Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control

http://tim.sagepub.com/ Mechatronic systems: concepts and applications

R. Isermann Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 2000 22: 29 DOI: 10.1177/014233120002200103 The online version of this article can be found at: http://tim.sagepub.com/content/22/1/29

Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

The Institute of Measurement and Control

Additional services and information for Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control can be found at: Email Alerts: http://tim.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://tim.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Citations: http://tim.sagepub.com/content/22/1/29.refs.html

>> Version of Record - Mar 1, 2000 What is This?

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control 22,1 (2000) pp. 2955

Mechatronic systems: concepts and applications

R. Isermann
Institut fur Automatisierungstechnik, Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany

The synergetic integration of mechanical processes, microelectronics and information processing opens new possibilities to the design of processes as well as for its automatic control. The solution of tasks within mechatronic systems is performed on the process side and the digitalelectronic side. As the interrelations during the design play an important role, simultaneous engineering has to take place from the very beginning. Mechatronic systems are developed for mechanical elements, machines, vehicles and precision mechanic devices. The integration of mechatronic systems can be performed by the components (hardware integration) and by information processing (software integration). The information processing consists of low-level and high-level feedback control, supervision and diagnosis and general process management. Special signal processing, model-based and adaptive methods are applied. With the aid of a knowledge base and inference mechanisms, mechatronic systems with increasing intelligence will be developed. The main goals are to increase systems performance, reliability and economy, and decrease production costs. Key words: adaptive control; electronics; fault diagnosis; fuzzy control; hardware-in-the-loop simulation; information processing; integration; mechanics; modelling.

1. Introduction Mechanical systems are increasingly integrated with actuators, sensors and digital electronics. Figure 1 shows a general scheme of a modern mechanical process like

Address for correspondence: R. Isermann, Institut fur Automatisierungstechnik, Technische Univer sitat Darmstadt, Landgraf-Georg-Str. 4, D-64283 Darmstadt, Germany. E-mail: risermann iat.tu-darmstadt.de

2000 The Institute of Measurement and Control

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

0142-3312(00)TM005OA

30 Mechatronic systems

a power-producing or a power-generating machine. A primary energy ows into the machine and is then either directly used for the energy consumer in the case of an energy transformer or converted into another energy form in the case of an energy converter. The form of energy can, for example, be electrical, mechanical (potential or kinetic, hydraulic, pneumatic) chemical or thermal. The primary energy ow originates from an energy source or energy supply and can be manipulated by an actuator. The energy consumer is in many cases an energy sink or/and an energy storage. Machines are mostly characterized by a continuous or periodic (repetitive) energy ow. For other mechanical processes like mechanical elements or precision mechanical devices, piecewise or intermittent energy ows are typical. The energy ow is generally a product of a generalized ow and a potential (effort). Information on the state of the mechanical process can be obtained from measured generalized ows, like speed, volume or mass ow, electrical current or potentials like force, pressure, temperature and voltage. These measured signals are then the basis for information processing in a digital computer operating under real-time conditions. Together with reference variables, the measured variables are therefore the inputs for an information ow through the digital electronics resulting in manipulated variables for the actuators or in monitored variables on a display. Hence, the mechanicalelectronic system can be considered as consisting of a feedforward energy ow and a feedback information ow. Presently a development is taking place to integrate the mechanical systems, the actuators, sensors and microelectronics, forming an inseparable overall system.

Figure 1 system

Energy and information ow within a mechatronic

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 31

These integrated mechanicalelectronic systems are increasingly called mechatronic systems. Thus, MECHAnics and elecTRONICS are conjoined. The word mechatronics was probably rst created by a Japanese engineer in 1969 (Kyura and Oho, 1996). A unied denition cannot be found (compare, e.g., Schweitzer, 1989; Ovaska, 1992). In the IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics a preliminarily denition is given: Mechatronics is the synergetic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing of industrial products and processes (Harashima et al., 1996). All denitions agree that mechatronics is an interdisciplinary eld, in which the following disciplines act together (Figure 2): 1) mechanical systems (mechanical elements, machines, precision mechanics); 2) electronic systems (microelectronics, power electronics, sensor and actuator technology); 3) information technology (systems theory, automation, software engineering, articial intelligence). Descriptions of the developments until now can be seen in Schweitzer, 1992; Gansemeiser et al., 1985; Harashima et al., 1996; Isermann, 1996. An insight into general aspects are given editorially in the journals Mechatronics (1991); Mechatronics System Engineering (1993); IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics (1996), the conference proceedings of, e.g., IEE, Mechatronics (1990); and in the following journal articles Isermann (1993), M. Hiller (1995), Kaynak et al. (1995), Luckel (1995), and in the books of Kitaura (1987), Bradley et al. (1991), McConaill et al. (1991) and Isermann (1999a). The solution of tasks for designing mechatronic systems is performed as well on the mechanical and on the digitalelectronic side. Herewith interrelations during the design play an important role, because the mechanical system inuences the electronic system and vice versa, the electronic system also inuences the design of the mechanical system. This means that simultaneous engineering has to take place with the goal of also creating synergetic effects.

Figure 2 Mechatronics: disciplines

synergetic

integration

of

different

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

32 Mechatronic systems

Mechatronic systems show up in the development of mechanical elements, machines and vehicles and precision mechanic devices. Figure 3 gives some examples. Hence, the integration with electronics comprise many classes of technical systems. In several cases the mechanical part of the process is coupled with an electrical, thermodynamical, chemical or information processing part. The reason is that, e.g., machines are energy converters where in addition to the mechanical energy other kinds of energy appear. Therefore, mechatronic systems in a wider sense comprise mechanical and also nonmechanical coupled processes. However, the mechanical part should be dominating. Because an auxiliary energy is required to change the xed properties of formerly passive mechanical systems by feedforward or feedback control these mechanical systems are also called active mechanical systems. 2. Functions of mechatronic systems Mechatronic systems permit many improved and new functions. This will be discussed by considering some examples. 2.1 Division of functions between mechanics and electronics For designing mechatronic systems the interplay for the realization of functions in the mechanical and electronic part is crucial. Compared to pure mechanical

Figure 3 Mechanical systems with integrated electronics: examples for mechanical elements, machines and precision mechanics

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 33

realizations, the use of ampliers and actuators with electrical auxiliary energy has already led to considerable simplications, as can be seen from watches, electrical typewriters and cameras. A further considerable simplication in the mechanics resulted from introducing microcomputers in connection with decentralized electrical drives, e.g., for electronic typewriters, sewing machines, multi-axis handling systems and automatic gears. The design of lightweight constructions leads to elastic systems which are weakly damped through the material itself. An electronic damping through position, speed or vibration sensors and electronic feedback can be realized with the additional advantage of an adjustable damping through the algorithms. Examples are elastic drive chains of vehicles with damping algorithms in the engine electronics, elastic robots, hydraulic systems, far-reaching cranes and space constructions (e.g., with ywheels). The addition of closed loop control, e.g., for position, speed or force, does not only result in a precise tracking of reference variables, but also an approximate linear overall behaviour, though the mechanical systems show nonlinear behaviour. By omitting the constraint of linearization on the mechanical side, the effort in construction and manufacturing may be reduced. Examples are simple mechanical pneumatic and electro-mechanical actuators and ow valves with electronic control. With the aid of freely programmable reference variable generation, the adaptation of nonlinear mechanical systems to the operator can be improved. This is already used for the driving pedal characteristics within the engine electronics for automobiles, telemanipulation of vehicles and aircraft and in development for hydraulic actuated excavators and electric power steering. However, with the increasing number of sensors, actuators, switches and control units, the number of cables and electrical connections also increase such that reliability, cost, weight and the required space are major concerns. Therefore the development of suitable bus systems, plug systems, and redundant and recongurable electronic systems are challenges for the design. 2.2 Operating properties By applying active feedback control the precision of, e.g., a position is reached by comparison of a programmed reference variable, and a measured control variable, and not only through the high mechanical precision of a passively feedforwardcontrolled mechanical element. Therefore the mechanical precision in design and manufacturing may be reduced somewhat and more simple constructions for bearings or slideways can be used. An important aspect is the compensation of a larger and time-variant friction by adaptive friction compensation (Isermann et al., 1992; Isermann, 1999a). Then also a larger friction on the cost of backlash may be intended (e.g., gears with pretension), because it is usually easier to compensate for friction than for backlash. Model-based and adaptive control further allow an operation in more operating points (wide range operation), compared to xed control with unsatisfactory performance (danger of instability or sluggish behaviour). A combination of robust

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

34 Mechatronic systems

and adaptive control allows a wide range operation to become possible, e.g., for ow-, force-, speed-control and for processes like engines, vehicles and aircraft. A better control performance allows the reference variables to be moved closer to constraints with improved efciencies and yields (e.g., higher temperatures, pressures for combustion engines and turbines, compressors at stalling limits, higher tensions and higher speed for paper machines and steel mills). 2.3 New functions Mechatronic systems allow also functions which could not be performed without digital electronics. First, nonmeasurable quantities can be calculated on the basis of measured signals and can be inuenced by feedforward or feedback control. Examples of this are time-dependent variables like the slip for tyres, internal tensitions, temperatures, the slip angle and ground speed for steering control of vehicles or parameters like damping and stiffness coefcients, resistances. The adaptation of parameters like damping and stiffness for oscillating systems based on measurements of displacements or accelerations is another example. Integrated supervision and fault diagnosis becomes more and more important with increasing automatic functions, increasing complexity and higher demands on reliability and safety. Then the triggering of redundant components, a system reconguration, maintenance on request and any kind of teleservice make the system more intelligent. Table 1 summarizes some properties of mechatronic systems compared to conventional electro-mechanical systems.
Table 1 Properties of conventional and mechatronic designed systems
Mechatronic design
Integration of components (hardware) Compact Simple mechanisms Bus or wireless communication Autonomous units Integration by information processing (software) Elastic construction with damping by electronic feedback Programmable feedback (nonlinear) digital control Precision through measurement and feedback-control Control of nonmeasurable estimated quantities Supervision with fault diagnosis Learning abilities

Conventional design
Added components 1 2 3 4 Bulky Complex mechanisms Cable problems Connnected components

Simple control 5 Stiff construction 6 Feedforward control, linear (analogue) control 7 Precision through narrow tolerances 8 Nonmeasurable quantities change arbitrarily 9 Simple monitoring 10 Fixed abilities

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 35

3. Methods of integration Figure 4 shows a general scheme of a classical mechanicalelectronic system. Such systems resulted from adding available sensors and actuators and analogue or digital controllers to the mechanical components. The limits of this approach were the lack of suitable sensors and actuators, the unsatisfactory lifetime under rough operating conditions (acceleration, temperature, contamination), large space requirements, the required cables and relatively slow data processing. With increasing improvements in the miniaturization, robustness and computing power of microelectronic components, one can now try to put more weight on the electronic side and to design the mechanical part from the beginning with a view to a mechatronic overall system. Then more autonomous systems can be envisaged, e.g., in the form of capsuled units with touchless signal transfer or bus connections and robust microelectronics. The integration within a mechatronic system can be performed mainly in two ways through the integration of components and through the integration by information processing. The integration of components (hardware integration) results from designing the mechatronic system as an overall system and imbedding the sensors, actuators and microcomputers into the mechanical process (Figure 5). This spatial integration may be limited to the process and sensor, or the process and actuator. The microcomputers can be integrated with the actuator, the process or sensor, or be arranged at several places. Integrated sensors and microcomputers lead to smart sensors and integrated actuators, and microcomputers develop to smart actuators. For larger systems bus connections will replace the many cables. Hence, there are several possibilities for building an integrated overall system by proper integration of the hardware. The integration by information processing (software integration) is mostly based on advanced control functions. Besides a basic feedforward and feedback control, an additional inuence may take place through process knowledge and corresponding on-line information processing (Figure 5). This means a processing of the available signals at higher levels (discussed in the next section). This includes the solution of tasks like supervision with fault diagnosis, optimization and general process management. The respective problem solutions result in realtime algorithms which must be adapted to the mechanical process properties, for example expressed by mathematical models in the form of static characteristics, differential equations, etc. Therefore, a knowledge base is required, comprising methods for design and information gain, process models and performance criteria. In this way the mechanical parts are governed in various ways through

Figure 4 system

General scheme of a (classical) mechanicalelectronic

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

36 Mechatronic systems

Figure 5

Ways of integration with mechatronic systems

higher level information processing with intelligent properties, possibly including learning, thus forming an integration by process-adapted software. In the following section, the integration through information processing will be considered further.

4. Information processing methods The governing of mechanical systems is usually performed through actuators for changing of positions, speeds, ows, forces or torques, and voltages. The directly measurable output quantities are frequently positions, speeds, accelerations or forces and currents.

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 37

4.1 Multi-level control systems The information processing of direct measurable input and output signals can be organized into several levels (Figure 6): level 1: low level control (feedforward, feedback for damping, stabilization, linearization); level 2: high level control (advanced feedback control strategies); level 3: supervision, incl. fault diagnosis; level 4: optimization, co-ordination (of processes); level 5: general process management.

Figure 6 Advanced intelligent automatic system with multicontrol levels, knowledge base, inference mechanisms and interfaces

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

38 Mechatronic systems

Recent approaches for mechatronic systems mostly use signal processing in the lower levels, for example damping or control of motions or simple supervision. Digital information processing, however, allows the solutions of many more tasks, such as adaptive control, learning control, supervision with fault diagnosis, decisions for maintenance or even redundancy actions, economic optimization and coordination. The tasks in the higher levels are sometimes summarized as process management. 4.2 Special signal processing The methods described above are partially also applicable for nonmeasurable quantities which are reconstructed by using mathematical process models. In this way it is possible to control, e.g., damping ratios, material and heat stress and slip, or to supervise quantities like resistances, capacitances, temperatures within components, or parameters of wear and contamination. This signal processing may require special lters to determine amplitudes or frequencies of vibrations, to determine derivated or integrated quantities, or state variable observers. 4.3 Model-based and adaptive systems The information processing is, at least in the lower levels, performed by simple algorithms or software-modules under real-time conditions. These algorithms contain free adjustable parameters, which have to be adapted to the static and dynamic behaviour of the process. In contrast to manual tuning by trial and error the use of mathematical models allows precise and fast automatic adaptation. The mathematical models can be obtained by identication and parameter estimation, which use the measured and sampled input and output signals. These methods are not restricted to linear models, but also allow the identication of several classes of nonlinear systems. If the parameter estimation methods are combined with appropriate control algorithm design methods, adaptive control systems result, which can be used for precise controller tuning permanently or only for commissioning (Isermann et al., 1992). 4.4 Intelligent systems The information processing within mechatronic systems may range between simple control functions and intelligent control. Various denitions of intelligent control systems do exist (see, e.g., Saridis, 1977; Saridis and Valavanis, 1988; strom, 1991; White and Sofge, 1992; Antaklis, 1994; Harris, 1994; Gupta and Sinha, 1996). An intelligent control system may be organized as an on-line expert system according to Figure 6 and comprises: 1) multi control functions (executive functions); 2) knowledge base;

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 39

3) inference mechanisms; 4) communication interfaces. The on-line control functions are usually organized in multi-levels, as already described. The knowledge base contains quantitative and qualitative knowledge. The quantitative part operates with analytical (mathematical) process models, parameter and state estimation methods, analytical design methods (e.g., for control and fault detection), and quantitative optimization methods. Similar modules hold for the qualitative knowledge, e.g., in form of rules (fuzzy and soft computing). Further knowledge is the past history in the memory and the possibility of predicting the behaviour. Finally, tasks or schedules may be included. The inference mechanism draws conclusions either by quantitative reasoning (e.g., Boolean methods) or by qualitative reasoning (e.g., possibilistic methods) and takes decisions for the executive functions. Finally, communication between the different modules, an information management database and the manmachine interaction has to be organized. Based on these functions of an on-line expert system an intelligent system can be built up, with the ability to model, reason and learn the process and its automatic functions within a given frame and to govern it towards a certain goal. Hence, intelligent mechatronic systems can be developed, ranging from low-degree intelligent (Isermann, 1999a), such as intelligent actuators, to fairly intelligent systems, such as self-navigating automatic guided vehicles. An intelligent mechatronic system can adapt the controller to the mostly nonlinear behaviour (adaptation) and store its controller parameters dependent on the position and load (learning), supervise all relevant elements and perform a fault diagnosis (supervision) to request for maintenance or if a failure occurs (decisions on actions). In the case of multiple components, supervision may help to switch off the faulty component and perform a reconguration of the controlled process.

5. Modelling of mechatronic systems Mathematical process models for the static and dynamic behaviour are required for various steps in the design of mechatronic systems, such as, e.g., simulation, control design, reconstruction of variables (section 8). There are mainly two ways to obtain these models, the theoretical modelling based on rst (physical) principles and the experimental modelling (identication) with measured input and output variables. A basic problem in theoretical modelling of mechatronic systems is that the components originate from different domains. There exists a well developed domain-specic knowledge for the modelling of, e.g., electrical circuits, multibody mechanical systems or hydraulic systems and also corresponding software packages. However, a computer-assisted general methodology for the modelling and simulation of components from different domains is still missing (Otter and Elmqvist, 1997). The basic principles of theoretical modelling for systems with energy ow are known and can be unied for components from different domains as electrical, mechanical and thermal (see Paynter, 1961; MacFarlane, 1964; Wellstead, 1979;

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

40 Mechatronic systems

Karnopp et al., 1990; Cellier, 1991 and Gawthrop and Smith, 1996). The modelling methodology becomes more involved if material ows are also incorporated as for uids, thermodynamics and chemical processes. A general procedure for theoretical modelling of lumped parameter processes can be sketched as follows (Isermann, 1999a): 1) denition of ows a) energy ow (electrical, mechanical, thermal conductance processes); b) energy and material ow (uidic, thermal transfer, thermodynamics, chemical processes); 2) denition of process elements: ow diagrams a) sources, sinks (dissipative processes); b) storages, transformers, converters; 3) graphical representation of the process model a) multi-port diagrams (terminals, ows and potentials or across and through variables); b) block diagrams for signal ow; c) bond graphs for energy ow; 4) statement of equations for all process elements a) Balance equations for storages (mass, energy, momentum); b) Constitutive equations for process elements (sources, transformers, converters); c) Phenomenological laws for irreversible processes (dissipative systems: sinks); 5) interconnection equations for the process elements a) continuity equations for parallel connections (node law: through-variables = 0); b) compatibility equations for serial connections (closed circuit law: across variables = 0); 6) overall process model calculation a) establishment of input and output variables; b) state space representation; c) input/output models (e.g. differential equations, transfer functions). An example for steps 13 is shown in Figure 7 for a drive-by-wire vehicle. Transformers, converters, storages and sinks usually have no denite causality. However, sources show a denite causality either as potential or ow sources. Together with actuators they usually impress a potential or ow variable on the following process elements and force a denite causality of the overall system. A unied approach for processes with energy ow is known for electrical, mechanical and hydraulic processes with incompressible uids. Generalized through and across variables can be dened, as shown in Table 2. In these cases the product of the through and across variables is power. This unication enabled the formulation of the standard bond graph model (Karnopp et al., 1990). Also for hydraulic processes with compressible uids and thermal processes these variables can be dened to result in powers (Table 2). However, this is not engineering practice where mass ows and heat ows are used. If these variables are used, so-called pseudo bond graphs with special laws result, leaving

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 41

Figure 7 Different schemes for an automobile (as required for drive-by-wire-longitudinal control). (a) Scheme of the components (construction map); (b) energy ow diagram; (c) multi-port diagram with ows and potentials; (d) signal ow diagram for multi-port

Table 2
System

Generalized across and through variables for processes with energy ow

Through variables
Electric current Magnetic ow Force Torque Volume ow Entropy ow I F M V s

Across variables
Electric voltage Magnetic ow Velocity Rotational speed Pressure Temperature U w p T

Electrical Magnetic Mechanical Translation Rotation Hydraulic Thermodynamical

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

42 Mechatronic systems

the simplicity of standard bond graphs. Bond graphs lead to a high level abstraction, have less exibility and need additional effort to generate simulation algorithms. Therefore, they are not the ideal tool for mechatronic systems in general (Otter and Elmqvist, 1997). Also the tedious work to establish block diagrams with an early denition of causal input/output blocks is not very suitable. As shown above, all process elements except the sources have no denite causality, i.e., it is not dened what the input variables are and what the output variable are before connecting a special source, which can be either an effort source or a ow source. Therefore, in order to stay enough exible during physical modelling, the models of the elements should stay noncausal as long as possible (except the sources). An appropriate approach for modelling is to have a software language available with following properties: 1) basis process elements are described by their physical laws (differential and algebraic equations without denite causality); 2) connection of process elements via terminals or ports, like the real system (i.e., the models possess cuts as interfaces); 3) inclusion of other models, e.g., obtained from experiments for elements which cannot be modelled physically (i.e., models from identication, especially nonlinear models, also in form of look-up-tables and then with specialized causality); 4) easy user handling by adding or neglecting elements (because modelling is frequently an iterative procedure) and by a graphical interface. These properties can be met by object-oriented modelling environments, like described in Birtwistle et al. (1973), Elmqvist (1978), Elmqvist and Mattson (1989), and realized in modelling languages SIMULA and DYMOLA. These modelling languages use object-oriented programming, as applied for other complex software (Wegner, 1990), characterized by objects, classes and inheritance. With regard to object-oriented modelling, the following denitions are used (Fritzson and Engelson, 1998): 1) objects are a collection of equations, functions with variables and parameters. They may share states which are instance variables; 2) classes are templates from which objects or subclasses can be created; 3) inheritance allows us to reuse equations, functions of a class, when dening new objects and classes. Based on such a framework, unied object-oriented languages for physical systems modelling in different domains are developed presently, like MODELICA, OMOLA and VHDL-AMS. The following features are then implemented: encapsulation of knowledge in an object with well-developed interfaces, topological interconnection ability by plugging process model elements together, hierarchical modelling by declaring interconnected models as new objects, object instantiation by describing generic object classes to instantiate new objects, class inheritance to reuse already encapsulated knowledge, a generalized networking capability by interconnecting models through nodes, using across and through variables, and a graphical interface.

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 43

Recent publications on these developments are strom et al. (1998), Cellier et al. (1996) and Isermann (1997a). Hence, the development of theoretical modelling of mechatronic systems with a unied transparent and exible procedure from the basic components of different domains to simulation are a challenge for further development. Many components show nonlinear behaviour and nondifferentiable nonlinearities like different types of friction and backlash. For more complex process parts multidimensional mappings (e.g., combustion engines, tyre behaviour) must also be integrated. 5.1 Identication of mechatronic systems For the verication of theoretical models, several well known identication methods can be used, like correlation analysis and frequency response measurement, Fourier and spectral analysis. As some parameters are frequently unknown or change with time, parameter estimation methods can be applied for models with continuous time or discrete time, especially if the models are linear in their parameters (Eykhoff, 1974; Isermann, 1992). For the identication and approximation of nonlinear, multidimensional characteristics, articial neural networks (multi-layer perceptrons or radial-basis functions) are exible methods, which can be expanded for nonlinear dynamic processes (Isermann et al., 1997, 1999b). 6. Advanced control methods for mechanical systems Because of the integration of various functions, the use of modern tools plays an important rule for the design of the control system if higher performances are required. It is proposed to consider the basic control as a knowledge-based multilevel feedback control system which is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Knowledge-based multilevel feedback control for mechatronic systems

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

44 Mechatronic systems

The knowledge-based multilevel feedback control system is a part of the intelligent system of Figure 6. The knowledge base consists of mathematical process models, parameter estimation and controller design methods, and control performance criteria. The feedback control is organized in lower level and higher level controllers, a reference value generation module and controller parameter adaptation. With this structure the main control functions of mechatronic systems can be organized. In this section some control principles will be considered briey. 6.1 Lower level feedback control The goal of the lower level feedback is to provide a certain dynamic behaviour (e.g., enforcement of damping), to compensate for nonlinearities like friction, and to reduce parameter sensitivity. Some examples are: 1) damping of high frequent oscillations weakly damped higher frequent oscillations appear, e.g., in multimass drive chains. The damping can generally be improved by high pass ltering the outputs and using a state variable feedback or PD (proportional-derivative) feedback. Figure 9 shows a scheme of an adaptive damping feedback with parameter estimation. 2) compensation of nonlinear static characteristics nonlinear static characteristics are present in many subsystems of mechanical processes. Figure 10 shows as an example the position control for a nonlinear actuator. Frequently a rst nonlinearity appears in the force or torque-generating part, like an electromagnet or a pneumatic or hydraulic actuator, where, e.g., the force FD = f(U) follows a nonlinear static characteristic. This nonlinearity can now be compensated for by an inverse characteristic U = f1(U ) such that the I/Obehaviour FD = f(U ) becomes approximately linear (Isermann and Raab, 1993), and a linear (PID-type) controller GC1 can be applied. 3) friction compensation for many mechanical systems the friction can be described approximately by F (t) = f sign Y(t) + f Y(t) Y(t) 0
F FC F

Figure 9 Adaptive damping feedback of drive chain oscillations (usually a selection of M, G and D is fed back)

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 45

Figure 10

Adaptive position control of a nonlinear actuator

where fFC is the Coulomb friction and fF the linear viscous friction coefcient which may be dependent on the motion direction, indicated by + or . The Coulomb friction has an especially strongly negative effect on the control performance, if a high positioning accuracy is required, because it leads to a hysteresis effect. When the process stops within the hysteresis width before the set point is reached, only the integral part of the position controller can compensate for the offset. This may yield a signicant loss of control performance and accuracy, especially during small position changes. The basic idea of friction compensation is to compensate the relay function of the Coulomb friction by adding an adequate compensation signal UFC to the normal control action. Different methods such as dithering, feedforward compensation and adaptive friction compensation are alternatives (Isermann, 1999a; Isermann and Raab, 1993; Tomizuka, 1995). After compensating for the nonlinear friction, the position controller GC2 can be designed to control the underlying linearized force control and the remaining mechanical process without friction (Figure 10). In simple cases, a linear controller of PID-type or a state controller is sufcient. An alternative for position control of nonliner actuators is the use of a sliding mode controller. It consists of a nominal part for feedback linearization and an additional feedback to compensate for model uncertainties (Utkin, 1977; Slotine and Weiping, 1991). The resulting chattering near the included switching function generates a dither signal. A comparison of a xed PID-controller with friction compensation and a sliding mode controller for an electromagnetic actuator is, e.g., shown by Pfeufer et al. (1995). The sliding mode controller resulted in a good robustness in response to changing process parameters on the cost of higher design and computational effort.

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

46 Mechatronic systems

6.2 Higher level feedback control The task of the higher level controller is to generate a good overall dynamic behaviour with regard to the servo dynamics function due to changes of the position reference W(t), and to compensate for disturbances stemming from, e.g., variations of the load forces FL(t) (see Figure 10). This high level controller may be realized as a parameter-optimized controller of PID-type or a state controller with or without state observer. A state observer is required if only the position Y(t) is measur able. If both, Y(t), and Y(t) can be measured Y(t) can be obtained by differen tiation of Y(t) (if required at all ) such that no state observer is needed (see Isermann et al., 1995). The control scheme may be expanded by additional feedback controllers from a load or working process which is coupled with the mechanical process shown in Figure 7, resulting in a multiple cascaded control system. 6.3 Adaptive control A prerequisite for the application of advanced control algorithms is the use of well adapted process models. This then leads to self-tuning or adaptive control systems: 1) Parameter scheduling parameter scheduling based on the measurement of varying operation conditions is an effective method for dealing with known and approximately time-invariant process nonlinearities. Supposing auxiliary variables V are measurable, and correlate well with the process changes, the adaptation of the controller parameters is performed as a function of V (parameter schedules). 2) Parameter-adaptive control systems parameter-adaptive control systems are characterized by using identication methods for parametric process models. This is indicated in the adaptation level of Figure 8. Parameter estimation has proven to be an appropriate basis for the adaptive control of mechanical processes, including the adaptation to nonlinear characteristics, Coulomb friction, and unknown parameters such as masses, stiffness and damping (see Isermann and Raab, 1993; Isermann et al., 1995). These digital adaptive control systems work well if the assumptions for their design and convergence are satised. This includes, e.g., proper excitation of the process dynamics. For the cases where the assumptions are violated, a supervision level is required, which takes appropriate action.

6.4 Fuzzy control The development of fuzzy logic theory (Zadeh, 1972) stimulated alternative ways to solve automatic control problems. Based on these basic ideas, fuzzy controllers were proposed (Mamdani and Assilian, 1975) that describe human control in linguistic form. As fuzzy logic provides a systematic framework with which to

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 47

treat vague variables and information, it should be applied primarily if sensors yield imprecise outputs, the process behaviour is only qualitatively known or the automation functions cannot be described by equations or Boolean logic. As discussed in Isermann (1997b, 1998), the potentials of fuzzy logic approaches in general increase with higher automation levels, because the degree of the qualitative knowledge and the required intelligence grow with the hierarchical level. The static and dynamic behaviour of most mechanical systems can be rather precisely described by mathematical process models obtained through theoretical modelling and identication methods. Hence, there is in many cases no need to apply fuzzy concepts for the control of mechanical systems in the lower levels. However, fuzzy control concepts may be of interest for: 1) fuzzy-tuning and adaptation of classical controllers; 2) fuzzy quality and comfort control; 3) fuzzy control for special (abnormal) operating conditions. Particularly for reference value generation of underlying (classical) control systems (Figure 8), where the quality or comfort and therefore the human reception plays a role, fuzzy rule-based methods offer interesting possibilities, i.e., for the higher control levels. Examples for such mechatronic systems are: 1) the comfort control of suspensions in passenger cars; 2) the comfort of start-up of automobiles with clutch manipulation, gear shifting and automatic transmission; 3) distance and velocity control of automobiles and elevators. For a more detailed description see Isermann (1997b, 1998). 7. Supervision and fault detection With the increasing number of automatic functions (autonomy) inlcuding electronic components, sensors and actuators, increasing complexity and increasing demands on reliability and safety, integrated supervision with fault diagnosis becomes more and more important. This is therefore a signicant natural feature of an intelligent mechatronic system. Figure 11 shows a process inuenced by faults. These faults indicate unpermitted deviations from normal states and can be generated either externally or internally. External faults are for example caused by the power supply, contamination or collision, internal faults by wear, missing lubrication, actuator or sensor faults. The classical method for fault detection is the limit value checking of a few measurable variables. However, incipient and intermittant faults cannot usually be detected and an in-depth fault diagnosis is not possible with this simple approach. Therefore, model-based fault detection and diagnosis methods were developed in recent years, allowing early detection of small faults with normally measured signals, and also in closed loops (Isermann, 1997b). Based on measured input signals U(t) and output signals Y(t), and process models, features are generated by, e.g., parameter estimation, state and output observers, and parity equations (Figure 11). These residuals are then compared with the residuals for normal behaviour and,

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

48 Mechatronic systems

Figure 11

Scheme for a model-based fault detection

with change detection methods, analytical symptoms are obtained. Then a fault diagnosis is performed via methods of classication or reasoning. A considerable advantage is that the same process model can be used for both the (adaptive) controller design and the fault detection. In general, continuous time models are preferred if fault detection is based on parameter estimation or parity equations. For fault detection with state estimation and also parity equations, discrete-time models can be used. Advanced supervision and fault diagnosis is a basis for improving reliability and safety, state dependent maintenance, triggering of redundancies and reconguration. 8. Design procedure for mechatronic systems The design of mechatronic systems requires a systematic development and use of modern design tools. Table 3 shows ve important development steps for mechatronic systems, starting from a purely mechanical system and resulting in a fully integrated mechatronic system. Depending on the type of the mechanical system, the intensity of the single development steps is different. For precision mechanical devices fairly integrated mechatronic systems already exist. The inuence of the electronics on mechanical elements may be considerable, as shown by adaptive dampers, antilock system brakes and automatic gears. However, complete machines and vehicles show rst a mechatronic design of their elements and then slowly a

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 49

Table 3

Steps in the design of mechatronic systems

redesign of parts of the overall structure as can be observed in the development of machine tools, robots and vehicle bodies. 8.1 Software tools for the design The computer aided development of mechatronic systems comprises: 1) constructive specication in the engineering development stage using CADand CAE-tools; 2) model building for obtaining static and dynamic process models; 3) transformation into computer codes for system simulation;

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

50 Mechatronic systems

4) programming and implementation of the nal mechatronic software. Some software tools are described for example in Otter and Gruebel (1993). A broad range of CAD/CAE tools is available for two- and three-dimensional mechanical design, such as Auto CAD with a direct link to CAM (computer-aided manufacturing); PADS for multi-layer printed-circuit board layout, etc. However, computer-aided modelling is not as advanced (see Section 5). Object-oriented languages such as DYMOLA and MOBILE for modelling of large combined systems are described in Otter and Gruebel (1993), Elmqvist (1993) and Hiller (1995). These packages are based on specied ordinary differential equations, algebraic equations and discontinuities. A recent description of computer-aided control system design can be found in James et al. (1995). For system simulation (and controller design) a variety of program systems exist, like ACSL, SIMPACK, MATLAB/SIMULINK, MATRIX-X. These simulation techniques are valuable tools for design, as they allow the study of the interaction of components, and the variations of design parameters before manufacturing. However, they are not generally suitable for real-time simulation.

8.2 Real-time simulation For the design of mechatronic systems, real-time simulation is increasingly applied. This is particulary required if the process, the hardware and the software are developed simultaneously in order to minimize iterative development cycles and to meet a short time to market. With regard to the required speed of the computation, simulation methods can be subdivided into: 1) simulation without (hard) time limitation; 2) real-time simulation; 3) simulation faster than real-time. Some application examples are given in Figure 12. Herewith, real-time simulation means that the simulation of a component is performed such that the input and output signals show the same time-dependent values as the real dynamically operating component. This becomes a computational problem for processes which have fast dynamics compared with the required algorithms and calculation speed. Different types of real-time simulation methods are shown in Figure 13. The reason for the real-time requirement is mostly that one part of the investigated system is not simulated, but real. Three cases can be distinguished: 1) the real process can be operated together with the simulated control by using another hardware than the nal hardware. This is also called control prototyping; 2) the simulated process can be operated with the real control hardware, which is called hardware-in-the-loop simulation; 3) the simulated process is run with the simulated control in real-time. This may be required if the nal hardware is not available or if a design step before the hardware-in-the-loop simulation is considered.

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 51

Figure 12 Classication of simulation methods with regard to the speed and application examples

Figure 13

Classication of real-time simulation

In the following, the hardware-in-the-loop simulation and control prototyping is considered. 8.2.1 Hardware-in-the-loop simulation: The hardware-in-the-loop simulation (HIL) is characterized by operating real components in connection with real-time simulated components. Usually, the control system hardware and software is the real system, as used for series production. The controlled process, consisting of actuators, physical processes and sensors, can then either be simulated or parts

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

52 Mechatronic systems

of it may be real components (Figure 14a). In general, mixtures of the cases shown are realized. Frequently some actuators are real, and the process and the sensors are simulated. The reason is that actuators and the control hardware very often form one integrated subsystem or that actuators are difcult to model precisely and to simulate in real time. (The use of real sensors together with a simulated process may require considerable realization efforts, because the physical sensor input does not exist and must be generated articially). In order to change or redesign some functions of the control hardware or software a bypass unit can be connected to the basic control hardware. Hence, hardware-in-the-loop simulators may also contain partially simulated (emulated) control functions. The advantages of the hardware-in-the-loop simulation are generally: 1) design and testing of the control hardware and software without operating a real process (moving the process eld into the laboratory); 2) testing of the control hardware and software under extreme environmental conditions in the laboratory (e.g., high/low temperature, high accelerations and mechanical shocks, aggressive media, electromagnetic compatibility); 3) testing of the effects of faults and failures of actuators, sensors and computers on the overall system; 4) operating and testing of extreme and dangerous operating conditions; 5) reproducible experiments, frequently repeatable; 6) easy operation with different manmachine interfaces (cockpit design and training of operators); 7) saving of cost and development time.

Figure 14 Realtime simulation: hybrid structures. (a) Hardwarein-the-loop simulation; (b) control prototyping

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 53

8.2.2 Control prototyping: For the design and testing of complex control systems and their algorithms under real-time constraints, a real-time controller simulation (emulation) with hardware (e.g., an off-the-shelf signal processor) other than the nal series production hardware (e.g., special ASICS) may be performed. The process, the actuators and sensors can then be real. This is called control prototyping (Figure 14b). However, in this case also, parts of the process or actuators may be simulated, resulting in a mixture of HIL-simulation and control prototyping. The advantages are mainly: 1) early development of signal processing methods, process models and control system structure including algorithms with high level software and high performance off-the-shelf hardware; 2) testing of signal processing and control systems together with other design of actuators, process parts and sensor technology, in order to create synergetic effects; 3) reduction of models and algorithms to meet the requirements of cheaper mass production hardware; 4) dening the specications for nal hardware and software. Some of the advantages of HIL-simulation also hold for control prototyping. Some references for real-time simulation are Hanselmann (1993) and Isermann et al. (1999). 9. Conclusions This contribution has shown that mechatronic systems cover a great variety of technical processes, and require the integration of components and information processing during the design. Several disciplines like mechanics, electronics and information technology are merged together to create synergetic effects. Several of the discussed developments can be observed in existing products of precision engineering and show up presently with increasing tendency for mechanical components, machines, automobiles and aircraft. The intensive use of computer-aided design, theoretical and experimental modelling, digital simulation, hardware-in-the-loop simulation, control systems design, verication, software engineering, etc., and the interrelations with the basic process design require methods and tools developed in the control community. Therefore, the development of mechatronic systems is a real challenge for control engineering. References
Antaklis, P. 1994: Dening intelligent control. IEEE Control Systems, June, 466. strom, K.J. 1991: Intelligent control. Proceed ings of the European Control Conference, Grenoble. strom, K.J., Elmqvist, H. and Mattson, S.E. 1998: Evolution of continuous-time modeling and simulation. 12th European Simulation Multiconference, ESM 98, 1619 June 1998, Manchester, UK. Birtwistle, G.B., Dahl, O.J., Myhrhaug, B. and Nygaar, K. 1973: Simula begin. Auerbach Publishers. Bradley, D.A., Dawson, D., Burd, D. and

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

54 Mechatronic systems
Loader, A.J. 1991: Mechatronics electronics in products and processes. London: Chapman and Hall. Cellier, F.E. 1991: Continuous system modelling. Berlin: Springer. Cellier, F.E., Elmqvist, H. and Otter, M. 1996: Modeling from physical principles. In Levine, W.S., editor, The control handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 9107. Elmqvist, H. 1978: A structured model language for large continuous systems, Ph.D. dissertation. Report CODEN: LUTFD2/(TFRT1015) Department of Automatic Control, Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden. 1993: Object-oriented modeling and automatic formula manipulation in Dymola. Scandinavian Simulation Society SIMs, June, Kongsberg. Elmqvist, H. and Mattson, S.E. 1989: Simulator for dynamical systems using graphics and equations for modeling. IEEE Control Systems Magazine 9, 5358. Eykhoff, P. 1974: System identication. London: John Wiley. Fritzon, P. and Engelson, V. 1998: Modelica a unied object-oriented language for system modeling and simulation. 12th European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming (ECOOP 98), 2024 July, Brussels, Belgium. Gansemeiser, J., Brexel, D., Frank, T. and Humpert, A. 1995: Integrated product development. Third Conference on Mechatronics and Robotics, Paderborn, Germany, 46 October, Teubner, Stuttgart. Gawthrop, F.E. and Smith, L. 1996: Metamodelling: bond graphs and dynamic systems. London: Prentice Hall. Gupta, M.M. and Sinha, N.K. 1996: Intelligent control systems. New York: IEEE Press. Hanselmann, H. 1993: Hardware in-the-loop simulation as a standard approach for development, customization, and production test. SAE 930207, 15 March. Harashima, F., Tomizuka, M. and Fukuda, T. 1996: Mechatronics What is ist, why and how? An editorial, IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 1, 14. Harris, C.J., editor. 1994: Advances in intelligent control. London: Taylor & Francis. Hiller, M. 1995: Modelling, simulation and control design for large and heavy manipulators. Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent Advances in Mechatronics, 14 16 August, Istanbul, Turkey. IEE, Mechatronics: Design intelligent machines. 1990: Proceedings of the IEE International Conference 1213 September, University of Cambridge. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics. 1996: Piscataway: IEEE Press. Isermann, R. 1992: Identikation dynamischer Systeme, 2nd edition, Vols 1 and 2. Berlin: Springer. 1993: Towards intelligent control of mechanical processes. Control Engineering Practice 1, 23252. 1996: Modeling and design methodology for mechatronic systems. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 1, 1628. , editor. 1997a: Workshop Rechnergestutzte Modellbildung dynamischer Systeme, 29 October, Techn. Univ. Darmstadt. 1997b: Supervision, fault detection and fault diagnosis methods an introduction. Special section on supervission, fault detection and diagnosis. Control Engineering Practice. 1998: On fuzzy logic applications for automatic control, supervision, and fault diagnosis. IEEE Transactions on System, Men, and Cybernetics Part A 28, 22135. 1999a: Mechatronische Systeme. Berlin: Springer. 1999b: Modeling, identication and simulation of mechatronic systems. IFACCongress, Beijing. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Isermann, R. and Raab, U. 1993: Intelligent actuators. Automatica 29, 131531. Iserman, R., Ernst, S. and Nelles, O. 1997: Identication with dynamic neural networks architectures, comparisons, applications. Plenary, IFAC Symposium on System Identication (SYSID), Fukuoka, Japan. Isermann, R., Keller, H. and Raab, U. 1995: Intelligent actuators, Chapter 21. In: Gupta, N.N. and Sinha, N.K., editors, Intelligent control systems. Piscataway: IEEE Press. Isermann, R., Lachmann, K.-H. and Matko, D. 1992: Adaptive control systems. London: Prentice Hall. Isermann, R., Schaffnit, J. and Sinsel, S. 1999: Hardware-in-the-loop simulation for the design and testing of engine control systems. Control Engineering Practice 7, 64353. James, J., Cellier, F., Pang, G., Gray, J. and Mattson, S.E. 1995: The state of computeraided control system design (CACSD). IEEE Transactions on Control Systems, special issue, 67 April. Karnopp, D.C., Margolis, D.L. and Rosenberg, R.C. 1990: System dynamics: a unied approach. New York: Wiley.

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012

R. Isermann 55
Kaynak, O., Ozkan, M., Bekiroglu, N. and Tunay, I. editors. 1995: Recent advances in mechatronics, Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent Advances in Mechatronics, 1416 August, Istanbul, Turkey. Kitaura, K. 1987: Industrial mechatronics, New East Business Ltd., in Japanese. Kyura, N. and Oho, H. 1996: Mechatronics an industrial perspective. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 1, 1015. Luckel, J., editor. 1995: Third Conference on Mechatronics and Robotics, Paderborn, Germany, 46 October, Stuttgart: Teubner. MacFarlane, A.G.J. 1964: Engineering systems analysis. Cambridge, MA: G.G. Harrop. Mamdani, E.H. and Assilian, S. 1995: An experiment in linguistic synthesis with a fuzzy logic controller. International Journal ManMachine Studies 7, 113. McConaill, P.A., Drews, P. and Robrock, K.H. 1991: Mechatronics and robotics I. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Mechatronics: An International Journal. Aims and scope. 1991. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Mechatronics System Engineering: International Journal on Design and Application of Integrated Electromechanical Systems. 1993. Netherlands: Kluwer. Otter, M., and Elmqvist, H. 1997: Energy ow modeling of mechatronic systems via object diagrams. Proceedings of the 2nd MATHMOD, Vienna, 70510. Otter, M. and Gruebel, G. 1993: Direct physical modeling and automatic code generation for mechatronics simulation. 2nd Conference on Mechatronics and Robotics. Duisburg, 2729 September, IMECH, Moers. Ovaska, S.J. 1992: Electronics and information technology in high range elevator systems. Mechatronics 2, 8999. Paynter, H.M. 1961: Analysis and design of engineering systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Pfeufer, T., Landsiedel, T. and Isermann, R. 1995: Identication and model-based nonlinear control of electromechanical actuators with friction. IFAC-Workshop Motion Control, October, Munchen, Germany. Saridis, G.N. 1977: Self-organizing control of stochastic systems. New York: Marcel Dekker. Saridis, G.N. and Valavanis, K.P. 1988: Analytical design of intelligent machines. Automatica 24: 12333. Schweitzer, G. 1989: Mechatronik-Aufgaben und Losungen, VDI-Berichte No. 787. Dusseldorf: VDI-Verlag. 1992: Mechatronics a concept with examples in active magnetic bearings. Mechatronics 2, 6574. Slotine, J.J.E. and Weiping, L. 1991: Applied nonlinear control. Chapter 7: Sliding Control, London: Prentice Hall. Tomizuka, M. 1995: Robust digital motion controller for mechanical systems. Proceedings of International Conference on Recent Advances in Mechatronics, 1416 August, Istanbul, Turkey. Utkin, V.I. 1977: Variable structure systems with sliding mode: a survey. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control 22, 21222. Wegener, P. 1990: Concepts and paradigma of object-oriented programming. OOPS Messenger 1, 987. Wellstead, P.E. 1979: Introduction to physical system modelling. London: Academic Press. White, D.A. and Sofge, D.A., editors. 1992: Handbook of intelligent control. New York: Van Norstrand Reinhold. Zadeh, L. 1972: A rationale for a fuzzy control. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control 94, Series G, 34.

Downloaded from tim.sagepub.com at CERIST on April 18, 2012