Amber Habib
Mathematical Sciences Foundation, Delhi
Abstract
An introduction to Lie algebras. This material sets the stage for
the study of semisimple and reductive Lie algebras via their root sys-
tems. In turn, those Lie algebras are the means of understanding
reductive groups.
Contents
1 Lecture 1 – Basic Definitions and Examples 1
For our basic example we consider the vector space L(V ) of linear operators
on a vector space V (over a field F). Besides the vector space operations
of addition and scaling, this has another natural operation: composition of
linear operators. This operation is not commutative: in general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .
We can try to capture the amount of non-commutativity by defining
[f, g] = f ◦ g − g ◦ f.
1
1 LECTURE 1 – BASIC DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES 2
[αf + βg, α′f ′ + β ′ g ′ ] = αα′ [f, f ′ ] + αβ ′ [f, g ′] + βα′ [g, f ′] + ββ ′ [g, g ′],
[f, [g, h]] − [[f, g], h] = f [g, h] − [g, h]f − [f, g]h + h[f, g]
= f gh − f hg − ghf + hgf − f gh + gf h + hf g − hgf
= g[f, h] − [f, h]g = [g, [f, h]].
So the bracket is not associative either. However, the last calculation can be
rewritten in a form which is quite useful:
1. [X, X] = 0 ∀X, Y ∈ g.
The first property of the bracket is called anti-commutativity while the second
is the Jacobi identity.
Lie algebras can be studied for their own sake, but our interest in them arises
out of their applications to the study of certain groups. Roughly, to each such
group we will assign a Lie algebra which will contain local information about
this group. Its job will be to convert problems about group structure to
problems in linear algebra.
1 LECTURE 1 – BASIC DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES 3
Exercise 1.6 Classify the one and two dimensional Lie algebras up to iso-
morphism.
Example 1.8 If the vector space V has a basis of size n, it becomes identified
with Fn and L(V ) with M(n, F) - the n×n matrices with entries in F. Under
this identification, composition becomes matrix multiplication and so the
bracket is now defined by
[A, B] = AB − BA.
M(n, F) with this bracket is denoted by gl(n, F). Clearly gl(V ) and gl(n, F)
are isomorphic.
1 LECTURE 1 – BASIC DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES 4
Example 1.9 With the Lie algebra gl(n, F) in hand, we obtain others by
considering various familiar subspaces:
Exercise 1.10 Which of the above Lie algebras depend on the choice of basis,
and to what extent?
Example 1.12 We shall describe a machine for generating many linear Lie
algebras. Let V = Fn and J ∈ M(n, F). Then define
gJ := {X ∈ gl(n, F) : JX + X t J = 0}.
It is easily verified that gJ is a vector subspace and also closed under bracket,
hence it is a Lie subalgebra of gl(n, F). For example, J = I gives gI = o(n, F).
Exercise 1.13 Show that if J and K are orthogonally similar, then gJ and
gK are isomorphic.
is also called the orthogonal algebra and denoted o(n, F) = o(2p + 1, F).
Exercise 1.15 Show that o(n, F) is isomorphic to skew(n, F), provided that
F is algebraically closed.
[X, Y ] := X × Y.
Exercise 1.17 Let Eij ∈ M(n, F) be defined as having all entries equal 0,
except that the (i, j) one equals 1. Show that
Exercise 1.18 Show that dim(sp(n, F)) = 12 n(n+1), dim(o(n, F)) = 12 n(n−
1).
Definition 2.2 The derived algebra of g is the ideal [g, g]. It is also called
the commutator ideal.
Let h be an ideal in g. Then the quotient vector space g/h becomes a Lie
algebra under the bracket
[X + h, Y + h] := [X, Y ] + h.
ϕ
π
? ψ
-
g/j - h
Since the bracket is bilinear, we only have to understand the bracket relations
between these basis elements. They turn out to have a simple form:
In fact, consider the linear g → g map defined by Z 7→ [H, Z]. The map
is diagonalizable and the basis elements are its eigenvectors! This suggests
that it would be useful to study the bracket via the linear maps it induces.
An implication of these calculations is that [g, g] = g if char(F) 6= 2.
Definition 2.9 Let g be a Lie algebra. For any X ∈ g, define a linear map
ad(X) : g → g by
ad(X)Y = [X, Y ].
This map is called the adjoint of X.
2 LECTURE 2 – IDEALS, QUOTIENTS & HOMOMORPHISMS 8
Exercise 2.10 Show that ad(X) = ad(Y ) implies [X, Y ] = 0. Is the con-
verse true?
Exercise 2.13 Show that any derivation D of g satisfies the Leibniz rule:
n
X
n n
D [X, Y ] = Ci [D i X, Dn−i Y ].
i=0
Note that the image of the adjoint representation lies in Der(g). Members of
this image are called inner derivations. Derivations which are not inner are
called outer.
Exercise 2.17 Show that t(n, F) = d(n, F) + n(n, F) (vector space direct
sum). Also:
Exercise 2.19 Show that the center of gl(n, F) equals s(n, F), which consists
of the scalar matrices. In addition,
Exercise 2.21 If char(F) 6= 2 then the only non-trivial ideals in gl(2, F) are
sl(2, F) and s(2, F).
Example 3.8 Consider t = t(n, F). Its commutator ideal is [t, t] = n(n, F),
which is non-trivial. Every superspace of n(n, F) is clearly an ideal in t.
However, d(n, F) is not an ideal.
Now let us consider n = n(n, F). Its commutator ideal is
0 0 ∗ ∗
.. ..
. .
∗
1
n := [n, n] = .
. ..
0
0 0
1. Derived Series: Define g(0) = g, g(1) = [g, g], g(2) = [g(1) , g(1) ], . . . , and
in general g(i+1) = [g(i) , g(i) ].
Exercise 3.9 Prove that each g(i) , gi is an ideal in g. (Hence each series is
descending.)
Exercise 3.12 Show t(n, F) is solvable but not nilpotent. On the other hand,
n(n, F) is nilpotent.
Exercise 3.14 Let char(F) = 0. Consider sl(2, F) with the standard basis
(X, Y, H). Consider the inner automorphism defined by
σ = exp(adX) exp(−adY ) exp(adX).
Show that σ has the following action:
H 7→ −H, X 7→ −Y, Y 7→ −X.
Further, σ is the same as conjugating by
0 1
s= .
−1 0
Exercise 3.15 If dim(g) = 3, g is either simple or solvable.
Exercise 3.17 The Lie algebra g is semisimple iff it has no non-zero abelian
ideals.
Example 4.4 Let g be the non-abelian two dimensional Lie algebra. It has a
basis {X, Y } such that [X, Y ] = X. Now, let h = FX and j = FY . Then h is
an ideal and h, g/h are nilpotent because they are one dimensional. However
g is not nilpotent: gi = FX ∀i > 0.
Similarly, h and j are nilpotent but g = h + j is not.
4 LECTURE 4 – THEOREMS OF ENGEL AND LIE 14
Exercise 4.7 Every Lie algebra g has a unique maximal solvable ideal.
Definition 4.8 The unique maximal solvable ideal of the Lie algebra g is
called its radical and is denoted Rad(g).
A semisimple Lie algebra must have zero center, hence its adjoint represen-
tation is injective.
Simple Lie algebras are semisimple. So is the 0 algebra.
Let us turn to nilpotent Lie algebras. The condition gn = 0 means that for
any X1 , . . . , Xn+1 ∈ g we have
In particular: ad(X)n = 0 ∀X ∈ g.
W = {v ∈ V : Hv = 0 ∀H ∈ h}.
Also, fix Y ∈
/ h: then g = h + FY . We have to find a non-zero v ∈ W such
that Y v = 0. For any w ∈ W and H ∈ h,
HY w = [H, Y ]w + Y Hw = 0,
Corollary 4.14 (Engel’s Theorem) Let g be a Lie algebra such that each
element is ad-nilpotent. Then g is nilpotent.
In fact, the entire family of results 4.12-4.14 is generally grouped under the
name of Engel’s Theorem.
Now we shall start exploring the structure of Lie algebras via eigenvectors
and eigenvalues, hence:
We assume that the underlying field F is algebraically closed.
We have seen that prime characteristic creates various exceptions to general
patterns, and so we also assume that char(F) = 0.
Example 4.16 Let g be the non-abelian two dimensional Lie algebra, with
basis {X, Y } such that [X, Y ] = X. Then it is solvable: g(1) = [g, g] = FX,
4 LECTURE 4 – THEOREMS OF ENGEL AND LIE 16
ad(aX + bY )X = −bX.
[k, g] ⊂ [g, g] ⊂ k,
hence k is an ideal.
By the induction hypothesis, there is a common eigenvector v ∈ V for each
element of k:
Kv = λ(K)v, ∀K ∈ k.
It is easy to see that λ : k → F is linear. Now define:
W = {w ∈ V : Kw = λ(K)w, ∀K ∈ k}.
KX i w = KXX i−1 w
= [K, X]X i−1 w + XKX i−1 w
= λ([K, X])X i−1 w + λ(K)X i w.
{v, v1, . . . , vn }
Exercise 4.20 Let g be solvable. Then there are ideals hi of g such that
0 = h0 ⊂ h1 ⊂ h2 ⊂ · · · ⊂ hn = g, and dim(hi ) = i.
4 LECTURE 4 – THEOREMS OF ENGEL AND LIE 18
Exercise 4.23 The sum of two nilpotent ideals is nilpotent. Hence each g
has a maximal nilpotent ideal.
Exercise 4.25 Show the previous result can fail if X, Y do not commute.
Exercise 4.26 Let g ⊂ gl(V ) be solvable. Show that Tr (XY ) = 0 for all
X ∈ [g, g] and Y ∈ g.
Show g is a solvable Lie algebra but its elements have no common eigenvector
in F2 .
Exercise 4.30 Let g be a real Lie algebra. Show it is solvable if and only if
gC is.
Jordan Decomposition
S and N are called (respectively) the semisimple and nilpotent parts of X.
Theorem 5.4 Let g be a Lie algebra. Then Der(g) contains the semisimple
and nilpotent parts of all its elements.
5 LECTURE 5 – JORDAN DECOMPOSITION 20
(D − (λ + µ)I)2k [X, Y ] = 0.
Cartan’s Criterion
Then ad(S) has eigenvalues ai −aj and ad(Y ) has eigenvalues f (ai )−f (aj ), in
both cases corresponding to the eigenvectors Eij . By Lagrange interpolation
there is a polynomial r(t) ∈ F[t] such that
It follows that r(ad(S)) = ad(Y ). Note that r has zero constant term.
We know ad(S) is a polynomial in ad(X) without constant term, hence ad(Y )
is itself a polynomial in ad(X) without constant term.
Since ad(X) maps B into P A, so does ad(Y ). Hence ad(Y ) ∈ P M. Therefore
Tr (XY ) = 0, which gives i ai f (ai ) = 0. Applying f , we get i f (ai )2 = 0,
and hence f (ai ) = 0 ∀i.
Exercise 5.8 Let g be a Lie algebra such that Tr (ad(X)ad(Y )) = 0 for every
X ∈ [g, g] and Y ∈ g. Then g is solvable.
Killing Form
Exercise 5.14 The radical of the Killing form of g is solvable. (Hence the
radical of the Killing Form is in Rad(g).)
5 LECTURE 5 – JORDAN DECOMPOSITION 23
Exercise 5.18 The radical of a Lie algebra need not equal the radical of its
Killing form.