Topic Series 07

Scale and Measurements from Aerial Photography

Photogrammetry is the science, art, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy, and other phenomena. Included in the definition of photogrammetry are two distinct areas: 1. Metric photogrammetry - making precise measurements from photos and other image media to determine relative locations of points, distances, scales, angles, areas, volumes, elevations, and the sizes and shapes of objects. 2. Interpretative photogrammetry - recognizing and identifying objects on aerial imagery and judging their significance. This topic series deals with the geometry and metric applications of photogrammetry. Recall that an aerial photograph cannot be considered a map because: (see Figure 1-1 in Topic Series 1) Map 1. map is a two-dimensional scale representation of a portion of the earths surface. 2. all points appear as if they are viewed from above, straight down; i.e. orthogonal projection. 3. the scale is constant across the entire map and all points have been located, orthogonally, on the datum plane. Aerial Photo 1. aerial photo is a perspective or central projection. 2. a photo is a map for all points that are on the datum plane. 3. distortion results for all points not on the datum plane. 4. the scale is not constant across the entire photo.

I. Geometry of Aerial Imagery An aerial image that has been exposed in a precision "mapping" camera can be treated analytically because the camera has been calibrated to certain precise metrical characteristics primarily the format and the focal length. A camera is an angle-recording instrument. The angle Theta between object and optical axis in object space is equal to Theta Prime in image space. (see Figure 7-1 below) Recall the geometry of a single photo relative to the fiducial marks, principal point, conjugate principal point, nadir point, and isocenter. Fiducial Marks - an indicator of the center of the film plane in the aerial camera. The marks appear in the middle of each photograph border. Principal Point (PP) - the optical (and geometric) center of the film plane of the photograph. The principal point of each photograph is located by connecting the fiducial marks, at the center of the photograph. There is only one PP per photo. Conjugate Principal Point (CPP) - the PP of an adjoining photograph for photos with at least 55% end overlap. Each photo of a stereo pair will have at least 2 CPP's. If sidelap is sufficient, there will be 3 CPP's along each side of the photo. NADIR POINT (NP) - a plumb point perpendicular to the 0 datum passing through the lens at the instant of exposure. On a tilted image, there are three (3) possible photo centers: PRINCIPLE POINT (PP): a geometric or optical center, found by connecting fiducial marks. NADIR POINT (NP): a plumb point perpendicular to the 0 datum passing through the lens at the instant of exposure. ISOCENTER (IC): the intersection of the axis of tilt and the line between NP and PP.

Figure 7-1: Basic camera optics

II. Scale The objectives of this series of lectures are: 1. determine the attributes of SCALE - photos or maps; 2. determine the differences between point scale and average scale; 3. understand the causes of variation in scale. Scale defines the relationship between a linear distance on a vertical photo and the corresponding actual distance on the ground. Scale = the ratio of a distance on an image or map to the corresponding distance on the ground. Figure 7-2: Geometry of similar triangles on aerial imagery

The geometry of similar triangles in Figure 7-2 above is used to derive the following relationships:

Since scale is the relationship between image distance (d) and ground distance (D), the scale relationship of an aerial photograph can be expressed as:

Exercise:

Explain/show how the standard scale equation RF = 1/S = d/D is expanded to include the geometry of scale on an aerial photo.

Expressions of Scale 1. Equivalent Scale - the most common form is known as an equivalent scale where 1 unit of map measure is equal to X units of ground scale. 1 inch on map/photo = X ft./chains/meters on the ground 2. Graphic Scale - seen on highway maps where a graphic bar scale is drawn to indicate specific distances on the map. The advantage of a graphic scale is that if you copy the map and reproduce it, the "bar" will increase or decrease accordingly. Figure 7-3: Graphic bar scale

3. Representative Fraction (RF) - where 1 unit of photo/map measure is equal to X units of same measure on ground. The forms most commonly used in photogrammetry are either a REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION, OR A RATIO; They are written as 1/24,000 or 1:24,000. The characteristics of an R.F. are 1. the numerator is always 1; 1 over something. 2. it is unitless, until you assign units. 3. it indicates 1 unit of horizontal distance on the image or map is equal to X number of the same units on the ground. That is, 1/24,000 means that 1 photo unit equals 24,000 ground units. You can look at it as 1 photo inch = 24,000 ground inches. OR, 1 photo mm = 24,000 ground mm.; or 1 of anything to 24,000 of the same thing. ft/ft., m./m., chains/chains. RF is the most commonly used expression of scale and we will use it extensively in photogrammetry. Conversion of RF to Photo Equivalent Scale (PES) 1. RF to Feet: From 1/24,000 to ft./in.? If 1 in. = 24,000 inches, then 24,000"/12" per ft. = 2000 ft. and 1"=2000'

2. RF to Chains: How about chains/in.? 24,000"/12in. per ft./66 ft per chain = 30.0303 chains per inch 3. RF to Meters: (24,000"*2.54 cm per inch)/100 cm per meter = 609.6 meters per inch 4. RF to Miles per Inch: 24,000/12 = feet per inch/5,280 ft. per mile = miles per inch or 24,000/12/66 ft. per chain/80 = miles per inch 5. RF to Area Measure: a. acres: (30.0303)2/10 = 91.827 acres/sq. in. b. hectares: (609.6)2/10,000 = 37.16 hectares/sq. inch check on hectares: 91.809/2.471 acres/hectare = 37.17 hectares Conversion of Ground Distance to PES

Example 1. - we have one corner of a 40 ac. block located on an aerial image, but we can see the 40-lines and we need to draft them on the photo. If the scale of the image is 1:15,840, how long are the sides of a forty?? 40 ac. = 400 sq. ch. = 20 ch. on side. Convert RF to ES; 1 in. = 15,840/12 = 1320/66 = 20ch So ... we have a ES of 20ch/in, and a Ground Distance = 20ch Therefore, PES = GD/ES = 20 ch/20ch/in = 1 inch on the photo. Example 2. Photo R.F. of l:40,000. What is the length (on the photo) of one side of a 40 acre block? 1:40,000 === 1 inch = 40000/12 = 3,333.33 ft. 1 inch = 3,333.33/66 = 50.51 chains

thus, PES = 20 chns/50.51 chns = 0.396 inches on photo or,

if we define R.F. = 1/S = d/D (from definition) then, 1/40,000 = d/20 chains d = .0005 chains = 0.396 inches Example 3. Let's try metric for the dimensions of 1 hectare on a photo with an R.F. of 1:25,000: Since, 1 hectare = 10,000 square meters thus 1 hectare = 100m on a side RF: 1mm=25,000mm/1000mm per m = 25m per mm on photo GD: 100m on side for hectare PES = GD/ES = 100m/25m = 4 mm on photo or, 1/25,000 = d/100 meters d = 0.004 meters = 4 mm on photo Questions?????? Scale Determination There are only two (2) basic formulae for scale determination: 1. With photo/map and ground distances:

2. With camera focal length and flying height:

, but combining these.....

3. Combination of RF with d, D, f, and H: Equation 3 is the most used equation in Photogrammetry. Be sure that you understand each component of the equation and how it is used.

Figure 7-4 Geometry of scale determination on aerial imagery

NOTE: The platform height, H, is height of camera above mean sea level (m.s.l.). The object height, h, is the elevation above average ground level (a.g.l.) of the object above m.s.l. -- either at a point (point scale) or at the average terrain for the photo. The (H-h) is flying height of the camera platform above average ground level (a.g.l.).

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Figure 7-5: Scale determination on aerial imagery

Example 1: What is the point scale of an aerial photo if the focal length of the camera is 152.4mm, the aircraft altitude is 5,000 ft. and the object is located at 200 ft. above m.s.l.? R.F.= 1/S = (152.4mm/25.4/12)/(5000 - 200) = .5/4,800 = 1/9,600 Thus, the R.F. = 1:9,600 Example 2: If an object measures 800 ft. on the ground and 1 inch on an aerial photo, what is the scale of the photo? R.F. = 1/S = d/D 1/S = (1/12)/800 1/S = 1/9,600

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Sources of Scale Variation: 1. Terrain 2. Topographic Displacement 3. Focal length and flying Height 4. Tip and Tilt

Scale Determination: 1. Point scale a. using f and H at h b. using d and D 2. Average Scale a. using f and H at haverage b. using 3di and 3Di

Scale Variation Attributable to Terrain Only if a truly vertical image is acquired over perfectly flat terrain is the scale of an aerial image uniform across the image!! Figure 7-6: Variation in photo scale from terrain

THIS IS A VERY GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF WHY A PHOTO IS NOT, AND NEVER WILL BE A MAP!!! Even if you have a perfectly vertical photo (the OPTICAL AXIS IS PERPENDICULAR TO M..S.L.) and perfectly flat terrain at exactly 0 datum (sea level), you may still have small camera or lens defects that distort scale. We use photos as maps all the time-BUT, we know that distances we measure or areas we calculate from measurement are NOT CORRECT!! So, do NOT, under any circumstances, EVER REFER TO A PHOTO AS A MAP!

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Now, having gotten that out of the way, lets look at POINT SCALES, AVERAGE SCALES AND SCALE VARIATION. We have two lines laid out on the ground, each exactly 1,000 ft, long. One line (AB) is located at 1,000 ft elevation and Line CD is at a 500 ft. elevation. Given a Focal Length of 6" and a plane ALTITUDE of 6,000 ft., determine the appropriate scale for each line. As a check on yourself, which topo position will have the smallest scale? The one closest to the camera? or the one furthest away? A small scale means a large denominator; conversely, a large scale means a smaller denominator. Is 1/12,000 larger or smaller than 1/24,000?? LARGER - COVERS FEWER FEET ON THE GROUND PER INCH OF IMAGE!! Or look at it this way -- is 1/12 larger than 1/24? 0.083 vs. 0.042. Point Scales: 1. Using f and H at a known h: (i.e. a known/specific elevation) Scale AB: 1/S = 0.5/(6000 - 1000) = 1/10,000 or 833 ft/in (using f and H-h) 1/S = 1.20"/12/1000 ft = 1/10,000 or 833 ft/in (using d and D) Scale CD 1/S = 0.5/(6000 - 500) = 1/11,000 or 916.67 ft/in. (using f and H-h) 1/S = 1.09"/12/1000 ft = 1/11,000 or 916.67 ft/in (using d and D) Thus, on the photo image, the 1,000 ft. ground distance would be represented by line ab as 1000/833 = 1.20 inches and line cd would be 1000/916.67 = 1.0909 inches. If we had measured the image and ground distances, we could also compute a point scale. 2. Using d and D: (i.e. assuming both ends of line are at the same elevation) Scale AB = 1/S = 1.2/1000 = 1/10,000 Scale CD = 1/S = 1.0909/1000 = 1/11,000 Average Scale: The average scale is obtained by averaging all of the terrain elevations imaged on a frame or averaging the measured photo and ground distances:

1. Using average elevation: Average elevation = (1,000 + 500)/2 = 750 ft. Thus the scale is: 1/S = .5/(6,000-750) = 1/10,500. 2. Using the sum of photo and ground distances: (gives a weighted average not the scale at the average elevation!) Thus the scale is: 1/S = d/D [(1.09+1.2)/12]/ (1,000+1,000) = 1/10,480 (weighted average) 13

How much error would be incurred if you applied the scale computed at Line AB to the Line CD? Line cd is measured on the image and found to be exactly 1.09." Applying the PES of 833 ft/in, we would calculate the line length to be 908 ft., but we know it is 1000 ft.; thus the error would be: Error% = (X - True)/True x 100% 1. using lengths: (908 - 1000)/1000 x 100% = -9.2% 2. using scales: (833 - 917)/ 917 x 100% = -9.2% Point Scale = scale at a point, assuming same elevation Average Scale = scale at average elevation

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Scale Variation Attributable to Topographic Displacement Figure 7-7: Topographic displacement on an aerial image.

ANOTHER effect of terrain variation if DISPLACEMENT! Objects are displaced radially from the CENTER of the image; this is the basic reason why we are able to measure heights of objects.

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Other Sources of Scale Variation 1. Obviously, as you change flying height, you will change Scale and changing focal length will also change scale Figure 7-8: Relationship between focal length and flying height

What is the relationship between f and (H-h) in the scale expression 1/S = f/(H-h)? a. Scale is inversely proportional to H-h: with f constant, as (H-h) increases in value, the SCALE DECREASES GETS SMALLER!! b. Scale is directly proportional to f: with (H-h) constant, as f increases, the scale becomes larger.

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2. tip and tilt. Figure 7-9: Relationship of Tip and Tilt on an aerial image

Figure 7-10: Change in scale on a tilted photo

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On a tipped or tilted photo, the scale is uniform on any line parallel to the axis of tilt; it does however, from line to line perpendicular to the axis. NOTE that on a tilted image, there are three (3) possible photo centers: 1. the PRINCIPLE POINT (PP): a geometric or optical center, found by connecting fiducial marks. 2. the NADIR POINT (NP): a plumb point - a point perpendicular to the 0 datum passing through the lens at the instant of exposure. 3. the ISOCENTER (IC); the intersection of the axis of tilt and the line between NP and PP. Summary - The major sources of scale variation on a single photo are terrain and tip/tilt; between photos we have to add changes in flying height. There are three possible photo centers on a tilted photo - all three coincide on a vertical photo. Helpful Hints for Problem Solving!! A. Read or listen to the problem to gather information; anything that has to do with focal length, elevation, altitude, photo or ground distance: PROBLEM: If the flying height of a plane is 5,000 ft. and a camera with a focal length of 152.4mm is used, WHAT IS THE SCALE OF THE IMAGERY?? 1. Read it again and write down important clues: H-h = 5000 ft. (always carry units) f = 304.8mm 2. State the problem: 1/S = ? 3. Convert known values to common units (if required): convert f to feet; 152.4/25.4/12 = 0.5 ft. 4. Determine solution equation: 1/S = f/(H-h)

5. Show the SETUP: 1/S = 0.5/5,000 6. Derive/compute the SOLUTION: 1/S = 0.5/5,000 = 1/10,000 B. Estimate! square root of 146? Between 12 (144) and 13 (169), but closer to 12.

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C. Diagram to help visualize. D. When we get into "compound" problems involving two or more formulas, BREAK THE PROBLEM DOWN INTO COMPONENT PARTS. FOR EXAMPLE: combining a scale and a height problem. Determine the scale of a photo if you have the following information - f = 0.5'; a tree on the image is known to be 100 ft. tall with a displacement of 0.2" and a radial distance of 2.00". Your first inclination is to try the scale formula: 1/S = f/(H-h), but you only have f = 0.5' So then try the Displacement formula: dh = d (H-h)/r 100ft. = 0.2" (H-h)/2.00" 200 = 0.2 (H-h) and H-h = 1,000 ft. NOW solve scale 1/S = 0.5/1000 1/S = 1/2000

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Sample Scale Problems 1. Given: camera with a f = 3", a photo scale = 1:30,000 if the average terrain elevation was 1,000 ft.? Solution: 1/S = f/(H-h) 1/30,000 = (3"/12')/(H - 1,000) (H-1,000)=0.25 x 30,000 H = 7,500 + 1,000 = 8,500 ft. 2. Given: flying height of 12,000 ft., scale of 1:18,000 Question: Determine the focal length in MILLIMETERS Solution: Get H-h in Millimeters H-h = 12,000ft x 12in/ft x 25.4mm/in = 3,657,600 mm 1/S = f/(H-h) 1/18,000 = f/3,657,600 f = 3,657,600/18,000 = 203.2 mm 3. Given: a section-line road (5,280 feet) appears on an image with a photo distance of 1.5", and focal length = 6 inches. Questions: What is the scale of the photograph? What was the platform height? Solution: 1/S = d/D = f/(H-h) f = 6/12 = 0.5 ft. d = 1.5"/12" = 0.125 ft. D = 5,280 ft 1/S = 0.125/5,280 = 1/42,240 (scale) 1/S = f/(H-h) 1/42,240 = .5/(H-h) (H-h) = 0.5(42,240) = 21,120 ft. Question: What is the altitude of aircraft

III. Lengths and Linear Distance Ground Distance - Equal Elevation Recall that ground distance for all points at the same elevation is

Note that d and f are in the same units of measure (i.e. inches) and that the unit of measure for D will be the same as the unit of measure for H and h. This assumes that all points along the ground distance D are at the same elevation. Ground Distance - End Points at Different Elevations If the end points of a ground distance (line) are at different elevations, you could compute the ground distance using: 1. Average Scale (i.e. elevation) along the line, or 2. End Point Scales (i.e. elevations) of the line. For example, if f=6 inches, H=6,500 ft., the elevation at endpoint a was 500 ft. (i.e. ha=500) and the elevation at endpoint b was 1,000 ft. (i.e. hb=1,000); then...... Average Scale - Approximation The average elevation have would be: have = (ha + hb ) / 2 = 750 ft. and the average scale would be 1/S = .5/(6,500-750) 1/S = 1/11,500 or, PES = (6,500-750)'/6" = 958.33 ft./inch 1 inch on the photo = 958.33 ft. on the ground. Thus, if photo d=2.81 inches then ground distance D=2,692.91 ft. using the average scale. NOTE: This is only an approximation because the scale is not weighed proportionally to the displacement position on the photograph. This is a reasonable method for quick approximations, but it will not yield the correct scale because topographic displacement is radial from the PP and varies with distance. 21

Figure 7-11: Computation of end point scale on a single aerial photograph.

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End Point Scale: (Refer to Figure 7-11 above) The RF scale at endpoint a would be .5/(6,500-500) = 1/12,000 or the PES = (6,500'-500')/6" = 1,000 ft. on ground per photo inch. The RF scale at endpoint b would be .5/(6,500-1000) = 1/11,000 or the PES =(6,500'1,000')/6" = 916.67 ft. on ground per photo inch. The only way to weight the scales in proportion to their displacement positions relative to the x and y axis on the photograph is to use the following procedure: The PP is used as the origin and the endpoints are referenced in x,y coordinate distances from the PP. The photo coordinate distances for each endpoint are converted to the ground distance coordinates using the appropriate scale at each endpoint.

Example:

Photo Coordinates are: xa = +0.79" , ya = +1.50", ha = 500 ft. xb = -1.28" , yb = -0.40", hb = 1,000 ft. Photo Values are: H = 6,500 ft., f = 6 inches The x,y coordinates in ground distance scale are: Di = (H-hi)/f * di for i= points a,b di is in inches (i.e. photo distance) 23

The PES for points a and b are: PESi = (H-hi)/f for i = points a,b H and hi are in feet; f is in inches PESi will be in ground feet per inch of photo scale PESa = (6,500'-500')/6' = 1,000 ft. per inch Xa = 1,000 ft. * +0.79 inches = + 790 ft. Ya = 1,000 ft. * +1.50 inches = +1,500 ft. PESb = (6,500'-1,000')/6' = 916.67 ft. per inch Xb = 916.67 ft. * -1.28 inches = -1,173.3 ft. Yb = 916.67 ft. * -0.40 inches = - 366.7 ft. Using the Pythagorean theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 D = {[790 - (-1173.2)]2 + [1500- (-366.7)]2}0.5 = 2,709.08 ft. Note: The ground length of each side, a=1500+366.7 and b=790+1173.2, is composed of 2 different scale values. DO NOT USE PHOTO LENGTHS AND AVERAGE SCALE. You must convert the compute the photo scale at the desired point. Magnetic Bearing of N-S Fiducial: Assume the N-S Fiducial line has a True Bearing of N 05o 15' W and the current declination is 02o 15' E. What is the magnetic bearing of the N-S Fiducial line? Answer: N 07o 30' W How??

What is the Bearing of the Line in Figure 7-11? Tan " = (1173.3 + 790)/(1500 + 366.7) " = 46.44o o o Line bearing = N 07 30' W + (46.44 to right) = N 39.944o E Acres of Rectangle: (assuming the line is one diagonal of a rectangle) = 84.13 acres How?

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Scale Problems for Study 1. A flight mission is scheduled to obtain imagery at a scale of 4 in. = 1 mi. with a camera of focal length 6 in. The average terrain elevation is 2000 ft. (above mean sealevel - a.s.l.) What must be the flying height to achieve the desired scale? 2. A satellite overpass is scheduled for a given date; it is desired to obtain "ground truth" with color infrared imagery at a scale of 20 ch = 1 in. If the average terrain elevation is 800 ft., and the camera focal length = 6 in., what should be the correct platform altitude ? 3. The Space Shuttle Columbia carried aboard a mapping camera with a 12 in. focal length. At apogee, an image was acquired of a section of the Midwest which illustrated the spacing of "sectionline" roads. These roads were spaced at intervals of 50/60 in.. Assuming an average terrain elevation of 1500 ft. a.s.l., what was the maximum orbital height achieved by Columbia? 4. An oil storage tank is photographed at scale of 1/16,000; if the tank is 120 feet long and 60 feet in diameter - what are the equivalent photo measurements? 5. How many square miles are covered by a 9" x 9" aerial image at the following scales? a. 1/6000 b. 1/12,000 c. 1/30,000 6. What is the flying height required to achieve a scale of 2000 ft/in. with a camera focal length of: a. 6 in? b. 8.25 in? c. 12 in?

7. What should be the flying height with f = 6 in. to acquire imagery where an 80 ft. road right-ofway appears to be at least 0.4 in. on the image? 8. Two points along a highway are known to be exactly one mile apart. If the image measurement between these two points is 0.42 feet: a. what is the scale of the image? b. if the plane flying height was 11,000 ft., what was the focal length of the camera? 9. A clearcut measures 1.5 in. by 3.0 in. on an aerial image taken at a scale of 1/11,500. a. how many acres are in the clearcut? b. how many hectares? 10. Determine the scale of an image taken at 12,000 ft. over a land surface with an average elevation of 1500 ft. f = 12 in. 25

11. The objective of an aerial mission is to acquire imagery that will permit the interpreter to calculate plantation survival. Assume that this interpreter can consistently distinguish image objects having a diameter of 1/100 in. If the camera has a focal length of 6 in., what is the maximum flying height at which young pine with a minimum crown diameter of 4 ft. can be discriminated? 12. It is desired to lay out a photo cruise using one-half ac. plots at a spacing of 20 chains. Assuming an image scale of 1/15,840, what would be the photo measurements of plot diameter and spacing? 13. Given a scale of 1/12,000, a focal length of 6 in. and a platform altitude ( a.s.l.) of 7000 ft., what was the average terrain elevation? 14. A study of photos at an average scale of 1/7920, taken at an average terrain elevation of 1200 ft., indicates that one square inch at an elevation of 1500 ft. contains 150 trees, while one square inch at an elevation of 300 ft. contains 100 trees. Assuming a focal length of 6 in., determine which stand contains the largest number of trees/acre. 15. You are attempting to verify the average scale using two road intersections on a single photograph. If the elevation of the NE intersection is 165 ft. (above m.s.l.), the elevation of the SW intersection is 385 ft. (m.s.l.), the camera had a focal length of 209.55 mm, and the aircraft altitude was 8,250 ft (m.s.l.); The average scale between the NE and SW intersections is calculated to be: 1:___________

16. You don't have a quad sheet for this area, but you need to determine the true ground distance and magnetic bearing between the two road intersections described in question 15 above. Using the fiducial lines as a coordinate system, your obtain/compute the following measurements for the photograph using the aircraft altitude and camera focal length from question 15 above and the diagram of a single photo below: (note: PES is photo equivalent scale) Photo Coords X Y +1.5" +3.0" -2.5" -3.5" Ground Distance X Y 1470.0' ____._' ____._' 3336.7'

Point NE SW

Elev 165' 385'

PES ___._' 953.3'

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17. The true horizontal distance between the two road intersections (in question 15 & 16 above) is calculated to be _____________ ft. 18. If the N-S Fiducial is N4o15'W, True and the Magnetic Decl is N1o15'E, the Magnetic bearing of the N-S fiducial in question 16 above is ________________, and 19. The Magnetic Bearing (in degrees and minutes only) of a straight line between the two road intersections in questions 16 - 18 above is ______________.

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IV. Height Determination Displacement - Height Measurement on Single Photos The major reason why a photo is not a map - is displacement. On a map, all objects are pictured as they would appear at sea level - 0 datum. Figure 7-12: Displacement of aerial image

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Note that objects themselves are displaced outward - that is, the top lies away from the photo center and the base toward. Likewise, the base of the object appears outside of the true horizontal map position "C". Top "A" outside of "B" outside of "C". If you carefully examine an vertical photo, you will note that everything radiates in a 360 degree circle form the Photo Center. This phenomenon gives us the mathematical basis for measurement of Height of Objects. Figure 7-13: Profile of height on a single photo

Again we see the phenomenon of radial displacement of the top of the object out from the base: but note the relationship of height of object and the radial distance from the Nadir Point to the Base and Top of the object. Both trees are the same height, but one is located three times further from the NP than the other - it is obvious from the sketch that the apparent height (delta h) of the 29

fartherest tree will be greater than the one closer to the NP. It is also apparent that the flying height (H-h) will a directly proportional influence on delta h. As H-h increases, delta h decreases. Figure 7-14: Two dimensional view of height determination on single photo

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The basic relationship for determination of height of objects on a single, vertical aerial photo is:

Thus,

and the height of object is directly proportional to H-h and d, and inversely proportional to r. You should also note that at a given Photo SCALE, a longer focal length will increase displacement because the flying height is less. For example, to achieve a photo scale of 1/6000, a 6" focal length will be flown at 3000 ft., but a 12" f will be flown at 6000 ft.. So, if your flight objective is to acquire stand height, you are better off using a short focal length at lower altitudes. Also note that d and r have to be in the same units - whatever, mm, inches; H-h and delta h also have to be in the same units, feet or meters - BUT NOT NECESSARILY THE SAME UNITS AS "D" AND "R." You normally measure the photo distances in inches or millimeters, but structures or trees are given in feet or meters. NOTE you have to be able to see both top and bottom of object for this to work! Example 1: Given a 6000 ft., H-h, a measured "d" of 3/60", and a measured "r" of 193/60" - what is the height of object? dh = d(H-h)/r = 0.05" x 6,000 ft./3.22" = 93 ft. Example 2: Given that H-h = 3000 ft., measured "d" = 6/50", and the distance from the NP to the base of the object is 194/50", what is the HEIGHT? d = 6/50 = 0.12" r = 194/50 + 6/50" = 200/50 = 4.00" dh = (3000 x 0.12)/4.00 = 90 ft. 31

Example 3: Determine the average terrain elevation given the following information: d = 0.08", r = 3.20", H = 5,500 ft., dH = 50 ft. 0.08/3.20 = 50/5,500 - h 3.20 (50) = 0.08 (5,500 - h) 160 = 440 - 0.08h 0.08h = 280 h = 3500 ft. Example 4: Given that the point on top of a 1,000 ft. hill appears on a radial line 3.00 in. from nadir. Assuming a flying height of 6,000 ft.. What would be the displacement of the hill above its sea level position? d/r = dh/(H-h) SKETCH d/3.00 = 1,000'/6,000' 3(1,000) = d(6,000) d = 3,000/6,000 = 0.5 inches This only holds on vertical images - tilted photos require rectification!!! Or location of the ISOCENTER INSTEAD OF THE NADIR POINT.

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Stereoscopic Parallax - Height Determination on Stereopairs Figure 7-15: Parallax relationships on stereo pair of aerial photographs.

Parallax IS the reason why we see 3-D; without PARALLAX ... NO STEREO. This is why you cannot take two centerfolds from the same issue and see 3-D. Remember - two images of the same object -TAKEN AT DIFFERENT ANGLES!!

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Parallax

= the apparent displacement of position of a body (object), relative to some reference point or coordinate system, caused by a shift in the point of observation.

Three Components of parallax: ABSOLUTE PARALLAX of the Base = APb= lxb1 - xb2l = the absolute value of the algebraic difference, parallel to the line of flight, of the distances from nadir to the photo base of objects; also called ABSOLUTE PARALLAX. ABSOLUTE PARALLAX of the Top = APt = lxt1 - xt2l = the absolute value of the algebraic difference, parallel to the line of flight, of the distances from nadir to the photo top of objects. PARALLAX DIFFERENCE = lAPt - APbl = the absolute value of the algebraic difference of the distance from photo base to photo top of the object. Also called differential parallax, dp. Parallax Formula - this is the basis for all topographic mapping instruments. All topo maps compiled from aerial imagery use this basic formula:

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Note the similarity between the two formulas: (single vs stereo)

NOTE - the average stereobase "b" [avg. b = (b1 + b2)/2] can be substituted for "APb" when: 1. the elev. diff. between PP & of the base of the object is within 3% of (H-h). 2. photo tilt is less than 3 degrees 3. both PP's are near the same elevation 4. Plane altitude is essentially the same for both exposures

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Manual Measurement of Parallax on Stereo Pair Since the parallax height equation involves only dp and APb, we can manually obtain the parallax measurements on a stereo pair and compute the height of an object. Figure 7-16: Manual measurement of parallax on a stereo pair

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Two Components of the manual application method are: ABSOLUTE PARALLAX = APb = lZ - Z'l = the absolute value of the algebraic difference, parallel to the line of flight, of the distances from nadir to the photo base of objects. PARALLAX DIFFERENCE = dp = lX - X'l = the absolute value of the algebraic difference of the distance from photo base to photo top of the object. Also called differential parallax, dp. Figure 7-17: Manual measurement of tree height on stereopair with parallax

Direct Parallax Measurement of Height - Optical devices Delta p is usually measured by some form of a stereoscopic "floating dot" instrument such as the Harvard or Michigan Parallax Wedges, an Abrams Height Finder (both inexpensive), or the more sophisticated mapping instruments such as the Multiplex plotter - multiple projectors; Balplex - dual projectors. Either type uses the anaglyph principle of obtaining stereo - more modern versions use POLARIZED light.

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Example - given an ABRAMS HEIGHT FINDER (a low cost version of a floating dot instrument), a reading is taken at the base of a tree and at the top of the same tree. The difference in reading is 0.55 mm = dp . The average stereobase "b" = 3.22 inches, the flying height 3,00 ft. - what is the height of object? dh = 0.55mm (3000 ft)/(3.22 x 25.4 + 0.55) 1650 = 82.34 dh dh = 20 ft. Height Measurement with Shadow Height Figure 7-18: Geometry of shadow height measurement

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Height Measurement by Ocular Estimate Summary: Methods of height determination 1. Single Photos - d/r = dh/(H-h) 2. Stereopairs - dp/(APb + dp)= dh/(H-h) 3. Shadow height 4. Ocular estimates

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Practice Problems HEIGHT DETERMINATION I. Height Determination on Single Photo Parallax formula Shadow Height

1. What is the elevation of a point that is located 3.75 inches from the nadir and has a relief displacement of 0.80 inches if the platform flying height is 10,500 feet? Elevation = ________ ft. 2. What is the elevation of the following points on the side a mountain if the base of the mountain (i.e. datum point) is located 3.06 inches from the nadir point, the platform altitude was 18,000 feet above the datum point, and the relief displacement from the datum point to the elevation point is: a. 0.1800 inches; elevation = _________ ft. b. 0.3825 inches; elevation = _________ ft. c. 1.1770 inches; elevation = _________ ft. 3. On a single aerial image, a radial line is selected that passes over a coastal redwood tree whose base is located at 350 feet of elevation. What is the height of the tree if the photo scale is 1 inch equals 400 feet at the tree base elevation, the camera focal length is 6 inches, and the 50 scale on the engineer's scale is used to obtain the following measurements parallax measurements? Nadir to base of tree = 145 increments Nadir to top of tree = 165 increments Height of tree = __________ ft. 4. The image of a point with an elevation of 950 ft. is located 54.67 mm from the nadir point on a photo where the platform altitude was 12,000 ft.. What would the radial distance be if the base of the point was located at m.s.l.? d = _______ mm 40

5. What is the height of a tree whose shadow measures 0.1 inches on single photo which has a scale of 1 inch equals 660 ft. and where the sun's rays tangent to the top of the tree crown meet the ground at a 50.47 degree angle? a. Shadow length, ground distance = ____ ft. b. Tree height = ______ ft. 6. You have obtained a single aerial photo that has a scale of 1:12,000 at an average elevation of 1,000 ft. taken with a camera focal length of 6 inches. If the measured distance along a radial line to the base of a loblolly pine tree is 3.50 inches and to the top of the tree is 3.566 inches and the elevation of the tree base is 500 ft.: a. The flying height of the aircraft was _______ ft. b. The tree height is ___________ ft. II. Height Determination on Stereo Pairs Direct Measurement

Abrams Parallax Bar 7. The stereo pair has a photo scale of 1:12,000 at an average elevation of 175 feet and the camera had a 6 inch focal length. The following direct, coordinate measurements were taken from the stereo pair: X = + 0.75 mm X' = + 0.70 mm (quadrant I) Z = +28.00 mm Z' = +31.55 mm (quadrant I) a. Calculate the height of the object, assuming the base of the object was at the average elevation. Height = _________ ft. b. Calculate the height of the object, assuming the base of the object was at 500 ft. elevation. Height = _________ ft. 41

8. Using the parallax bar (floating dot) instrument on a stereo pair where the flying height was 3000 ft. and the absolute parallax of the base was 80.00 mm, the following parallax measurements were obtained: Reading at top of object = 12.76 mm Reading at bottom of object = 10.00 mm The height of the object is _______ ft. 9. Using the Abrams Height Finder (parallax bar) on a stereo pair where the absolute parallax (of the base) is 3.20 inches and the platform altitude is 3,000 ft. (m.s.l.), you obtain a reading of 12.15 mm (dhtop) on a vertical control point P1 that is located at elevation 250 ft.. a. The base parallax reading (dhbot) for P1 = ______ mm. b. The differential parallax for P1 = ______ mm. If subsequent measurements (dhtop) on Points 2, 3, and 4 are obtained as: dhtop P2 = 13.75 mm P3 = 9.71 mm P4 = 10.55 mm determine the elevations of points 2, 3, and 4. c. P2 = _______ ft. d. P3 = _______ ft. e. P4 = _______ ft. III. Bearing Determination 10. The bearing of a road (as determined from a quad sheet) is N65015'E (true) and current magnetic declination is N5015'W. If the angle between the N-S fiducial and the road on an aerial photo, is 630: a. The True Bearing of the Fiducial is __________. b. The Magnetic Bearing of the Fiducial is ________. c. The Magnetic Bearing of the Road is _________. 42

V. Area Measurement Measurement of area (i.e. acres, etc.) on a photograph or map begins with the establishment of the appropriate scale. On a map, the scale is constant across the entire map surface, but on an aerial photograph, the scale varies in accordance with topographic displacement, tilt, and other distortions. Ideally, areas should not be measured directly on a photograph. The area should be transferred to a planimetric base map or digitized into a GIS or CAD system (with control points) so that the scale is rectified. In real life however, we seldom have the time to perform these desirable tasks prior to measuring area. Preparations for Photo Area Measurement 1. All Points within Area are at Same Elevation: Compute the average scale for the portion of the photograph that contains the desired area to be measured by measuring distances between road intersections (or identified points) and correlating the map to photo distance; i.e. 1/S = d/D. 2. Elevation Varies across Area: If elevations vary substantially across the area to be measured, the average scale procedure above will not be adequate. You should use the endpoint scale procedure to establish the correct ground distance along each side of the area. Methods of Area Measurement Dot Grid: 1. Place the dot grid over the area to be measured. Count the number of complete dots that fall within the area being measured; D = dots that fall with area being measured = 20 2. Determine the number of acres per dot for the scale of the map being measured by converting the scale expression to acres per square inch. a. Let N = number of dots per square inch on dot grid = 100 dots per square inch

b. Let S = map scale in acres per square inch, thus 1) If scale is in feet as 1 inch = 2000 feet then S = (2000)2/43,560 square feet per acre = 91.827 acres per square inch

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2) If scale is in chains as 1 inch = 20 chains then S = 202/10 square chains per acre = 40 acres per square inch c. Let A = acres per dot = S/N 1) for S A 2) for S A 3. Compute area in acres as: Acres = Dots * Acres/dot =D*A 1) A = 20 * 0.91827 = 18.37 acres 2) A = 20 * 0.40 = 8.00 acres Polar Planimeter: 1. Connect the pivot arm to the main body of the planimeter. 2. Place the planimeter and pivot arm on the map to be measured so that all wheels of the planimeter will remain on the map surface as the pointer is moved around the tract boundary in a clockwise direction. 3. Position the pointer at a beginning point, on the tract to be measured, and read the dials for the starting number. Do not try to "zero" the dials; read the numbers as is. There are 2 dials and a vernier. a. The large dial reads in 10's of square inches, as 10, 20, 30, etc., b. The small dial reads in square inches and tenths of square inches, and c. The vernier reads in hundredths of square inches. Find the vernier marks that line up completely, top and bottom, and read the hundredths. 44 = 91.827 acres/sq. in. = 91.827/100 = 0.91827 acres per dot = 40 acres per square inch = 40/l00 = 0.40 acres per dot

4. Move the pointer in a clockwise direction around the boundary of the tract and trace the boundary 2 times back to the starting point. 5. Read the dials for the ending number. This is 2 times the square inches for the tract. Half the square inches. 6. Multiply the measured square inches times the acres per square inch for the map (see step 2.b. above) to obtain the acres for the tract. Geometric Figures and Polygons: An area can be subdivided into geometric figures and/or polygons and the area computed with the appropriate area equation: Square: area = L x W Triangle: area = 1/2 B H Polygon:

Computer Assisted Mapping/Drafting (CAM/CAD) Systems: Most CAM/CAD systems permit area measurement of digitized polygons, but most of these systems compute the area in square inches only and the user must convert the square measure to desired area units. The area to be measured is placed on a digitizing table/tablet and either digitized into the system with a digitizing puck or the puck is used to "trace" or "click-on" the boundary. The ACRES Measurement Software System developed by Dr. Robert C. Parker runs on a microcomputer and utilizes a digitizing table or tablet and a puck to trace the area. The user specifies the scale of the map/photo in terms of RF, feet per inch, chains per inch, or acres per square inch and the measured area and perimeter are computed at the specified scale to yield area in acres and perimeter in the specified linear measure.

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Sample Problems on Area Measurement: 1. For a photo scale of 1:40,000 and a dot grid with 100 dots per square inch, the acres per dot will be: ________________. 2. You are using a planimeter on a photo of scale 1:15,840 and got the following 1-pass readings. The acreage of each tract is: a. 8.46 square inches = ___________ acres b. 10.96 square inches = ___________ acres

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