Definition of 'Inflation'

The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, and, subsequently, purchasing power is falling. Central banks attempt to stop severe inflation, along with severe deflation, in an attempt to keep the excessive growth of prices to a minimum. Types of inflation : Moderate inflation Galloping inflation Hyper inflation

Investopedia explains 'Inflation'

As inflation rises, every dollar will buy a smaller percentage of a good. For example, if the inflation rate is 2%, then a $1 pack of gum will cost $1.02 in a year. Most countries' central banks will try to sustain an inflation rate of 2-3%.

Galloping Inflation
When the movement of price accelerates rapidly, running inflation emerges. Running inflation may record more than 100 per cent rise in prices over a decade. Thus, when prices rise by more than 10 per cent a year, running inflation occurs. Economists have not described the range of running inflation. But, we may saythat a double digit inflation of 10-20 per cent per annum is a running inflation. If it exceeds that figure, it may be called 'galloping' inflation. According to Samuelson, when prices are rising at double or triple digit rates of 20, 100 or 200 per cent a year, the situation is described as 'galloping' inflation. Indian economy has witnessed a sort of 'running' and 'galloping' inflation to some extent (not exceeding 25 per cent per annum) during the planning era, since the Second Plan period. Argentina, Brazil and Israel, for instance, have experienced inflation rates over 100 per cent in the eighties. Galloping inflation is really a serious problem. It causes economic distortions and disturbances.

Definition of 'Hyperinflation'
Extremely rapid or out of control inflation. There is no precise numerical definition to hyperinflation. Hyperinflation is a situation where the price increases are so out of control that the concept of inflation is meaningless.

Investopedia explains 'Hyperinflation'

When associated with depressions, hyperinflation often occurs when there is a large increase in the money supply not supported by gross domestic product (GDP) growth, resulting in an imbalance in the supply and demand for the money. Left unchecked this causes prices to increase, as the currency loses its value. When associated with wars, hyperinflation often occurs when there is a loss of confidence in a currency's ability to maintain its value in the aftermath. Because of this, sellers demand a risk premium to accept the currency, and they do this by raising their prices. One of the most famous examples of hyperinflation occurred in Germany between January 1922 and November 1923. By some estimates, the average price level increased by a factor of 20 billion, doubling every 28 hours.

Definition of 'Disinflation'
A slowing in the rate of price inflation. Disinflation is used to describe instances when the inflation rate has reduced marginally over the short term. Although it is used to describe periods of slowing inflation, disinflation should not be confused with deflation.

Definition of 'Deflation'
A general decline in prices, often caused by a reduction in the supply of money or credit. Deflation can be caused also by a decrease in government, personal or investment spending. The opposite of inflation, deflation has the side effect of increased unemployment since there is a lower level of demand in the economy, which can lead to an economic depression. Central banks attempt to stop severe deflation, along with severe inflation, in an attempt to keep the excessive drop in prices to a minimum. The decline in prices of assets, is often known as Asset Deflation.

Investopedia explains 'Deflation'

Declining prices, if they persist, generally create a vicious spiral of negatives such as falling profits, closing factories, shrinking employment and incomes, and increasing defaults on loans by companies and individuals. To counter deflation, the Federal Reserve (the Fed) can use monetary policy to increase the money supply and deliberately induce rising prices, causing inflation. Rising prices provide an essential lubricant for any sustained recovery because businesses increase profits and take some of the depressive pressures off wages and debtors of every kind. Deflationary periods can be both short or long, relatively speaking. Japan, for example, had a period of deflation lasting decades starting in the early 1990's. The Japanese government lowered

interest rates to try and stimulate inflation, to no avail. Zero interest rate policy was ended in July of 2006.

Definition of 'Reflation'
A fiscal or monetary policy, designed to expand a country's output and curb the effects of deflation. Reflation policies can include reducing taxes, changing the money supply and lowering interest rates. The term "reflation" is also used to describe the first phase of economic recovery after a period of contraction.

Definition of 'Consumer Price Index - CPI'

A measure that examines the weighted average of prices of a basket of consumer goods and services, such as transportation, food and medical care. The CPI is calculated by taking price changes for each item in the predetermined basket of goods and averaging them; the goods are weighted according to their importance. Changes in CPI are used to assess price changes associated with the cost of living. Sometimes referred to as "headline inflation."
A consumer price index (CPI) measures changes in the price level of consumer goods and services purchased by households. The CPI in the United States is defined by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as "a measure of the average change over time in the prices paid by urban consumers for a market basket of consumer goods and services

The ) is the price of a representative basket of wholesale goods. Some countries (like India and The Philippines) use WPI changes as a central measure of inflation. However, United States now report a producer price index instead. The Wholesale Price Index or WPI is "the price of a representative basket of wholesale goods. Some countries use the changes in this index to measure inflation in their economies, in particular India The Indian WPI figure was earlier released weekly on every Thursday and influenced stock and fixed price markets. The Indian WPI is now updated on a monthly basis. The Wholesale Price Index focuses on the price of goods traded between corporations, rather than goods bought by consumers, which is measured by the Consumer Price Index. The purpose of the WPI is to monitor price movements that reflect supply and demand in industry, manufacturing and construction. This helps in analyzing both macroeconomic and microeconomic conditions

Wholesale Price Index (WPI

DEMAND PULL INFLATION:

According to Keynesian theory, the more firms will employ people, the more people that are employed, the higher aggregate demand (AD) will become. This greater demand will make firms employ more people in order to output more. Due to capacity constraints, this increase in output will eventually become so small that the price of the good will rise. At first, unemployment will go down, shifting AD1 to AD2, which increases demand (noted as "Y") by (Y2 - Y1). This increase in demand means more workers are needed, and then AD will be shifted from AD2 to AD3, but this time much less is produced than in the previous shift, but the price level has risen from P2 to P3, a much higher increase in price than in the previous shift

Definition of 'Demand-Pull Inflation'

A term used in Keynesian economics to describe the scenario that occurs when price levels rise because of an imbalance in the aggregate supply and demand. When the aggregate demand in an economy strongly outweighs the aggregate supply, prices increase. Economists will often say that demand-pull inflation is a result of too many dollars chasing too few goods.

Investopedia explains 'Demand-Pull Inflation'

This type of inflation is a result of strong consumer demand. When many individuals are trying to purchase the same good, the price will inevitably increase. When this happens across the entire economy for all goods, it is known as demand-pull inflation.

Definition of 'Cost-Push Inflation'

A phenomenon in which the general price levels rise (inflation) due to increases in the cost of wages and raw materials.

Investopedia explains 'Cost-Push Inflation'

Cost-push inflation develops because the higher costs of production factors decreases in aggregate supply (the amount of total production) in the economy. Because there are fewer goods being produced (supply weakens) and demand for these goods remains consistent, the prices of finished goods increase (inflation).

Stagflation :
Condition of slow economic growth and relatively high unemployment accompanied by inflation. This happened to a great extent during the 1970s, when world oil prices rose dramatically, fueling sharp inflation in developed countries

Definition of 'Monetary Policy'

The actions of a central bank, currency board or other regulatory committee that determine the size and rate of growth of the money supply, which in turn affects interest rates. Monetary policy is maintained through actions such as increasing the interest rate, or changing the amount of money banks need to keep in the vault (bank reserves). Investopedia explains 'Monetary Policy' In the United States, the Federal Reserve is in charge of monetary policy. Monetary policy is one of the ways that the U.S. government attempts to control the economy. If the money supply grows too fast, the rate of inflation will increase; if the growth of the money supply is slowed too much, then economic growth may also slow Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, often targeting a rate of interest for the purpose of promoting economic growth and stability.[1][2] The official goals usually include relatively stable prices and low unemployment. Monetary theory provides insight into how to craft optimal monetary policy. It is referred to as

either being expansionary or contractionary, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy more rapidly than usual, and contractionary policy expands the money supply more slowly than usual or even shrinks it. Expansionary policy is traditionally used to try to combat unemployment in a recession by lowering interest rates in the hope that easy credit will entice businesses into expanding. Contractionary policy is intended to slow inflation in hopes of avoiding the resulting distortions and deterioration of asset values.

Definition of 'Fiscal Policy'

Government spending policies that influence macroeconomic conditions. These policies affect tax rates, interest rates and government spending, in an effort to control the economy. ere are two powerful tools our government and the Federal Reserve use to steer our economy in the right direction: fiscal and monetary policy. When used correctly, they can have similar results in both stimulating our economy and slowing it down when it heats up. The ongoing debate is which one is more effective in the long and short run. Fiscal policy is when our government uses its spending and taxing powers to have an impact on the economy. The combination and interaction of government expenditures and revenue collection is a delicate balance that requires good timing and a little bit of luck to get it right. The direct and indirect effects of fiscal policy can influence personal spending, capital expenditure, exchange rates, deficit levels and even interest rates, which are usually associated with monetary policy. Fiscal Policy - the Keynesian School Fiscal policy is often linked with Keynesianism, which derives its name from British economist John Maynard Keynes. His major work, "The General Theory Of Employment, Interest And Money," influenced new theories about how the economy works, and is still studied today. He developed most of his theories during the Great Depression and Keynesian theories have been used and misused over time, as they are a popular and are specifically applied to mitigate economic downturns. In a nutshell, Keynesian economic theories are based on the belief that proactive actions from our government are the only way to steer the economy. This implies that the government should use its powers to increase aggregate demand by increasing spending and creating an easy money environment, which should stimulate the economy by creating jobs and ultimately increasing prosperity. The Keynesian theorist movement suggests that monetary policy on its own has its limitations in resolving financial crises, thus creating the Keynesian versus the Monetarists debate.

HOW TO CONTROL INFLATION

1. Monetary measures 2. Fiscal Measures Reduction in Unnecessary Expenditure Increase in Taxes Increase in Savings

 Surplus Budgets Public Debt 3. OTHER MEASURES To Increase Production Rational Wage Policy Price Control

TYPES OF MONETARY POLICY

Cheap money policy : i.e interest rates are low & is followed in periods of slums & depression. Dear money policy: Means higher borrowing rates & interest rates. Followed in periods of boom & inflation.

TOOLS OF MONETARY POLICY

Bank rate Open market operations CRR Liquid adjustment facility Selective credit control Moral persuasion

EFFECTS OF MONETARY POLICY

Money Supply in economy Investment Inflation Jobs/Wages Export/ Import Interest Rates/ Savings