LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Study of CRO Characteristics of Silicon and Germanium diodes Characteristics of Zener diode and regulator Characteristics of Common Base Configuration Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration Characteristics of Emitter Follower Circuit Drain and Transfer Characteristics of JFET Design and Verification of Self Bias Circuit Characteristics of LDR and Thermistor Characteristics of Source Follower Circuit Characteristics of Photo transistor Design and Verification of Collector to Base Bias Circuit Design and Verification of Current Source Bias Circuit Drain and Transfer Characteristics of Depletion MOSFET Drain and Transfer Characteristics of Enhancement MOSFET

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EXPERIMENT 1 STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AIM: a) To observe front panel control knobs and to find amplitude, time
period and frequency for given waveforms. b) Measure phase difference between two waveforms using CRO. c) To measure an unknown frequency from Lissajous figures using CRO.

APPARATUS:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

CRO Function generator probes breadboard resistance (1K) capacitor (0.1uF) connecting wires

7. power supply THEORY: (A) MEASUREMENT OF PHASE: Since sine waves are based on circular motion they illustrate phase difference very well. One complete cycle of a sine wave relates to one complete circle and therefore to 360.This means that the phase angle of a sine wave can be represented using degrees. Figure shows how a complete sine wave cycle relates directly to 360.

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Phase shift describes the timing difference between two otherwise similar signals. The example in figure below shows two similar sine waves of the same frequency. T denotes the period of one complete cycle (10 cm on screen), andt signifies the time between the zero transition point of both signals (3 cm on screen). The phase difference in degrees is calculated from 0 = (t/T).3600= (3/10).3600 = 1080

(B)MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY: USING A CRO: A simple method of determining the frequency of a signal is to estimate its periodic time from the trace on the screen of a CRT. However this method has limited accuracy, and should only be used where other methods are not available. To calculate the frequency of the observed signal, one has to measure the period, i.e. the time taken for 1 complete cycle, using the calibrated sweep scale. The period could be calculated by T = ( no. of squares in cm) x ( selected Time/cm scale ) Once the period T is known, the frequency is given by f (Hz) = 1/T(sec) USING LISSAJOUS PATTERNS: If a well calibrated CRO time base is not available, a signal generator can be used to measure the frequency of an unknown sinusoidal signal. It is connected to the vertical channel (or horizontal) and the calibrated signal source is fed to the horizontal channel (or vertical). The frequency of the
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signal generator is adjusted so that a steady Lissajous pattern is obtained. The Lissajous pattern can be very involved to analyze. However, for the frequency measurement, all that is needed is the number of tangencies (points at the edge of arcs) along the vertical and horizontal lines. The frequency relationship between the horizontal and vertical inputs is given by fh/fv = No. of tangencies (vertical)/ No. of tangencies(horizontal) from which fv, the unknown frequency can be calculated.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE
1. Switch on the CRO. Rotate the intensity control clockwise. After some time you will see either a bright spot or a line on screen. If you see none, adjust X-POS and Y-POS controls to get the display in the centre of the screen. 2. Operate the INTEN and FOCUS controls and observe the effect on the spot (or line). Adjust them suitably. 3. To measure the voltage of the signal generator, adjust the vertical amplifier sensitivity suitably, so as to get a sufficiently large display. Read on the calibrated graticule, the vertical length of the display. This corresponds to the peak-to-peak value of the signal. Multiply this length by the sensitivity (in V/cm). Dividing this result by 22 gives the rms value of the signal voltage. Repeat the measurement procedure for two or three other values of the output signal voltages. 4. For measuring the frequency of the signal, feed the unknown signal (taken from the signal generator) to the Y-INPUT terminals. Take a standard signal generator, and connect its output to the X-INPUT terminals of the CRO. Put the TIME-BASE or HORIZONTAL-AMPLIFIER knob at EXT position. Change the frequency of the standard signal generator till you get a stable Lissajous pattern. For the various frequency ratios, fv/fh the Lissajous patterns are shown in Fig. The unknown frequency can thus be determined using the relationship: fh/fv = No. of tangencies (vertical)/ No. of tangencies (horizontal), where fv is unknown frequency. 5. To measure phase shift introduced by an RC phase-shift network, make connections as shown in Fig. Put the TIME-BASE control at EXT position. Adjust the vertical and horizontal amplifier gains (sensitivities) so as to get an ellipse of suitable size, as shown in Fig. Measure the lengths Y I and Y2 (or X 1 and X 2). Calculate the phase difference between the two waves using the relation. Sin() = Y1/Y2 = X1/X2

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MODEL GRAPHS:

6. Understand the significance of each and every knob on the CRO. 7. From the given function generator feed in a sinusoidal wave and adjust the time base knob and the amplitude knob to observe the waveform as a function of time. 8. Measure the time period and amplitude (peak to peak) of the signal. Find the frequency and verify if the same frequency is given for the function generator. 9. Observe two waveforms simultaneously on the two channels of a CRO. 10. Repeat the above steps for pulse and triangular waveforms.
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11. Report the readings and the waveforms taken. OBSERVATIONS: Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div. Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Time/div. Frequency= (1/T) Hz MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY: S. No Frequency of Signal Generator Measurement on CRO Length of one wave in cm Sensitivity in ms/cm Time period Frequency in kHz

MEASUREMENT OF PHASE ANGLE Y1= _______cm Y2 = _______cm = sin-1(Y1/Y2) = sin-1 ________ = ________ PRECAUTIONS: 1. Connections should be tight. 2. There should be no short circuiting in the circuit. RESULTS: 1. Measured frequency is __________. 2. Measured phase angle is _________.

APPLICATIONS OF CRO:
1. Measurement of current 2. Measurement of voltage 3. Measurement of power 4. Measurement of frequency 5. Measurement of phase angle 6. To see transistor curves 7. To trace and measuring signals of RF, IF and AF in radio and TV. 8. To trace visual display of sine waves.

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VIVA Questions:
1. How do you measure frequency using the CRO? 2. Can you measure signal phase using the CRO? 3. Suggest a procedure for signal phase measurement using the data from CRO? 4. Can you comment on the wavelength of a signal using CRO> 5. How many channels are there in a CRO? 6. Can you measure DC voltage using a CRO? 7. What is determined by the Lissajous patterns obtained on CRO? 8. When are lissajous patterns produced?

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EXPERIMENT 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICON AND GERMANIUM DIODES AIM: - To find out the V-I characteristics of silicon and germanium diodes
in Forward and Reverse bias configurations.

APPARATUS:1. P-N Diodes 1N4001-7

2. Regulated Power supply (0-30v) 3. Resistor 1K

4. Ammeters (0-200 mA, 0-200A), Voltmeter (0-20 V) Bread board

and Connecting wires

THEORY:A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and ntype (cathode) is connected to ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage. When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected to the ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current is due to minority charge carriers.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:FORWARD BIAS:-

REVERSE BIAS:-

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MODEL WAVEFORM:-

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PROCEDURE:FORWARD BIAS:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. for forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the silicon diode and RPS ve is connected to the cathode of the diode. 3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps. 4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage. 5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and a graph is plotted between voltage and current. 6. Repeat the above procedure for Germanium diode also and tabulate the results.

OBSERVATION:S.N O APPLIED RPS VOLTAGE (V) VOLTAGE ACROSS DIODE (V) DIODE CURRENT (mA)

PROCEDURE:REVERSE BIAS:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram 2. for reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the silicon diode and RPS ve is connected to the anode of the diode. 3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps. 4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage. 5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and graph is plotted between voltage and current.
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7. Repeat the above procedure for the given Germanium diode also and tabulate the results obtained.

OBSERVATION:S.N O APPLIED RPS VOLTAGE (V) VOLTAGE ACROSS DIODE (V) DIODE CURRENT (A)

PRECAUTIONS:1. All the connections should be correct. 2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog meters.

VIVA QESTIONS:1. Define depletion region of a diode? 2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode? 3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential? 4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes? 5. What are the applications of a p-n diode? 6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode? 7. What is the diode equation? 8. What is PIV? 9. What is the break down voltage? 10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

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EXPERIMENT 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE AND REGULATOR AIM: - a) to observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode
and to find the voltage regulation of a given zener diode

APPARATUS: 1. Zener diode (PHC 5V6) 2. Regulated Power Supply (0-30v) 3. Voltmeter (0-20v) Ammeter (0-100mA) 4. Resistors (1Kohm) 5. Bread Board and Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:FORWARD BIAS:-

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REVERSE BIAS:-

REGULATION CHARACTERISTICS:-

Theory:A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate

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in the break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device to avoid high current; we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals what ever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.

PROCEDURE:Static characteristics:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps. 3. The zener current (lz), and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then noted in the tabular form. 4. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) and zener voltage (Vz). 5. Do the above steps for forward as well as reverse bias connections as shown in the circuit diagrams.

Regulation characteristics:1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. For Vi slightly greater than Vz vary the load resistance and note load current IL and Vo. 3. Tabulate the results. 4. Plot the variation of % regulation with load current.

OBSERVATIONS: Static characteristics:S.N O APPLIED RPS VOLTAGE (V) ZENER VOLOTAGE VZ (V) ZENER CURRENT Iz (mA)

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Regulation characteristics:S.NO IL (mA) Vo (Volts) % Regulation = (VNL- VL)/VNL*100

1 2 3

0 5 10

MODEL WAVEFORMS:-

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PRECAUTIONS:1. The terminals of the zener diode should be properly identified. 2. Should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the diode ratings.

VIVAQUESTIONS:1. What type of temperature Coefficient does the zener diode have? 2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected? 3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary? 4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns? 5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit? 6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation? 7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator? 8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled? 9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has? 10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown diodes?

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EXPERIMENT 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION AIM: To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a
transistor connected in common base configuration.

APPARATUS:
1. Transistor (BC107 or SL100) 2. Regulated power supply (0-30V, 1A) 3. Voltmeter (0-20V) 4. Ammeters (0-200mA)
5. Resistors 1K

6. Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

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2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCB is kept constant at 0V and the RPS voltage VEE is varied from 0 to 5V in steps of 0.5V and note down the corresponding values VEB and IE. 3. Repeat the above step for VCB at 2V and 4V and tabulate all the results. 4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. 2. For plotting the output characteristics, vary VEE and keep input current IE at 5mA and vary VCB form 0 to 2.5V in steps of 0.5V using VCC and note down the corresponding values of IC. 3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 10 mA and 15 mA, all the readings are tabulated. 4. A graph is drawn between VCB and IC for constant IE

OBSERVATIONS: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

RPS Voltag e VEE VCB = 0V VCB = 2V VCB = 4V

VEB (V)

IE (mA)

VEB (V)

IE (mA)

VEB (V)

IE (mA)

0 to 5V in Steps 0.5V OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS: IE = 5mA

S.NO

IE = 10mA VCB (V) IC (mA)

IE =15mA VCB (V) IC (mA)

VCB (V) 0 to 2.5V in steps

IC (mA)

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of 0.5V

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MODEL GRAPHS: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

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PRECAUTIONS: 1. The supply voltages should not exceed the rating of the transistor.
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of a transistor? 2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration? 3. Identify various regions in output characteristics? 4. What is the relation between alpha and ? 5. What are the applications of CB configuration? 6. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration? 7. Define a (alpha)? 8. What is EARLY effect? 9. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor? 10. What is the power gain of CB configuration?

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EXPERIMENT 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION AIM: To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor
connected in CE configuration

APPARATUS:
1. Transistor (SL100 or BC107) 2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos 3. Voltmeters (0-20V) 2Nos 4. Ammeters (0-200mA) 5. Resistors 100Kohm, 100ohm 6. Bread board and connecting wires

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output. The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. T his is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement I B increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant I B. the collector current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB. The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by = IC / IB
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 2V and Vary VBB (RPS) from 0 to 5V in steps of 0.5V and Note down the corresponding values of VBE and IB 3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 4V and 6V. 4. Tabulate all the readings. 5. Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram 2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 10A and vary VCE from 0V to 2.5V using VCC (R.P.S) note down the corresponding values of IC 3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 20A and 30 A. 4. Tabulate the all the readings 5. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB

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OBSERVATIONS: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: RPS Voltag e VBB VCE = 2V VCE = 4V VCE = 6V

VBE (V)

IB (A)

VBE (V)

IB (A)

VBE (V)

IB (A)

0 to 5 instep s of 0.5V
OUTPUT CHAREACTARISTICS:

IB = 10A
S.NO

IB = 20A IC (mA)

IB = 30A VCE (V) IC (mA)

VCE (V) 0 to 2.5 V in steps of 0.5V

IC (mA) VCE (V)

MODEL GRAPHS: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

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OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

PRECAUTIONS: 1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of for the transistor? 2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration? 3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics? 4. what is the relation between a and 5. Define current gain in CE configuration? 6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
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7. What is the phase relation between input and output? 8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor? 9. What is the power gain of CE configuration? 10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

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EXPERIMENT 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMITTER FOLLOWER CIRCUIT AIM: To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor
connected in CC (Common Collector) or Emitter follower configuration.

APPARATUS:
1. Transistor (SL100 or BC107) 2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos 3. Voltmeters (0-20V) 2Nos
4. Ammeters (0-200A)

5. (0-200mA) 6. Resistors 100Kohm 7. Bread board and connecting wires

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In emitter follower configuration, input voltage is applied between base and ground terminals and output is taken across the emitter and collector terminals. The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. The output characteristics are drawn between IE and VCE at constant IB. the emitter current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the emitter current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, I E is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: INPUT CHARECTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 2V and note down values of VCB for each value of IB 3. Change VCE to 10 V and repeat the above step. 4. Disconnect the voltmeter from input circuit. 5. plot the graph between V
CB

and I

for constant V

CE

OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram 2. With I 3. Set I
B B

set at 0A, vary V

CE

and note down the corresponding I

value.

at 40A, 80A and repeat the above step.

4. Plot the output characteristics between V and I for constant I.

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OBSERVATIONS: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: S.NO VCE = 2V VCE = 4V VCE = 10V

VCB (V)

IB (A)

VCB (V)

IB (A)

VCB (V)

IB (A)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS: S.NO

IB = 0A VCE (V) IE (mA)

IB = 30A VCE (V) IE (mA)

IB = 40A VCE (V) IE (mA)

MODEL GRAPHS: INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
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PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor 2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the input and output impedances of CC configuration? 2. Identify various regions in the output characteristics? 3. Why CC configuration is preferred for buffering? 4. What is the phase relation between input and output? 5. Draw diagram of CC configuration for PNP transistor? 6. What are the applications of CC configuration?

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EXPERIMENT 7 DRAIN AND TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET AIM: To obtain the drain and transfer characteristics of the given JFET
transistor and to calculate rd, gm and from the curves obtained.

APPARATUS:
1. JFET transistor BFW10 2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos 3. Resistors 220 ohm 4. Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. To plot Drain Characteristics vary VGG and fix VGS at 0V and next using VDD vary VDS from 0V to 3.5 V in steps of 0.5V and note down the corresponding value of ID(ma).

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3. Repeat the above steps for VGS values of -1V and -2V and tabulate the results. 4. Plot VDS versus ID for constant VGS to get the Drain Characteristics. 5. Next using VDD fix VDS at 3V and vary VGS from 0V in steps of -0.5V till the drain current ID is 0. Note ID (mA) value for each value of VGS. 6. Repeat the above step for VDS = 1V and tabulate the results. 7. Plot the transfer characteristics VGS versus ID for constant VDS from tabulated readings.

OBSERVATIONS: Drain Characteristics: VDS 0 to 3.5 V in steps of 0.5V ID(VGS = 0V) ID (VGS = -1V) ID (VGS =2V)

Transfer Characteristics:

VGS

ID(VDS = 1V)

ID (VDS = 3V)

0 to -2.5V insteps of -0.5V

MODEL GRAPHS: Drain Characteristics:

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Transfer Characteristics:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the FET. 2. Connections must be tight.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
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1. What are the advantages of FET over transistor? 2. Is FET a current controlled device? Explain? 3. What is the operation of an N-channel JFET? 4. Can you compare JFET and a MOSFET?

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EXPERIMENT 8 DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF SELF BIAS CIRCUIT AIM: To design a self bias circuit and observe stability by changing of
the transistor.

APPARATUS:
1. Transistors with different values (SL100) 2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos 3. Resistors (according to design values) 4. Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Theory:
A self bias circuit stabilizes the bias point more appropriately than a fixed bias circuit. In this experiment CE configuration is used and a self bias circuit is designed and verified.

CALCULATIONS:
Given V =10V, RE =220 ohm, IC =4mA, VCE =6V, VBE =0.6V h fe =229 R C = (VCC - V
CE

) / IC
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IB = I C / R V
B

= *R E /10 =IB *R
B

BB

+V
BB

BE

+ (I
B

+I C) RE

R1 = (VCC /V

)*R

R2 =RB / (1-VBB /VCC)

PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the circuit on a bread board with designed values of resistors and transistor. 2. Apply Vcc and measure VCE, VBE and VEE and record the readings in table I. 3. Without changing the values of biasing resistors, change the transistor with other values and repeat the above steps and record the readings in the table.

OBSERVATIONS:
Value VCE VBE VEE IC=(VCCVCE)/RC IE=VEE/RE

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor 2. Connections must be tight.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of self bias? 2. What are the various other configurations available for bias?

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EXPERIMENT 9 CHARACTERISTICS OF LDR AND THERMISTOR AIM:

1. To determine physical characteristics of a thermistor A and B. 2. To Calculate the resistance of the thermistor and temperature coefficient at 0, 25, 35, 50 and 750 C using equation R=A * e (B/T) and A, B values.

APPARATUS:
1. Thermistors RT4201K 2. Resistors

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig 1. Thermistor symbol

THEORY:
The thermistor is a resistor negative temperature coefficient. R=A * e (B/T). To determine thermistor characteristics, we need to estimate
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with

the

the A and B values from the V-I characteristics curve of the thermistor. It is mainly used for bridges in instrumentation and measurements.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit according the diagram in Fig 2. 2. Fill the beaker with cold water (15 0 C) and put in the thermistor, thermometer and mixer. 3. The diagram in Fig 2 represents so called Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of bridge circuit. In the shown diagram one leg includes the thermistor and a known resistor, in the second is the decade resistors box and a Second known resistor. The bridge is balanced, when the current through the galvanometer G is zero. Because we use 2 resistors of identical value (one in each leg) at balance, the resistance of decade box is adjustable. So at a given temperature we change the resistance of decade box while no current flows in G. The value adjusted in the decade box directly indicates the resistance of thermistor. 4. Repeat the measurement in 15 0 C to 80 0 C in steps of 5 degrees, expected total number of cycles is 10-12. 5. In order to obtain physical characteristics of thermistor (A and B) calculate 1/T and ln (See Table 1) 6. ln(R) =f (1/T). Join these points. The slope of the straight line represents B and the intercept corresponds to ln (A). Calculate A. 7. Calculate the resistance of the thermistor and temperature coefficient at 0, 25, 35, 50 and 750 C using equation R=A * e (B/T) and A, B values. 8. Experimental report requires a graphical representation of data. R=f (t) and ln(R) =f (1/T) are as shown in fig 1.

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MODEL GRAPHS:

OBSERVATIONS: Thermistor Characteristics:

Figure 1: Experimental data

Figure 2: Resistance and temperature coefficient (%) of the thermistor at selected temperatures

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections must be tight and these experiments require utmost care.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of thermistor? 2. What are the advantages of thermistor?

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EXPERIMENT 10 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOURCE FOLLOWER CIRCUIT AIM: To draw the input and output characteristics of JFET connected in
CD (Common Drain) or source follower configuration.

APPARATUS:
1. JFET (BFW10) 2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos 3. Voltmeters (0-20V) 2Nos 4. Ammeters (0-200mA) 5. Resistor 220 ohm 6. Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE: V-I CHARECTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. Keeping gate voltage VGS as 0V, vary VGG in steps of 0.1V from 0 to 1 V and in steps of 2V from 1 to 15V.
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3. Note down the source current Is for each step. 4. Now set VGS to -1V and -2V and repeat the above steps for each VGS value, record the readings in the table. 5. From the tabulate results plot the input characteristics. 5. Next Keep VDS at 4V and vary VGS in steps of -0.5V from 0 Volts till the drain current Is is 0. Note Is value for each value of VGS. 6. With VDS at 2V repeat the above step and record the readings in the table. 7. Plot the characteristics from tabulated readings.

OBSERVATIONS: Input Characteristics: VGG 0 to 1 in steps 0.1v and 1 to 15 in steps 2V IS(VGS = 0V) IS (VGS = -1V) IS (VGS =-2V)

Transfer Characteristics: VGS 0 to till IS=0 in steps -0.5V IS(VDS = 4V) IS (VDS = 2V)

MODEL GRAPHS: Drain Characteristics:

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Transfer Characteristics:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the FET. 2. Connections must be tight.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of CD configuration? 2. What are the applications? 3. Why is it called source follower? 4. Can you name the analogous configuration in transistors?

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EXPERIMENT 11 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO TRANSISTOR

AIM: To obtain the V-I characteristics of the given photo transistor.

APPARATUS:
1. Photo transistor IR 3MM 935NM 2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos 3. Resistors 220 ohm 4. Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The photo transistor is a 3 terminal device which gives an electrical current as output if an input light excitation is provided. It works in reverse bias. When reverse biased along with the reverse bias current I CO, the light current I L is also added to the total output current. The amount of current flow depends on the input light intensity given as excitation. Phototransistor is basically a photodiode with amplification and operates by exposing its base region to the light source. Phototransistor light sensors operate the

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same as photodiodes except that they can provide current gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 - 100 times greater than that of the standard photodiode. Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN transistor with the collector-base PN-junction reverse-biased. The phototransistors large base region is left electrically unconnected and uses photons of light to generate a base current which in turn causes a collector to emitter current to flow.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram. 2. Keep the input light excitation fixed. Then vary the V in steps of 1V till the maximum ce voltage rating of the transistor is reached and then note down the corresponding values of I c. 3. Tabulate the readings. For various values of input excitation record the values of Vce and Ic and plot the characteristics of the photo transistor.

OBSERVATIONS: V-I Characteristics: VCE (V) IC (mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. The photo transistor must be given a proper excitation for a reasonable current flow. 2. Connections must be tight.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of phototransistor? 2. When does the photo transistor conduct? 3. What is the input excitation in a photo transistor?

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EXPERIMENT 12 DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF FIXED BIAS AND COLLECTOR TO BASE BIAS CIRCUIT

AIM: 1. To design a fixed bias circuit and observe stability by changing

of the given transistor in CE configuration. 2. To design a collector to base bias circuit and observe stability by changing of the given transistor in CE configuration.

APPARATUS:
1. Transistors (BC 107) with different values
2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2 Nos

3. Resistors (from design values) 4. Bread board and connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Fixed Bias Circuit

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Collector-to-base bias circuit

CALCULATIONS: Fixed Bias Circuit

Given V IC =IB/ RB = (VCC -VBE)/IB RC = (VCC -VCE)/IC
CC

=10V, I

=4mA, V

CE

=6V, V

BE

=0.6V

Collector-to-base bias circuit

Given V IC =IB/ RC = (VCC -VCE)/ (IB+IC) RB = {(VCC -VBE -IC RC) }/IC RC
CC

=10V, IC =4mA, V

CE

=6V, V

BE

=0.6V

PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the circuit on breadboard with design values of Rc , Rb and . 2. Apply Vcc and measure Vce and Vbe and record the readings in the table. 3. Without changing bias resistors, change the transistors with other values and repeat the above step.

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4. Repeat the above steps using the collector to base bias circuit and tabulate all the readings.

OBSERVATIONS: Fixed Bias:

Value VCE VBE IC=(VCC-VCE)/RC

Collector to Base Bias:

Value VCE VBE IC=[((VCCVCE)/RC) - IB]

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor 2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of fixed bias configuration? 2. What are the applications of collector to base bias configuration? 3. What are the disadvantages of fixed bias configuration? 4. How to overcome the disadvantages of fixed bias configuration.

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