great Lakes
without additional load line assignment or certification. Vessels operating solely on the Great Lakes and certain portions of the St. Lawrence
River are assigned Great Lakes load lines. Load lines for Great Lakes vessels are based on the same considerations as international load lines,
i.e. reserve buoyancy, vessel form, water density, anticipated weather and sea conditions, standards of subdivision, and hull strength. The basic
Great Lakes load line is marked by a twenty one inch line passing through the center of a fifteen inch wide diamond as shown in Figure C-8(b).
The Great Lakes load line mark is affixed amidships, port and starboard like the international load line mark. Letters to either side of the
diamond indicate the assigning authority. Marks forward of the diamond show summer (S), midsummer (MS), intermediate (I), and winter (W)
load lines. If a vessel operates in the saltwater portion of the St. Lawrence River (downstream of the Victoria Bridge, Montreal), she must also
have corresponding salt water (SW) load lines as shown.
C-3.1.5 Special Service Coastwise Load Lines. Reduced freeboards are permitted for certain types of coastwise and inter-island voyages.
In general, "special service, coastwise" means voyages where the vessel remains within 20 miles of shore. Special service load lines are marked
port and starboard amidships by a load line disk identical to the international load line disk. Marks forward of the disk indicate summer, winter,
and freshwater load lines.
C-3.1.6 Combination Load Lines. Vessels certified both for limited coastwise and international voyages are marked as shown in Figure C-8(c).
Marks forward of the load line disk apply to international and unlimited coastwise voyages. Marks aft of the disk apply to limited coastwise
voyages. The marks aft of the disk are to be eliminated when engaged in international voyages.
Vessels operating both on the Great Lakes and on limited (special service) coastwise voyages are marked with a combined disk and diamond
as shown in Figure C-8(d). Marks forward of the basic mark apply to limited coastwise voyages; marks aft of the basic mark apply to Great
Lakes voyages. The summer line on the ocean corresponds to the summer line on the Lakes and the winter line on the ocean corresponds to
the intermediate line on the Lakes.
C-13
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C-3.1.7 Load Line Requirements and Inspections. Load line certification and inspection is required for all inspected and certain uninspected
vessels. Mandatory load line assignment establishes statutory minimum freeboard that is documented by a Load Line Certificate. This document
certifies the correctness of the load line marks and that the vessel is in compliance with all applicable requirements. The certificate also contains
a diagram of the assigned load line marks and freeboard deck line and states any conditions, exemptions, or restriction the vessel is required
to observe. Load line certificates are reviewed during annual inspections by the assigned authority and in more thorough load line surveys every
5 years. Load line regulations are U.S. Federal law. An assigned load line is an extension of that law and to load a vessel during normal
operation so that the applicable load line mark is submerged is an unlawful act.
C-3.2 Navy Limiting Draft Marks. The basic requirement governing limiting draft assignment, as set forth in Ship Design Standard 079-2
of 25 February 1987, is that ships "shall have freeboard sufficient to satisfy the intact and damaged stability requirements of Design Data Sheet
079-1 [outlined in Paragraph C-2.1 above] and to maintain dry decks over the expected range of operating conditions." Limiting drafts define
a pre-damage condition such that following shell to shell flooding to the ships standard of subdivision, the final trimmed waterline does not
immerse the margin line at the side (3 inches below the bulkhead deck). If governing, off-center flooding is assumed. The basic calculation
is described in DDS 079-1 of 1 August 1975:
The ship is assumed to have
Figure C-9. Limiting Draft Calculations.
(a) TRIM LINES (b) V-LINES
FLOODING
POINT A CORRESPONDS TO THE
INTERSECTION OF THE DEEPER
TRIMMED WATERLINE OF PART (a)
WITH BULKHEAD A
RECIPROCAL
WATER LINE
INCLINED
WATERLINE
WITH 4FT
WAVE INCLINED
WATERLINE
ROLL
ANGLE
15
4
FLOODING
A
DAMAGE FORWARD
OF BULKHEAD A
DAMAGE AFT OF
BULKHEAD A
BULKHEAD A A
A
H
suffered flooding to her
standard of subdivision while
loaded to trial limiting drafts.
Post damage trim lines (un-
heeled, trimmed waterlines)
are calculated for flooding in
each group of compartments
as shown in Figure C-9(a).
The trim lines establish
unheeled waterlines at each
transverse watertight bulk-
head, as shown in Figure C-
9(b). Inclined waterlines are
drawn for an assumed heel of
15 degrees, plus the assumed
roll angle from Figure C-4.
An additional 4-foot rise of
waterline is applied, as
shown, to account for an
assumed 4-foot sea.
All penetrations below the V-lines thus defined must be watertight for the ship to survive flooding to her standard of subdivision when laden
to her limiting drafts. V-lines are used by designers as a guide to locating necessary non-watertight fittings.
Groups of compartments near the third- or quarter-length points of the hull establish limiting drafts for most ships. For ships without side
protective systems, limiting drafts are assigned on the basis of reserve buoyancy, unless strength or speed dictate a shallower draft. In rare cases,
damage stability may govern the assignment of limiting draft. Limiting drafts for ships with side protective systems are governed by the
freeboard requirements of the side protective systems, rather than reserve buoyancy.
Limiting forward, after, and midships drafts are indicated by asterisk-like marks on both sides of the ship, illustrated in Figure C-8(e). The
limiting draft is marked at the top of the horizontal line. The three limiting drafts do not necessarily define a single waterline; if any one of
the marks is submerged in any condition of trim, the vessel has exceeded its limiting draft. Limiting drafts, the basis for their assignment, and
any related operating restrictions are given in section II of the ships Damage Control Book (see Appendix H for limiting draft guidelines for
an FFG-7 class ship).
C-14
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C-4 SECTION MODULUS STANDARDS
In the absence of better information, construction standards or rules may be used to estimate moment of inertia or section modulus of as-built
hull sections. The as-built section properties can then be used as a guide to estimating the properties of intact or damaged sections of a casualty.
If the ship structure has not been maintained in class, the degree and extent of deterioration and its effect on section strength must be estimated.
The NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) includes a section modulus editor that can apply corrosion or wastage allowances
to hull scantlings. The section modulus editor can also generate an approximate cross section area distribution for a given section modulus.
Damaged portions of the approximated section can then be deleted to estimate post-damage properties for the section.
The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires general compliance with ABS construction standards for ships of U.S. registry. Similar
section modulus requirements are published by other classification societies and government agencies of maritime nations (see Bibliography).
Hull girder strength requirements for Navy ships are given in Design Data Sheet DDS 100-6, Longitudinal Strength Calculations and Ship Design
Standards SDS 100-1, Hull Girder Primary Strength and SDS 100-2, Material Application Strength Limits of Steel.
Classification society rules and government regulations change from time to time; a ship may have been built to standards either more or less
demanding than the current standards.
C-4.1 Section Modulus Requirements for Navy Ships. Required section properties for Navy ships are based on calculated primary hull
loadings resulting from shear force and bending moment calculations for the ship in still water and when statically balanced on a standard
trochoidal wave (height = 1.1L, length = L). Various loading conditions are examined to determine the most severe loading. See Design Data
Sheet 100-6 or Paragraph 1-11 for a discussion of longitudinal strength calculations.
With hull girder bending moment and shear force determined along the length of the ship, section scantlings are selected so that calculated
primary stress (f
IC
) is less than the sum of the design primary stress (f
ID
) and a stress factor for primary strength (M
s
):
where:
f
IC
f
ID
- M
s
f
IC
= calculated primary stress
f
ID
= design primary stress
8.5 long ton/in
2
for ordinary steel (OS) or mild steel (MS)
9.5 long ton/in
2
for higher strength steel (HS, HSS) or high tensile steel (HTS)
10.5 long ton/in
2
for HY-80, HY-100, or HSLA-80
M
s
= stress factor for primary strength
= 1.0 long ton/in
2
for combatants
= 0.5 long ton/in
2
for other ships
The design primary stress limits range from slightly more than half the yield stress for mild and ordinary steels to less than one quarter of the
yield stress for HY-100. The stress factor for primary strength allows for increases in hull girder stresses resulting from weight growth or
redistribution, unaccounted for openings, stress raisers, fabrication defects, and corrosion. As-built section scantlings may be heavier than called
for a primary stress analysis because of local stiffening to limit vibration or deflection, or strengthening to carry secondary and tertiary loads:
Concentrated and distributed loads resulting from the stowage of provisions or cargo.
Static pressures the shell, weatherdeck, lower parts of the superstructure or deckhouse, resulting from the effects of wave slap,
passage of waves, heel, pitching with bow submergence, and green seas on the weather deck.
Weather loads.
Dynamic loads resulting from ship motions in moderate and storm seas.
Docking loads.
Hydrostatic loads from liquids in tanks.
Static and live loads in way of gun mounts, cargo gear, and other structures.
Blast and shock loads.
C-15
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-4.2 ABS Section Modulus Standards. The 1990 and 1980 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) section modulus standards are summarized
in the following paragraphs. In the 1990 Rules, required section modulus is based on total bending moment, the sum of still water and wave
bending moments. The still water bending moment is either calculated or taken as a parametrically determined standard moments; wave bending
moment is determined parametrically. In the 1980 Rules, required section modulus is based on calculated still water bending moment with
parametric adjustments to account for wave bending moment and other factors.
The 1980 rules require that structural members included in the section modulus calculation be continuous or effectively developed within a length
equal to four tenths the length between perpendiculars centered about midships and gradually tapered outside this region. Sectional areas used
in the modulus calculation for the strength deck and effective lower decks are to be continued throughout the midships 0.4L, and may be
gradually reduced to one-half their midships value at 0.15L from the ends. In other words, section modulus is constant over the middle 40 per-
cent of the ships length, and decreases gradually towards the ends of the ship. The 1990 rules include a similar requirement if a bending
moment curve is not developed. If a bending moment curve is developed, section scantlings may be sized to keep bending stresses below a
level depending on ship length (see Paragraph C-4.3).
Both the 1990 and 1980 rules require that a loading manual showing the effects of various loaded and ballasted conditions be furnished to each
vessel for guidance. An approved load calculator or computer can be installed to comply with this requirement.
C-4.3 1990 ABS Rules. The longitudinal strength requirements from the 1990 ABS Rules for Building and Classing Steel Ships are summarized
in the following paragraphs. The requirements apply to vessels 200 feet (61 meters) or more in length intended for unrestricted ocean service.
The equations are valid for vessels with depths equal to or greater than one-fifteenth of their length.
C-4.3.1 Required Section Modulus. The required midships section modulus is given by:
where:
SM =
M
t
f
p
SM = required midships section modulus, cm
2
-m or in
2
-ft, but not less than the minimum section modulus given in Paragraph C-4.3.3
M
t
= total bending moment, mton-m or ft-lton
= M
sw
+ M
w
(see Paragraph C-4.3.2)
f
p
= nominal permissible bending stress in mton/cm
2
or lton/in
2
Nominal permissible bending stress is based on ship length:
where:
f
p
= 1.663
240 L
1620
mton/ cm
2
= 10.56
790 L
845
lton/ in
2
200 ft L 790 ft
= 1.663
L 240
4000
mton/ cm
2
= 10.56
L 790
2045
lton/ in
2
790 ft < L 1400 ft
L = classification length, ft or m LBP
For general cargo ships, bulk carriers with uniform loading, and specialized carriers such as container ships or barge carriers where cargo is
stowed in specific cells or locations, f
p
may be increased 10 percent if the strength deck and bottom structure are longitudinally framed.
C-4.3.2 Bending Moment. Total bending moment is the sum of the still water bending moment, M
sw
, and the wave bending moment, M
w
.
The rules require calculation of shear force and bending moment and preparation of a loading manual based on still water conditions for ore
and bulk carriers, oil carriers, container ships, barge carriers and similar vessels over 400 feet (122 meters) in length, and for liquefied gas
carriers and chemical carriers over 213 feet (65 meters) in length. For other vessels, a standard still water bending moment, M
s
, can be
calculated:
where:
M
s
= C
st
L
2.5
B(C
B
0.5)
C
st
= parametric constant, from Table C-4
L = classification length, ft or m
B = classification breadth, ft or m
C
B
= block coefficient at the summer load waterline, based on classification length, but not less than 0.64
C-16
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table C-4. Factor C
st
for Standard Still Water Bending Moment, 1990 ABS Rules.
Length Range
C
st
L in meters L in feet
200 ft L 360 ft
(61 m L 110 m)

1
1
]
0.618
110 L
462
0.01

1
1
]
0.312
360 L
2990
0.001
360 ft < L 525 ft
(110 m < L 160 m)

1
1
]
0.564
160 L
925
0.01

1
1
]
0.285
525 L
6100
0.001
252 ft < L 690 ft
(160 m < L 210 m)

1
1
]
0.544
210 L
2500
0.01

1
1
]
0.275
690 L
16,400
0.001
690 ft < L 820 ft
(210 m < L 250 m)
0.00544 0.000275
820 ft < L 1400 ft
(250 m < L 427 m)

1
1
]
0.544 -
L - 250
1786
0.01

1
1
]
0.283 -
L 820
11,600
0.001
Wave induced bending moment amidships may be calculated by means of statistical analysis based on ship motion in realistic sea states or taken
from the following:
where:
M
w
= C
2
C
B
+ 0.088 L
2
BHK
b
C
2
= 0.01(2.32C
B
+ 0.2), [metric units]
= 0.0001(6.45C
B
+ 0.57), [English units]
L = classification length, ft or m
B = classification breadth, ft or m
C
B
= block coefficient at the summer load waterline, based on classification length, but not less than 0.64
K
b
= 1.0 for C
B
0.80
= 1.4 - 0.5C
B
for C
B
< 0.80
H = wave parameter, ft or m, from Table C-5
Table C-5. Wave Parameter H for Wave Induced Bending Moment Amidships, 1990 ABS Rules.
Length Range
C
st
L in meters L in feet
200 ft L 490 ft
(61 m L 150 m)
0.0172L + 3.653 0.0172L + 11.98
490 ft < L 720 ft
(150 m < L 220 m)
0.0181L + 3.516 0.0181L + 11.535
720 ft < L 1000 ft
(220 m < L 305 m)
0.01[4.50L - 0.0071L
2
+ 103] 0.01[4.50L - 0.00216L
2
+ 335]
1000 ft < L 1400 ft
(305 m < L 427 m)
8.151 26.750
C-17
S0300-A8-HBK-010
The wave-induced bending moment distribution is determined from M
w
:
Table C-6. Wave Bending Moment
Distribution Factor,
1990 ABS Rules.
Station k
AP 0 0
2 0.10
4 0.35
6 0.68
8 0.95
9 1.00
MS 10 1.00
11 0.99
12 0.94
14 0.74
16 0.43
18 0.13
FP 20 0
where:
M
i
= M
w
k
M
i
= wave induced bending moment at the ith station
k = bending moment distribution factor from Table C-6
C-4.3.3 Minimum Section Modulus. For vessels with lengths of 295 to 1400 feet (90 to
427 meters), midships section modulus shall not be less than:
where:
SM = 0.001C
1
L
2
B(C
B
0.70)
C
1
= parametric constant, from Table C-7
L = classification length, ft or m
B = classification breadth, ft or m
C
B
= block coefficient at the summer load waterline, based on classification length,
but not less than 0.60
Table C-7. Factor C
1
for Minimum Section Modulus, 1990 ABS Rules.
Length Range
C
1
L in meters L in feet
295 ft L 984 ft
(90 m L 300 m)
10.75

,
300 L
100
1.5
0.01441

1
1
1
]
10.75

,
984 L
328
1.5
984 ft L 1148 ft
(300 m L 350 m)
10.75 0.01441(10.75)
1148 ft < L 1400 ft
(350 m < L 427 m)
10.75

,
L 350
150
1.5
0.01441

1
1
1
]
10.75

,
L 1148
492
1.5
C-4.3.4 Required Moment of Inertia. The required midships section moment of inertia is based on required section modulus:
I =
L(SM)
34.1
where I is the midships section moment of inertia, in
2
-ft
2
or cm
2
-m
2
.
C-4.3.5 Permissible Shear Stress. In general, side shell and longitudinal bulkhead scantlings are to be such that the nominal total shear stresses
are not greater than 6.75 long tons per square inch (1.065 metric tons per square centimeter). Permissible shear stress in the middle eight-tenths
depth of longitudinal bulkheads may be increased to 7.765 long tons per square inch (1.225 metric tons per square centimeter) if it is shown
that the bulkhead has adequate resistance to buckling. Nominal total shear stress calculations are based on the maximum sum of still water shear
force F
sw
and wave induced shear force F
w
. If cargo is carried in alternate holds, F
sw
may be reduced to account for the shearing loads
transmitted through the double bottom structure to transverse bulkheads.
C-18
S0300-A8-HBK-010
For vessels without continuous longitudinal bulkheads, nominal total shear stress in the side shell plating is calculated from:
where:
f
s
=
(F
sw
F
w
)m
2t I
f
y
= nominal total shear stress, lton/in
2
or mton/cm
2
I = moment of inertia of the hull section, in
4
or cm
4
m = first moment of area, about the neutral axis, of the area of effective longitudinal material between the vertical level at which the shear
stress is determined and the vertical extremity of effective longitudinal material, for the section under consideration, in
3
or cm
3
t = thickness of side shell plating at the point under consideration, in or cm
F
sw
= maximum still water shear force, lton or mton
F
w
= maximum wave induced shear force, lton or mton
For vessels with continuous longitudinal bulkheads, nominal maximum shear stress in the bulkheads and side shell plating is calculated from
shear flow or other method approved by ABS. Discussions of shear flow calculations can be found in the Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers Principals of Naval Architecture or similar texts.
C-4.3.6 Hull Girder Shear Force. Still
Figure C-10. Wave Induced Shear Force Distribution, 1990 ABS Rules.
0.8L 0.65L 0.55L 0.4L 0.3L 0.15L FP
K = 2.5 K = 1.6
L
K = 2.6
water hull girder shear forces are calculated
by direct integration for the ship types
listed in Paragraph C-4.3.2. For other
vessels, maximum shear force for uniform
loading conditions is taken as 5M
s
/L, where
M
s
is the standard still water bending
moment (ft-lton or mton-m), and L is the
classification length (ft or m).
Wave induced shear forces along the ships
length are given by:
where:
F
w
=
KM
w
L
M
w
= maximum wave induced bending moment (see Paragraph C-4.3.2), ft-lton or mton-m
K = shear distribution coefficient, from Figure C-10
When cargo is carried in alternate holds, F
sw
may be reduced to F
s
by deducting a factor F
B
:
where:
F
s
= F
sw
F
B
F
S
= portion of still water shear force distributed to the side shell, lton or mton
F
sw
= total still water shear force as obtained by conventional direct integration, lton or mton
The factor F
B
accounts for the distribution of part of the total shear force to transverse bulkheads by the double bottom structure and is taken
as the lesser of:
where:
F
BE
=

,
0.45 0.2
l
E
b
E
W
E
b
E
B
F
BL
=

,
0.45 0.2
l
L
b
L
W
L
b
L
B
W
E
, W
L
= total load (net weight or net buoyancy) in the adjacent holds with the lesser (or empty) weight designated by E and the greater
weight designated by L, lton or mton
l
E
, l
L
= length of the adjacent holds containing the weights W
E
and W
L
, ft or m
b
E
, b
L
= breadth of the double bottom structure in holds E and L, ft or m
For vessels with lower wing tanks with tops sloping at an angle of about 45 degrees, b is measured between midpoints of the
sloping plating. For vessels with double skins and flat inner bottoms, b is measured between inner skins.
B = classification breadth, ft or m molded breadth
C-19
S0300-A8-HBK-010
C-4.3.7 Effective Structure. The uppermost deck to which the side shell plating extends is considered the strength deck, except in way of
comparatively short superstructures or in way of superstructures with reduced side shell scantlings. In general, hatchways and other openings
through the deck are excluded from the section modulus.
When the standard still water bending
Figure C-11. Deck Structure in Way of Large Openings.
C
L
C
L
l l
B
B
TRANSVERSE
BULKHEAD
OR DEEP BEAM
TRIPLE-HATCH ARRANGEMENT
TRANSVERSE
BULKHEAD
OR DEEP BEAM
TWIN-HATCH ARRANGEMENT
s
s
b
b
moment is used, deck sectional areas to
meet the required midships section modulus
are maintained throughout the midships
0.4L. Deck sectional areas may be reduced
to one-half the midships deck area at points
0.15L from the ends of the ship. In way of
a superstructure outside the midships 0.4L,
the strength deck area may be reduced to
70 percent of the area that would be
required were there no superstructure.
When calculated still water bending
moment curves are used to determine M
t
,
deck sectional areas are to be adequate to
keep bending stress below the nominal
permissible bending stress specified in
Paragraph C-4.3.1.
When strength deck longitudinal coamings of length greater than 0.14L are supported by longitudinal bulkheads or deep girders, the extreme
fiber of the hull girder is taken to be at the top of the hatch coaming rather than the deck.
When decks are constructed with two or more large openings abreast, as shown in Figure C-11, the plating and longitudinal stiffeners between
the openings may be considered effective if the slenderness ratio l/r is not more than 60 and if supported by longitudinal bulkheads. Structure
not supported by longitudinal bulkheads, but of substantial construction and with slenderness ratio of 60 or less may be considered partially
effective. The area included in the section modulus calculation is the cross sectional area multiplied by a factor as specified in Table C-8.
Table C-8. Structural Effectiveness Factors, 1990 ABS Rules.
s/b
effectiveness factor for:
l/B = 1.2 l/B = 0.8 l/B 0.6
0.15 (minimum) 0.32 0.34 0.35
0.30 0.38 0.43 0.47
0.50 0.48 0.56 0.62
0.80 0.60 0.70 0.76
1.20 0.72 0.81 0.86
1.80 and greater 0.82 0.89 0.92
Dimensions s, b, l, and B are shown in Figure C-11. Intermediate values can be interpolated. If the length of the longest cargo hold
exceed 0.8B, effectiveness factors should be multiplied by 0.9
C-20
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C-4.3.8 Higher Strength Materials. When the top or bottom flange of the hull girder is constructed of materials with strength greater than
ordinary shipbuilding steel, section modulus may be reduced by the factor Q:
Q is given by:
SM
ht s
= Q(SM)
where:
Q =
70,900
Y
2U
3
(English units)
=
49.92
Y
2U
3
(metric units)
Y = the specified yield point or yield strength of the higher strength material or 72 percent of the specified minimum tensile strength,
whichever is less, lb/in
2
or kg/mm
2
U = the specified minimum tensile strength of the higher strength material, lb/in
2
or kg/mm
2
C-4.4 1980 ABS Rules. The section modulus standards from the 1980 ABS Rules for Steel Ships are summarized in Tables C-9 through C-12
(Tables C-11 and C-12 are on Page C-22). The standards for mild-steel ships are given in Table C-9. If the effective longitudinal structure
of either the upper or lower flanges of the main hull girder is constructed of materials with strength higher than ordinary shipbuilding steel, the
required top or bottom section modulus is reduced as detailed in Table C-11 (Page C-22).
Table C-9. ABS Section Modulus for Ships of Ordinary Steel
Construction, 1980 Rules.
BASIC SECTION MODULUS:
SM = c f B( C
B
+ 0 . 5 )
where:
SM = basic section modulus at midships
c = ship type factor
= 1.00 for general cargo vessels, ore carriers, bulk carriers,
and liquefied gas carriers
= 1.03 for oil carriers
f = ship length factor, from Table C-10
B = greatest molded breadth, ft
C
B
= block coefficient at design draft, based on length
on the design waterline. For general cargo
ships and liquefied gas carriers, C
B
is not to be
taken as less than 0.68.
DECK SECTION MODULUS, SM
T
, in
2
-ft:
SM
T
= 0.371M/s + 0.82SM M < 0.485(s)(SM)
= SM 0.485(s)(SM) < M < s(SM)
= 0.623M/s + 0.377SM M > (s)(SM)
where:
M = maximum still water bending moment in the governing loaded
or ballasted condition, ton-ft
s = ship length factor, from Table C-9
BOTTOM SECTION MODULUS, SM
B
, in
2
-ft:
L 700 ft 700 ft L 1,000 ft L 1,000 ft Ship Type
1,000 - L General Cargo,
SM
B
= 1.03SM
T
________
+ 1 SM
T
Liquefied Gas
10,000 Carriers
1,000 - L
= 1.10SM
T
________
+ 1 SM
T
Ore, Bulk Carriers
3,000
1,000 - L
= 1.07SM
T
________
+ 1 SM
T
Oil Carriers
4,286
where:
L = length on summer load line, ft
Table C-10. Ship Length Factors, f and s,
1980 ABS Rules.
f s
Length on
summer
load
waterline, ft
General
Cargo, Ore,
Bulk Carriers,
Liquefied Gas
Carriers
Oil Carriers
150 24 4.25 3.78
200 50 4.25 3.78
250 83 4.25 3.78
300 124 4.25 3.78
350 174 4.25 3.78
400 234 4.25 3.78
450 306 4.25 3.78
500 387 4.25 3.78
550 482 4.25 3.78
600 594 4.25 3.78
650 718 4.25 3.78
700 857 4.25 3.78
750 1008 4.25 3.78
800 1175 4.25 3.78
820 1245 4.26 3.79
830 1280 4.27 3.80
840 1316 4.27 3.80
850 1352 4.27 3.81
860 1388 4.28 3.82
870 1425 4.29 3.82
880 1462 4.30 3.83
890 1499 4.31 3.83
900 1536 4.32 3.84
910 1574 4.32 3.84
920 1612 4.33 3.85
930 1650 4.34 3.86
940 1688 4.34 3.86
950 1726 4.35 3.87
960 1765 4.36 3.88
970 1804 4.36 3.88
980 1843 4.37 3.89
990 1882 4.38 3.90
1000 1921 4.38 3.90
C-21
S0300-A8-HBK-010
Table C-11. Section Modulus Standards for Ships of Higher Strength Material Construction, 1980 ABS Rules.
where:
I
hst
=
KL SM
T
16.67
I
hts
= required midships hull girder moment of inertia when effective longitudinal material of upper or lower flanges of main
hull girder are of materials with strength higher than ordinary shipbuilding steel, in
2
-ft
SM
T
= required deck section modulus for a mild steel vessel of the same dimensions, in
2
-ft
2
L = length on the estimated summer load line
K = ship type and length factor, from Table C-12
where:
SM
hts
= Q SM
T or B
SM
hts
= section modulus for high-strength top or bottom hull girder flange
Q = 100,000/(Y + U + 10,000)
Y = specified minimum yield point for the higher strength material, psi
U = specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the higher-strength material, psi
SM
T or B
= required deck or bottom section modulus for mild steel ship of same dimensions, as defined in Table C-9, in
2
-ft
Table C-12. Ship Type and Length Factor, K, 1980 ABS Rules.
K
Ship Type L 700 ft L 1,000 ft
General Cargo, Liquified Gas Carriers 0.5074 0.500
Ore, Bulk Carriers 0.5238 0.500
Oil Carriers 0.5169 0.500
Intermediate values for K may be determined by interpolation
C-22