Ibenth'B
flPobcrn
Uanguage
Serieg
COMPENDIOUS
French
Grammar
IN
TWO
INDEPENDENT
AND
PARTS
ADVANCED)
(INTBODUCTORT
BY
A.
Pbofsbsob
or
HJALMAR
Modbrn
Author
EDGREN,
V
Ph.D.
in
Lanouagbb
or
akd and
Sanskbit Sanskbit
thb
Uniyxbsity
xto.
of
Nbbbabka;
Enolish
Gbammabs,
"""Co"^
BOSTON,
D. C.
HEATH
"
U.S.
CO.,
A.
PUBLISHERS
1894
-'^"(o
y
Hwvtfd UfAwnHyi
""fibtf EiucidlM
TRANSFERRED
Ubrary
TO LIBRARY
HARVARD
COLLEGE
-tui^
)'6 1921
CopyrigMt
1889,
Bt
a.
HJALMAR
BDGRSN.
Ttpographt
by
J.
8.
Gushing
"
Co.,
Boston.
PREFACE.
This
of
grammar
our
is
prepared
schools all time by
with and
to
special
colleges.
reference Its
"
to
"
the
eeds
American
disavows
limit
for
t purposely by
; and
claims
devoted
completeness
to
is
determined
the
average
French
as
tions institu-
its methody
a
practical
as
well
an
aims.
To
meet
to
twofold
need,
first, of
of
a
easy
rapid
of
two
secondly,
the
critical is divided
exposition into
rammar
book
an
ach
forming
itself
is intended
at
independent
to
The
Eirst
with three
Part
profit
to
enable
to
"
begin
or
eading
the
earliest It
practicable
merely
in
rom
six
weeks.
of
contains
elementary
utline
of
the
essentials
French
pronunciation
and
accidence
as
(some
indispensable
syntactical
exercises.
directions rules
are
included),
purposely
well
accompanying simple
as
The
few, of
and
ment. state-
has
seemed
compatible
are
with
accuracy
to
Details each of
and
the
exceptions
left
the
as
Second well
as
Part,
others,
here
subjects
independent
elementary, material
where only
contained
treatment.
here,
eceives
Though
fuUer
and
entirely
sufficient is needed
or
this
First
Part
It
is
thought
even
to
ontain that
for
a
may
can
be given
ll
of
young
time
to
be
grammar,
earnest
where study
of
scholars
too
undertake
ore
details.
for
a more
The
Second
after
Part
is intended
has
critical
a
study
of
the
anguage
reading
begun.
Here
methodical
presen-
PREFACE.
ation
of
its
gram
mar
and
syntax,
each
by
at
a
itself, the
has
end of
been
the
nor
dopted,
exercises
where
being
will In
arranged
not
separately such
ook,
they
obstruct
framing
presentation,
I
mpede
to
reference.
the
of
rules
have
purposely
conciseness,
Too and much
ried
reconcile
one
in each
comparative
too
fulness
to
with
referring
rule, unless
unwieldy, the
several. grasp
isintegration
a
is apt
to
slacken
student's
vent pre-
clear
comprehension
features
of principles. such
are
On
topics outlined
be
the
as
same
ground
he
leading
and
of
difficult briefly
student
the by
Irregular
themselves
the
mazes
erbs
the
Subjunctive
are
efore
the
details
latter.
given,
lest
I
the
have
has
lost
to
in
Moreover, in
type
to
attempted seemed
to
distinguish
more or
by
difference
to
a
what
me
less
ecessary
commit
course
memory. in
Everything
that
may of
be
this
left
"
ut
in
first
is printed
small
type,
part
especially
the
lists of
the with
indeclinables
(164, etc.),of
words
or
hrases
the
requiring infinitive
even
requiring
351)
"
eing
intended accompanied
to
only.
The
syntactical
the
ules
are
by learn this
copious
one
examples,
which
student
French
recommended acquired
and
than
all,
more
genuine early
eing
in
way
by
too
attempts
at
composition.
few
explanatory
of this
remarks
grammar
are
some
of
the
out
more
direct
innovations
The
here
be
of place.
Irregular
Verbs
they
classified studied in
in the
brief order in
and
survey
(155-60), where
Then list immediate without
The
to
should
they
an
are
described.
follow
serve
as
full
an
conjugation
aid
in
tables
alphabetical
that the
study,
student of the
for
rapid
and
reference
when
later
wishes rules
to find
form
refreshing contains
for making
it.
index
irregular
verbs.
an
For
the
Subjunctive
That
the
use
attempted mode,
entirely
new
ficatio classia
of
this
yet
involving
in
large
PBEFACB.
easure
psychological
clause,
distinction
due
to
the
nature
of
the
ubjunctive
to
should
and
be
classified
primarily
with
with
ence refer-
that
distinction,
only
secondarily
causing
not at
reference attitude
certain
preceding
by
the
expressions
the all,
nature
mental
or
xpressed
with
subjunctive, but
to
only of
the
tally, incidenclause
reference
occurs
the
syntactical
here
it
(as being
I
subjective,objective,etc.),seems
attempted
use
to
evident.
The
have
consequently of
and the
such
tion. classifica-
brief
synopsis
of
on
the
the
subjunctive, page
following
to
88
(farther illustrated
all, I
to
explained
pages)
ontains
think,
a
the
student
of
need
the
commit of
memory
in
rder
have That
good
the
grasp
nature
the
French
for
subjun
siiaple and
than
so
method
there
adopted
ing explain-
mode
so
subtile
more
affected
by
conventionalism and
in it
se
should
be
measurably that
for
safest
to
complete
it will
nature
satisfactory
to
s not
expected;
but
that
must
it is hoped
feeling be of
be
adapted
foster
n the
learner which
the
of the
French
subjun
his
guide
in using
a
it himself.
as
For
the
purpose
giving
the
student
useful
the
well
as
nteresting
as
glimpse
also
to
of the
historical him
for
growth
of
French
guag lan-
prepare in older
those
a
syntactical brief
of
peculiarities of
forms the main
will
meet
with
the
authors, development
sketch
eatures
of
historical been
actual
and
construc
has
included
however,
in Part
encumber
II. the
That
this
extraneous
atter
may
not,
learner's
merest
ach the
historical
head
of
over,
topic
is presented,
chapters
in
the
outline
appropriate
by
those
laws
looked
to
interested, of
the
in
nuce
suggestive It
the
actual
language.
the
should
of
not
be
stated
ere
that
" 1, containing
to
as
outlines
French
so
phonetic
according
use
recent
theories,
is intended
a
much
for
mmediate
for
forming of
can
later
condensed
synopsis
of
he
subject,by
may
the
aid
which
the
teacher,
to
expanding
class
it
as
deem
advisable,
explain
his
intelligently
PREFACE.
he
of
French of
the
words. hour
My
own
experience
devoted in reading,
is that
to
each class
judiciously
started of good added
a
such is apt
xplanation,
be
To
after
is fairly
both
the
inspiring
grammar
and
productive
have
The
results.^ chapter
on
proper
one
on
been
^e7ich
and
Versification, and
words.
Belation needs
to
no
of
Anglo-French
rench
This,
I suppose, referred
those
plea. of
Among be
grammars
in the
Matzner,
preparation
Brunot,
my
own
hould
mentioned Ploetz,
of
Cl^dat,
am
Chas-
ung,
Gayer,
to
Lucking, Edward
inchoate the
and
Plattner.
greatly
comments
indeb
Professor
in its
S. Joynes
state,
for valuable
for
my
MS.
and
kindest
of
aid work.
Fortier,
are
and
encour
during
Professors Daell,
L.
farther
progress
the
Also A.
due
Adolphe
A.
Cohn,
and
C. Fontaine,
others
or an
Alc6e thanks
N.
for
an
Sherman, in the be
my
imely If
suggestions
proofs
otherwise.
effort in the
towards
not
this
can
grammar
deemed
right
direction,
true
nd
contribute,
interests,
the
why,
way,
promoting only
the
ducational
also
should
at
consider
hxyw,
ut
and
developing will
be
critical
discernment
ather
than
versatility,
its ambition
amply
H.
fulfilled. EDGEEK
A.
Uniybrsitt May,
of
Nebraska,
1890.
To
students
may
wishing be
to
pursue
further
the
the
subject of
excellent
historical
French
Brunot
rammar
especially
recommended
works
of
firammaire
du
to
historique
de
The
la langue
latter
frangaise)
is the
more
and
Cledat
(^Grammaire
and
destined
hisno
ortque
frangais).
continue
elementary
oubt
(with
its companion-volume
Grammaire
rendered regards
the
d^mentatre
student
date.
de la
ieiUe
langue
/rangdtse) the
short
grammar,
valuable
now
services
of French
Brachet's
in several
behind
Remark.
not
"
The entirely
following
out
general place.
to
suggestions Learn
taste
as
to
how
to
use
this book
without
ay
be
of
well
and
Part
I.
(with
Then
o^
the
nglish
French
not
exercises,
according
age).
p.
p.
begin
reading
asy
(for
yet be
instance
Super's
to
Reader),
the
referring
for
lviii.
such
verb-forms,
study
may
understood reading,
one
are as
reference-list,
verbs,
; and
in
onnection
with
the
one
the they
irregular
are
79
and
etc..
Part
II., learning
them the
well
by
verbs without
there learn
classed
the
described.
When II.
ll
irregular
mastered,
remainder
to
of
and
Part
to
yntax
the
(with
or
the with
fine
the
print, fine
according and
taste
age)
according
to
; and
hen
syntax,
dealing
the
exercises
to
ircumstances.
These reading.
grammar-studies
should
all be
subordinated
ical crit
and
copious
CONTENTS.
[all
REFBRENCBS
are to
PAQB8.]
FIE8T
PAET.
Introductory
Survey
of
French
Grammar.
PAOB
rticle
ouns
XIII
xv
Adjectives
umerals
xx xxiii
ronouns
erbs,
Regular,
xxxv
; Irregular,
.......
xxxv
bxi
ndeclinable
SEOOITD
PAET.
Grammar
"
^^
and
Syntax. 3-5
he
French
Language
History
1.
Elementary
Sounds
and
Accent.
istory
1-7 of
otation
Alphabet,
Sounds
7.
"
7-9
signs
Subsidiary
8. (accents, etc.)"
"
tion, Syllabica-
9.
ccent
and
Quantity
9-10
CONTENTS.
PAOB
ronunciation
Simple
and
10-24
vowels,
10-12.
"
Monophthongs,
"
13.
"
Diphthongs
"
dissyllables,
14-16.
rule,
Nasal
vowels,
15-16.
nants Conso"
(General
Proper
nouns
16-17;
words,
Special
23.
rules,
17-23).
and
foreign
oining
of
Words
24-5
II.
Common
Changes
....
26-7
III.
Article
and
Partitive
Sign.
story
or
27
efinite
Generic
Article
Article
27-8
ndefinite
28 29-30
artitive
Sign
IV.
Nouns.
istory
30-1
Formation
nouns,
lural
32-5
32.
"
Common
35.
Proper
nouns,
34.
"
Compound
nouns,
ender
Masculines, kindred
32.
"
35-8
Ferainines,
36.
"
Formal
relation
between
masculines
and
feminines,
38.
V.
Adjectives.
istory
38-9
Formation
'
lural
39
Feminine
40.
"
ormation
General
of the
rule,
40-2
changes,
Etymological
41-2.
40-1.
"
graphical Ortho-
changes,
-^Compound
adjectives, 42.
43-4
omparison
VI.
Numerals.
44 44-6
istoid
ardinals
CONTENTS.
XI
46 46-7
ther
istory
47-8
lassification
48 49-53
ersonal
List, 49.
"
Pronominal
60-1.
"
particles, Reflexive
60.
"
Position
of 62^.
tive conjunc53-4
54-5
pronouns,
expression,
ossessives
emonstratives
nterrogatives
elatives
ndefinite VIII.
Verbs.
60-2 63-4
64-79
istory
lassification
Verbs
egular
aimer,
"
finir, romprcy
Minor
66-7.
"
Phonetic
and
other
changes,
68-9.
"
irregularities, verbs,
"
69.
"
Principal
parts,
69-70. 70.
"
Impersonal
etre,
70.
"
Compound
active
verb-forms,
tenses,
"
"
avoir, Passive
71-3. 74.
" "
Compound
Reflexive
73-4.
tenses,
verbs,
76-7.
79.
"
Interrogative
forms,
78-9.
forms,
Negative
forms,
Negative
-interrogative
79.
rregular
(General
Verbs
classification 83.
and description,
79-104
79-83.
"
Alphabetical
reference-list,
IX.
Indeclinable
Words.
105
105-8
istory
dverbs
Lists,
106-7.
"
Comparison,
107.
"
Negation,
107-8.
repositions
108
109 109
Conjunctions
Interjections
ii
CONTENTS.
SYNTAX.
PAGB
X.
Intboductoby
110-11
XI.
Abticles
and
Pabtitivb
Sign.
Ill
istory
of the
Definite
nouns,
se
Definite
article
(or Generic)
"
Article
112-14;
before proper
111-18
[before common
Generic
nouns,
114-16].
Indefinite
article,
117-18.
se
of the
Article
119
se
of the
Dependent
sign,
Partitive
partitive
Sign
sign, 119-20.
"
119-22
Independent partitive
120-22.
epetition
of Articles
and
Partitive
Sign
123 123-5
mission
of Articles
XII.
Nouns. 125
istory
ouns
without
with
a
Preposition
125-7
ouns
With
Preposition
"
127-^4
a,
rfe, 128-30.
other
With
130-1.
"
With
dans.en,
131-2."
With 133-4.
prepositions,
133.
"
Repetition
of prepositions,
XIII.
Adjectives.
134
istory
of
greement
Adjectives
134-7
lace
of Attributive
Adjectives
137-40 141-3
omparison
XIV.
Numerals. 143
istory Uses
diomatical
143-4
CONTENTS.
Xm
XV.
Pronouns.
PIOS
istory
144-5 145
of
ersonals
Use
conjunctiTes
147-9.
"
and
and
disjunctiYes,
y, 149.
"
145-50.
and
etrcj
"
Dative
tion, rela151-2.
en
Ist
2d
persons,
"
"
3d
persons,
152-7
(i7 or
ce
with
154).
Position,
156-7.
ossessives
157-9
159-63
emonstratives
nterrogatives
163-5
165-8
Relatives
ndefinites
168-73
XVI.
Verbs.
174
istory
greement
of Verb
and
Subject
Compound
and
"
174-8 178-85
ndicative
Simple
and
present, compound 17B-80.
"
present,
180. 181-3.
"
Simple
"
imperfect
future,
"
preterit,
Simple
conditional,
and
compound
183.
Simple
and
uses,
compound 184-5.
184-5.
Certain
idiomatic
Subjunctive
History
f
186-201
"
319.
Subjunctive
186-7; of
Tabular words
in
subordinate
statement,
clauses 188;
[General
193-5. of
principles,
Alphabetical
"
reference-lists
Infinitive for
use,
followed
195-6.
by
"
subjunctive,
Special
cases
subjunctive,
196-8.
"
subjunctive
Use
of tense,
19S-9].
"
Subjunctive
in independent
clauses,
200-1.
Infinitive
History
^
201-10
2Xil.
"
"
Inf.
without
a,
preposition, 206-7.
"
202-4.
alone
or
"
Inf. with
"
with
de, 204-6.
a,
Inf.
de
or
207-9.
"
other
prepositions,
209-10.
Inf. after
nouns
and
adjectives, 210.
210-15
"
Participles
JI""fary, 211.
Present participle, 211-12
(with
"n,
212)."
Fast
participle,
212-15.
IV
CONTENTS.
XVIL
Indeglinables.
PAGB
Negations
History
f
216-25
216.
"
non
pas,
ne
pas,
216-17.
"
ne
pas,
217-18.
"
ne
alone, 223-6
218-20.
"
expletiye,
220-3."
Other
negations,
(nt,225).
226-30
"
Other
Indeclinables
226-8.
Adverbs,
Conjunctions,
228-^.
XVIII.
Arrangement
op
the
Sentence.
History
230
Direct
Arrangement Arrangement
231-2
Inverted
232-5
XIX.
Punctuation
and
Capitals
.
.
235-6
XX.
French
Verse.
236-8 238-42
Greneral
Character
Details
Number 239-40. of
"
syllables
cesura,
238.
and
"
Hiatus,
239.
"
Rhyme,
Choice
of words
constructions,
240.
XXI.
Relation
op
Anglo-French
and
French
Words.
242-3
French
Words
Difference
in Form
Words
in
244-6
Difference
French
Meaning
between
Anglo-French
and 246
Words Words
to the
Anglo-French
lost
in French
249
250-72
Exercises
Syntax
Vocabulary
273-86
Index
287-93
PART
I.
RACTICAL
SURVEY
OF
FRENCH
GRAMMAR
(Calculated
for
Half
Term,
or
Less)
BRIEF
INTRODUCTORY
OF
SURVEY
French
Grammar
"i""c
FBONUNOIATIOir.
[For
fuller
to
information
the
student
is here,
as
elsewhere
in
this
Surrt^,
eferred
Part
II.]
The Frencli
1.
Alphabet.
letters
as
"
alphabet
contains
the
same
ritten
Some
the
English.
however,
of these
to
letters,
may
a
have
may
or
an
orthographical have
an
ign
attached
',
them.
d4;
grave
Thus,
'',
vowel
in
;
Accent
^,
(acute
in
to
as
in
as
d^s;
or
circumflex
mdt)
the
a,
to
denote
sound
or
origin
a
the
Disdresis
vowel.
(",
c
as
in
natf)
denote
separation
from
preceding
denote
And
may
ave
Cedilla
o,
u.
( ^,
as
in
^)
to
that
it sounds
like
efore
Note.
'
"
Name the
the
letters
as
usually
pronounced Particulars
(5, 10),
in Part
adding 3.
mute
to
consonants
II,
"
2.
Syllabication.
a
"
general should
principle begin,
of syllabication
s that
non-initial
syllable
in [i.e.
if possible,
or
with
a
one
onsonant-sound
writing,
one
consonant
consonant-di
(ch,ph^
a
th^ nasal
; gn)'\
one
with
two
only
a
if the
"
last
Ex.
liquid
(r, t) preceded
4-pe'/4^
by
that
is not
;
liquid.
e-ra^ par-U^
af-fec-U, symp-td-me
a-che-ter^
go"'gni;
FIRST
PART.
[2-5
Note.
the
"
In
writing,
vowel
however,
(not
^
being
simple
consonant)
silent
goes
ith
preceding
ut
of account
h is left
3.
Accent-stress.
is given
to
"
French
slight
of
a
cen (ac
word,
stress.
the
last
sonorons
vowel
are
hile Ex.
By
a
preceding
sonorous
vowels
uttered
with
parlA,
sonortms
salade^*
vowel
is
probability.
meant
any
vowel,
except
*mute'
(which,
ever, how-
counts
as
syllable).
"
4- Vowels.
quantity
slight,
The may
pronunciation be long
or
is given
below.
heir
short.
; and
distinction, direct in
oral
however,
tion instruccase.
s often
can
and
the
never
even
uncertain
the the Simple
' '
only
teach
vowels
beginner
have
right
*
quantity
of
every
long
rench
vanish
English
vowels.
5.
Vowels.
'
(a) :
midway
"
1.
as
in
English
^father'
father and
(not
^at.'
"
quite
Ex.
so
deep)
6as,
"
2.
between
ma,
(1)
grdce;
(2)
1.
salade.
a
Closing
of
e
syllable
^err'
has
sound
approaching
a narrower
that
in
of
(being
:
=
uttered
rapidly,
at
with
of
the
lips
(3^erm.
6)
the
end
monosyllab-
usually,
or
within
so,
polysyllabics
(e.g.Ze, me-na'\).
as
no
It
is silent, final
arises
a
8
practically it may be
in polysyllabics,
medially when
final
or
before
sound
; and
silent
harsh
2. Not
dme, (e.g.
dmes,
ma-Za-de;
de-ve-nir).
like
e
"
closing
Fr.
syllable,
it usually
sounds
'they
^
in Fr.
'
ere
"
'
(i.e.
=
^)
sometimes
bel'le ;
:
like
in
(i.e.
=
^).
Ex.
(=
^) fer,
(= ^
like
"
nez,
parlev,
in
'
almost
mute
:
they,'
;
but
usually
short,
bU,
except
before
(long) donnie
here
here
(short) donnS,
type
to
are
Letters
printed used
in
Roman
mute
(as
described
later),
t Hyphens
simply
divide
syllables.
6.]
1. long
'
PRONUNCIATION.
IH
, d
'
as
in
'
ere
'
(or ei
in
heir
');
or
2. short
as
in
let
"
(1) p^re,
as
fite ;
"
(t), /:
hydre
;
i in
police/
in
short:
"
G^^S)
in
^^"' ^^"'
(short) nt,
as
'
inutilQ.
(d) :
"
close
no/
;
or
more
open,
sotte,
approaching
'
not
(close)rose,
to
pdle
(open)
folle.
(A) :
produce
to utter
the
w
sound
as
of this vowel
*
(which
and then
is
Germ, instead,
or
u)
prepare pronounce
"
in Engl.
moving
rue/
the
try,
to
Fr.
i without
"
lips.
It is long
short
G^^S)
'""^^'i^^^/
(short) du,
mdt,
butte.
ExEBGiSE
;
I.
a,
"
a:
(1) car,
dmes,
fable,
assez,
"
table,
e:
bas,
grdce,
me,
dne,
me
(2)
ma,
ta, papa,
salade,
(1) le,
ve-nir,
re-bis,
des,
re-ce-vra;
dme,
base,
mMade,
re-le-va-,
promets
"
(2 :
fer,
parlez,
;
ver-re,
despote,
(= ^) nez,
donn4e,
"
sez,
parlei,
; ef-ficace
G^^S)
cr44,
arUe
(short)
m^re,
"
donn4,
parU,
d4,
bU,
4t4, r6v4r4,
;
h,
Gong)
p^re, ni^ce.
J^te, bite,
/
itre,
fe-nitre, p^se
dise,
o,
(shorter)br^ve,
hydre
rose,
iddle,
(t),/: G^^S)
inutile,
rddev,
vue,
^^^^ amie,
"
tie, abim^,
arrive.
d:
(as
in
'no')
uppose,
"
ddme,
(more open)
ruse,
sotte,
ob4ir,
procMe,
olle.
milr,fliUe, deluge-,
(short
u,
tu,
buite,
futur, firule,
minute.
6.
Monophthongs like
;
(combined
d;
vowels
uttered
as
one).
4:
"
(at), (eX): ei
baise,
eau
:
but
final
;
"
ai
of
verbs
parlai.
;
like
Qong)
maitre
(short) reine
o:
"
(= ^
u,
like
:
'
Fr.
(more open)
or
Paul. almost
(eH), (BU
like
e
1.
err
closer
*
in
'err';
2.
open,
in
"
(close
and
long)
; longer,
crev^e,
veux,
coeur
vosux
"
(open
and
:
short), seul,
like
oo
veule
leur,
or
(c
"
k).
{pa, oh)
roue
in
'fool,' but
oh.
long
short
(long) goUt
(shorter) doute,
FIRST
PART.
[6-0
Exercise
;
II.
"
a/, ei
(=
eau
long) 6ai"e,
raie^
maXtrey
?iaUre,
rasseie
(=
ai,
short) aime,
"
aimer,
:
peinei beau^
:
(like ^
parlai.
au,
(close)pause^
I'estaure,
"
pauvre^
eu, oeu
eaucoui^,
fuseau;
deux,
veux,
(open)
neutre,
Paul,
voeux,
(close
reusQ,
boeuis
(open)
seul,
jeune,
eur,
boeuf,
oil,
"
ou
(long) goUt,
foule,
7.
^oiLse,
roue,
bravoure-,
(short
u,
Zowp,
covieau,
route.
Diphthongs.
In
other
vowel-combinations
has
those
described
the
above,
each
to
lement
usually
its
own
though
first is apt
are
:
"
be
nly
:
slightly
nearly
roi,
pronounced.
wa-
chief
"
exceptions
like
in
'
waft
(1) poivre,
joie
"
(2 shorter
or
moi,
4- vowel
in most
q
(or vowel-combination)
cases
If preceded
by
q,
but
hard
as
silent g
'
graphic and
sign
k
=
to
denote
that
and
so.und
=
like
ga,
(in *go')
'
respectively
Jca, he;
(i.e.ua, g
: etc.)
"
gue
g4
in
get
; gua,
que
Ex.
fatigxxa,fatigii^,faJtigwe {fa-tlg) ;
Exercise
voiture,
pratiqw^a,
voir,
:
pratiqne. avoir;
III.
"
a/:
"
(1)
gua,
botte,
poivre,
etc.
(2) moi,
pra-
oit,
tournoi.
gue,
gn4,
fatigna, fatigue,
gut, langue,
iqna,
gue,
gnide,
pZogue,
6a^ue.
Other
oombinatioiis
cruel,
(firstvowel
b4at,
slightly
lieu,
dimmed)
diable.
pi^ce
lui, (= i?*-^s),
Dieu,
lia, riez,
8.
/betweenvowelsis
with
equivalent preceding
vowel.
as war
to French
t-y, of which
=
combines
as
its
=
Hence
in
pa/ev
pS"-/er pa/s
(ai
^),
'
=
ro/al
roi-yal
(oi
'wag').
But
country
pai-i,
9.
Nasal
in the
Vowels.
same as
a
"
single by
'
vowel
one
'
or
monophthong
fol low
syllable in Engl.
nasal
is
(n,m)
is nasalized
(very
nearly
thank
nasalized
by
n) ,
n,
losing
entirely
their
independent
utterance.
d,
10.]
The
French their sound
am
PRONtJNCIATION.
nasal
vowels
have
no
exact
one
English
equivalents.
by
the
;
Denoting
nasality
may
=
(which
represented
in
is
with
them)
as
sign
r*, their
be
3
in French
an,
follows
ambre.
an^
(a as
'far'). Ex.
"on,
ruban,
mouton,
on^
om
=0
(closeo).
^^
,
.
ombre.
ain,
ein^
eun
aim
|
)
^^
^ ^.
^^
j
i
main,
poyXain, peindre^
faim.
Reims.
aim
frein^
jeHii.
(eu 2).
nasalization,
they
are
"
But,
besides
i/,
this
(except chiefly
of
eu
a
in final
(y),and
unless
the
a,
finals
and
monophthong
-ien (6)
Hence
eceive
e/f
in.
,
the
em
im
value
=
of French
3.
'*'
a/,
respectively.
en,
Ex.
tt
empereur.
r
'
ai.
"
vm,
nymphe.
yn,
un,
ym
um
)
=
e".
"
ten,
hwmWe.
Exercise
IV.
"
"
/:
nasal
payer^
essayei,
:
noyer^
foyev^
guand,
empereur, simple,
sainie,
royal,
ap-
uyeTj
envoyev.
vowels
pente,
cousin,
moins; ;
un,
auj
volcan,
6anguet,
orient,
"mpe,
amph
en,
-vent,
enfant, iemps,
pincei,
vain,
atiencQ)
bien,
tien;
vin,
timbre,
essaim,
nymphe,
craindre;
oint
(=pO'in), Joint,
lion, ombre,
"
n,
tomber
lundi,
tribun,
empruntei,
humble,
ve-nu,
parfum,jeiln;
u-ne,
(but without
ho-norer,
d-ne, nasalization)
ann4e,
nnemi,
cousi-ne,
vai-ne,
bonne,
homme,
etc.
10.
Consonants.
as
"
The
French
in the
consonants
are
usually
:
"
ronounced
in English,
except
following
cases
a.
Initial
or
Medial.
sounds
sounds
like
s :
"^,
sh
as
or
fa(pn.
h
are
like
words cher,
(as
also
before
in
r,
I, and
usually
in
with
such
a
foreign
English
pronounced
chaos.
sound):
vocAe;
(=A;)
Christ,
VI
FIRST
PART.
[10
(before e,
"
i, y
-i
""
"
sounds
like
in
'
azure
i-
"
i.
j (always)
)
silent.
But
is made enounced
hofeit,
h is virtually
for
grammatical
h
^
reasons
'
(12,note
and
h
^
etc.)a
'
distinction
between
mute
rated aspi-
(once
"
slightly
in foreign,
chiefly
Grermanic,
harpe.
words):
sounds
as
('mute')
in
and
:
'
heure;
('asp.')^ros,
vowel-sounds
so,' a
except
few other
;
between
(and
in
trans
as
combinations), where
base,
'
it sounds
son,
astre
as
rose, (= 2;)
transitif.
-gn-
nearly and
ny
in
'
canyon
a
gagna
(nearly
like
y
ga^'ya
'boy'
preceded
by
vowel,
sounds
in
(= bi-ta'/),ie/I (= vi-^'y), v
after
a
like I'y; but sounds usually -///-, medial, like y: brillei (= brt-y^)^ travai/fei (=
Note.
"
vowel
simply
trd-vd-/^.
in
*
'
/,
-II- may
though
also
be
sounded by
like
Uli
million
common.
but
this
ronunciation,
preferred
good
s*
authorities,
is less
sounds
4ions,
like and
[except
after
(or x), in
4i4,
: (often) 4ien']
e.g.
(= s*)naiion
moUi^,
7105*0,
partial,
propMtie,
factieux
(= **)question,
partions
(verb-form).
b, Final. silent.
Final
consonants
are
usually in
-er,
Only
are
c,
f, /, y, and
most
"
(except
in
polysyllables
Nasals,
ses
for
-ier)
a
the
part Ex.
ounded.
aimer,
"
of
"
course,
nasalize
preceding
cinq,
vowel.
on.
hat,
sec
(c
Note.
Even
by
a
I is often
sounds
silent like y
baril,
outii,
:
-i
receded
vowel
(travail
trd-v"^y
Exercise vaxihe,
V.
"
c:
9a,
re(pi,
"
gar(pn.
"
ch
chat,
chaleur,
her,
cochon,
chuchotev,
g^J'
to
g^l^^
gilet, gypse,
germe^
ouge,
orageux,
mangea
(e
only
soften
g)^
g
as
George
in
jardinQ,
gant,
(but
'go')
0,
11.]
PRONUNCIATION.
VU
ointev^
grandj Jiasard,
raison^
etc.
"
A:
ha6it,
"
hewre,
s:
sa,
homme,
son,
hewrewx;
estime-y
A^ros,
rosey
arpG^
Jiaut,
halte,
(=")
ower,
d^shonorer^
r4gna,
y
transaction.
"
gn
gagna^
gagnevy
agne^
agneau^ seigneur
r^gner,
rdgne^
%Wjp,
ignorant^
cygnSy
bai-
nevy
rognon. sillony
//,
-///-;
b4tail, vieil;
travaUleury
riUey
Jilleygentilley
=
travailleTy
(g
imply
hard
ouiUe,
cueillir
etc.
"
conseiller, vieilliry feuilleyfeuillage gi-yo-tin), ke : ke-yir) (but ill in Engl.) iUvstre, (cue ;
llumineTy
ft:
nationy
sectiony
patienty
inertiey
partiaJy d^mocratie
^gyptieuy
;
lSnipotentiairey
propMtiey
mixtiony
minutiey
(= "
hr^tieriy questiouy
vingty
moUi4.
sec,
avecy
"
Finals:
chocy
y
plomhy
piedy
t7,
irop,
eSy draps,
vends
chefy vify
foly
nvly
atal;
travail
ccueil
(= trd-va'y)yconseily vieil seuily oeU (= eu'y) (= Orkeu^y);/er, meryfiery hier, lewty honvieury hauteur;
mmer,
arlevy
entievy
to
premicT,
of pronunciation
given
above
Exceptions
occur
the
rules
will
be
noticed
as
hey
hereafter.
11.
Linking
words
of
Words.
combined
a
"
In
connected in
reading
or
are
cour dis-
closely in such
even
construction
of
apt
be
joined
word,
way
that
the
end-consonant silent,
the
cedi prewith
when
of the
'
otherwise
next
is pronounced with
a
he
initial syllable
word, Final
s
if beginning
c,
vowelas
ound
(vowel
;
or
h
=
mute
'),
=
d, g,
"
(x) then
:
sound
ollows
k, d
f, g
k,
(x)
=s
z.
Ex.
les amis
les hommes
nous
avons
vous
avez
(l^-z"ami)
'
(l^'Z^omm)
' *
(nou-z^avo)
'
(voU'Z^avi)
^
the
friends
komme
the
'
men
we
have
'
you
mon
have
ami
'
grand
rang
4lev4
six
het^res
(grU-t^omm)
'great
man'
(rdl'k'^4lev^ (si-z^eur)
*
(mZ-n^ami)
'my
friend'
high
'
rank
six hours
'
rtn
wmsn^
part.
[12-14
AETIOLES
AHD
PAETITIVE
SIGN.
12.
The
masc.
"
Definitet
or
Article hs
vowel
is:
singular
*
masc.
/a, fern,
fa;
lural Note.
fern,
a
(pronounce Z^):
or
the.'
la
Before
out
'
mute/
final
le and
both, /'.
"
by
('striking
')
of
their
Vdme
vowel,
become rhomme
ami
(m.)
^the
friend,'
(f.) ^the
soul,'
n.'
13.
French,
nouns
unlike
used
in
etc.,
English,
an
requires
or
the
definite
sense
article
efore
absolute be
generic
(so
then
'the
that
may
understood).
le
'
It
mean
'
may
be
alled
'
Generic
Article.
les
Thus
hommes
fer
may
iron'
iron
(generally);
the
men
or
'
'
men
(gener
aUy).
14.
:
'
The
an, a.'
Indefinite
Article
is:
sing.
masc.
1//1,
fem.
ne
Note.
"
French
has
no
neuter
gender.
Exercise
To
are
(a, 6).
gender, masculine and
^H^"
facilitate
in the
the
recollection
to
of
feminine
in opposite
uns
vocahularies
the
following
exercises
arranged
columns.
Of
French
-eur,
nouns
not
-son
implying
are
natural fem.
distinction
there
are
of
sex,
those
in
-e,
^,
-ti", 'Xf
Masc.
'
-ion,
usually
; but
many
exceptions.
Fem.
e p^re
the
=
father
'
'
.
. .
Za m^e
.
'
the
'
mother daughter,
'
ejils (Is
8s)
friend
the
'
son
^
.
lajille'
la
soeur
the
'
'
girl
frh'e
ami
'
the
a
brother
'
.
the
'
sister
'
une
une
amie
friend
'
homme
(h mute)
'
man,'
femme
wife'
(pr.fa-m)
'
woman,
4-17.]
ARtlCLfiS
AND
PARTiTIVE
SIGN.
iX
Masc.
Fem.
e roi
Hhe
'
king'
the
'
lareine la maison
'
'the
'
queen'
house
e palais
palace
the
fai (forje
et
1/
ai
'
have
'),
'
I have
'
'
(pr. 4;
p^re
et
and
t never
linked)
2. Les
'
and
et
a.
"
1.
Le* ramie;
la
m^re,
p^ea
/es
4.
m^rea.
Lami;
et et
une
l*homme;
5.
les^amis;
uiCami;
et
une
les^amies,
J^ai
un
r^re
soeur.
J^ai
un
fai
une
amie,
6. J^ai
JUs
une
JUle; fai
palais
maison,
7.
Le
roi
et
reine, b,
"
1.
The
3. The
brother
friend
and
the
the
sister. friend
2.
The
4.
s
man
and
the
man.
(m.) ;
nounSj
(/).
add
The
in
brothers
the
nd
the I have
sisters
a
(French
de
'
like English,
a
plural)
palace
; I have
house.
d
'
of
(from).'
"
to
(in).'
de 'of,' and la
or
16.
Contraction.
with viz.
:
"
The le
or
prepositions
les
d 'to,'
one
lend
following
(never
'
with
V)
into
orm,
Ex.
du des
p^e p^es
of the
father.'
'
(m^es)
'
of the
fathers
(mothers).'
au
p^e
to
the
father.'
'to
auxp^es
(m^es)
Vami
'
the
fathers
(mothers).'
But
:
de
la m^re
'
of the
mother,' h
'
de
of the
fhend.'
1 6.
De
before
'
vowel have
or
mute
is (f
"
Ex.
d'wn.
17.
French
nouns
no
different
the
case-forms,
not
even
ossessive,
*
like
English.
Hence
English
possessive
by
on
must
Items
to
in heavy
type
to
be
carefiillj The
noted
stress
and
explained
the
student,
ot
a
be
emphasized
in reading.
is usually
the
last word
clause.
FIRST
PART.
[18
n Frencli
be
expressed
like
"
all other
Ex.
oblique
de
relations,
"
by
the
id
of
'of
preposition the
(i/e).
la
the
du
(=
*the
le)p^re
mother's'
'
the
father^s
'of
(or
father'), de
du
sel 'of
m^re
(or
the
mother
');
salt,' de9
pommes
of the De
apples.'
Ze, la,
18-
Independent
not
Partitive
'of the,' but
Sign.
is used word
or
"
with
nouns
le
eans
only
also
before
the
independent idea
of any
to denote
not
partitive
Thus
some
in
English.
or
'
du
'of the
bread'
;
(some)
'
bread,'
of
it is used
de
la farine
the
flour,'
'(some)
sons,'
^(any)
'
flour';
sel
'
dee
'
fits
;
'of
the
sons,'
(some)
apples.'
In
(any)
sons
; du
salt
dee
pommes
(f .
its independent
partitive
use,
du
is (etc.)
usually
called
the
artitive
Article,
Exercise
Maso.
VI
(a, 6).
Fem.
'
hU
'
(the) wheat,
'
'
grain
to
....
farine
'
(the) flour
'
lepain
le beurre
la soupe
'
la viande
'
?e toiY
'(the)milk'
the heart
' '
Tcaw
'
(the) water
'the the
'
le papier
cceur
la plume
pen'
'
le
Vdme
Za
'
soul
Ze foiY 'the
mon
son VGus
roof
ma,
sa
/en^^re
; pi.,
the
f
.,
'
window
m"s
'
(f
.
or,
or, as
before
above,
have
'
vowel-sound,
m^n)
ses
'
m.
my
(f
.
son)
;
avez-vous
; pi.
his, her,
its
?
'
avez
'you
f
'
'
have
you
il est
(pronounce ^)
'
'
he
(it)is
je parle
je
que
Note.
I speak
'
'
donne
I give
'
(ace.)'
"
'
whom,
and
a
which
must
De
be
expressed
before
every
noun
they
tively respec-
govem.
8-20.]
1.
Vdme Le
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
XI
a.
"
coeur
du
p^e
(but
2. Le
4.
de
hU
Pliomme)
de
mon
le
cceur
de
Le
la
h'e;
des
hommes, maison.
vous avez.
p^e.
pain,
3.
toit
t lea
fenfires de la
pommes que
Je
5.
parte
du
de
la
la
viande
des
"/'ai
du pain,
'
de
viande
es
pommes.
6.
Avez-voiis 7.
et
du
(*some
or
'
any
')pain
et
au
Avezsoeursf
a
us
de
la
avez
viande?
Avez-vous
des
9.
aujt
frh'es
Je
parte
des
p^re,
Vous
et a
de
Peau
du
pain.
la
eur
PJiomme.
a
10. Je parte
de
soeur. mon
liommes.
11. Je
donne
donne papier
de
viande
Pami
d
m^
fr^re.
13.
12.
Je
du
son
et
es
h,
plumes 1.
Je parte
man's
d^un
ami
{de
ami).
of
man,
are
"
The
son's
heart
; the
man
heart,
the
heart
n's
heart,
in 4.
the
heart
of the 2. of I
dentical
French),
I
The
the
girl's butter,
of my
3. The soup
roofs
of
*the
ouses.
speak
5.
(cf. note
apples. you
above)
6. You
nd
the
water.
speak
brother's
7. Have
ave
?
bread,
soup,
and
salt
apples
and
(18).
to
to
paper
and
ens
8. I give the
bread and
the
girl's father.
9. I give
eat
to
girl's mother,
the
men.
19.
Deis
When
pain
'
used
its
alone
noun
as
independent
by
partitive
an
sign
a.
is preceded
adjective.
"
Ex.
J'ai
bon
I have
noun
(some)
is the
good
bread.'
accusative
'
b.
When
its
unmodified
pas
object
not
of
egative
'
verb.
; but
"
Ex.
n'est
Je
n'ai
de
'
pain
I have
any
(no
read
Cela
pas
du pain
This
is not
bread,'
20.
Dependent
preposition
a
Partitive
'
Sign." by
a
Z?a also
preceding
represents
the
nglish
as
'
of
required
^a (e.g.
word
part
of something
or
piece^of
as
bread').
in English.
to
sed
alone
with
the
article French^
precisely
contrary
s to
be
observed
partitive
that
English
requi
this
preposition
plus
also
wx"ins
after
adverbs
of
"
quantity
Ex.
(beaucaup
'much/
'more/
'less/ etc.).
Un
lt
FIEST
tARt.
r^O
'
orceau
avez
de pain
'
'
piece
of the
of
bread you
un
morceau
'
du
beaticoup
pain
que
0U8
piece
'
bread
'
have
de
pain
much
bread
plus
de pain
more
bread.'
Exercise
Masc.
*
VIT
(a, b),
Fbm.
e Zm'e
morceau
^
the
^
book
the
'
to carfc
'
the
the
'
map
piece,
morsel
....
to pi^ce bonne
noire
^
'
piece
'
on
'
good
good
ir
'black'
beaucoup
'black'
(de)
'
'
'
much,
'
many
peu
trop
assez
(de)
little, few
too
'
adverbs
too
'
of
(de)
'
'
much,
many
quantity
(de)
pas
enough
'
je
'
*
n^ai
.
I have
'
not
['not
of the
'
ne
(bef.vowel verb]
qualify.
or
mute
"
/i')
.
pas^
are
on
either
side
before
personal
noun
Note.
Adjectives
du
expresBed et
every
they
a.
"
1. J^ai
viande.
pain
de la viande.
du
pain noir
2.
J^ai
de
bon
pain
et
bonne
3.
as
J'ai
(adjectivesfrequently
X,
note
ollow
their
nouns,
explained
Exc.
2).
6. Je
bons
4.
Je
n'ai
as
de pain.
5. Avez-vous
et
de bonnes
soeurs;
plumes
parle
eau
parle
et
des
ons
fr^res
soeurs.
des
bonnes
je
de
d
frh^es
soeur
de
bon
onnes
7. Je
n^ai
donne
pas
de
bonne
la
du
pas
xymme.
8. Je
de
viande.
votis
9.
pas
Vous
n^avez
de
ivres.
10. beaucoup
J'ai
de
de
Peau;
et
n'avez
d'eau.
J'ai
peu trop
11.
Vms
vez
pain
de
viande.
12.
de
livres.
3.
Je
n'ai
pa^
ct to
assez
sosur.
de
pluToes.
14
Je
donne
de
pain
et
e viande
b.
"
1. You soup
have
bread repeated
and
soup.
2. You
have
3. I
you
good give
any
-^
bread
some
nd
('good'
before
to
'soup').
4.
lack
?
bread
(cf
.
above)
not
my
son.
Have
no
good
same
ens
5. I have
any
some
pens
(or I
have
pens
some
the
French),
6. I have
good
bread
and
water.
7. I
0-23.]
bread
man,
1
NOUNS.
XHI
ive
much
and
many 8. Have
apples
you
to
too
the many
good
man
(or I
?
give
he
good
2
etc.).
books
9. I have
ot
books
enough.
10.
I have
little paper
and
few
pens.
UOUKS.
21.
Plural.
s (silent)
:
"
"
French
nouns
usually
form.
"
form
Ex.
their
plural
by
dding
to the
singular
le p^e,
xceptions
[22.]
Ex.
Nouns
ending
in
s,
x,
or
are
unchanged
le
nez:
in the
les
nez.
plural.
leprix:
lesprix;
[23.]
and
in
of
to
-au,
-eu,
and
few
in
as
"
-ou,
add
jr,
instead
of
those
au
in
hat
ending
and
-cd then
(as well
add
;
jr.
many
in
Ex.
chapeau
hapeaux;
'
feu
*fire,' pi.
coraux.
feux
chived
'horse/
pi.
orail
coral/
pi.
Exercise
Masc.
cov^in
VIII
(a, ").
Fem.
(pi. -8)
'
'
the
'
cousin
^
.
la cousine la chienne
e chien
'
the the
'
cousin bitch
'
'
la
. .
Jille (pi.
girl'
'the
daughter,
nez
(pi.
"
'the
'
'
nose
'
la voix la peau
'
(pi.
"
'the
'
'
voice
the niece skin
'
e chapeau
neveu
cheval
horse
'
the hat (pi. -a) 'the (pi. nephew -oj) (pi. chevaux) 'the
la ni^ce
'
la
jument
(pi. -s)
'
the
'
mare
e g^iral
'
'the
une
general
corail
armie
(pi. -s)
'
'
'
an
army
'the
',,,.,,,,
coral
to
rner
(pi. -s)
the
'
sea
IV
FIRST
PART.
[23-25
he ?
'
il
(eUe) a
n'a
'he
'
(she) has
has have
' '
'
; a-i-U
'has
i7 Us Us
pas
'
he
not
'
ont
they
pas
'
rCont
'
they
have
m.,
'
not
* '
mais
but
enfanty
et des
child
des
a.
"
1.
a
des
fr^res
de
soeurs^
(xmsins
et des
cousines.
heaucoup 4.
des
ffls^ mais
n^ont
il n'apas
pas
defiles.
chapeaux.
3.
Beaucoup
Les
vo'ix.
Mes
chiens
a
cousins
et
de
5.
g^rdmer.
aux
ont
des
chevaux.
6.
Les
coraux
de
la
7. Mon
b,
ghiiral
1. Have the
heav/covp brothers
to
de
neveux.
A-t-U
? 2.
des
er^ants f
he any
sons
"
you
and
sisters
4.
Has few
I give
hats
5.
my
sister. the
7.
He
to
has
my
nephews,
6.
sea.
but
any
nieces.
I give
corals
The
sister.
of
The 8.
general
have
has
good
many
horses.
voices
the
The
eneral
palaces.
Additional
Rules in
of
for
the
Plural.
[24.]
doorway,'
few
nouns
etc.),and
about
half
-al those
s
(bal 'hall/
in
camaval
'carnival,'
portail
-a/7
(dMail
'detail,'
simply etc.),
add
in the
plural.
[25,^
(at
m.,
m., a-i),
'
'ancestor,'
is in pi. aYeux
sky,
heaven,'
'
is in pi. cieux
is in pi. yeux
in
some
*
(pr. eu^y),m.,
three regular
eye,'
(pr.'ew)
and
less
common
*
Note.
"
These
a
words
plural
have
also,
special
ignifications, in
form
(aXtuU
grandparents/
dels
artificial
skies/ mis
some
compounds).
Exercise
Masc.
IX
(a, 6).
Fem.
le
bijou (pi.
-x)
'the
jewel
'
laperle
'the
'the
pearl
cow'
le
'the
ox'
la vache
5,
26.]
ADJECTIVES.
XV
Masc.
Fem.
e mouton
animal village
'the
'
sheep
(genericterm),
'
'
la brebis
une
'the
'
ewe,
'
sheep
(pi.animaux)
(U
as
an
animal
*
bUe
viUe
beast
as
in
Engl.) 'the
'French' Frenchman
village
la
(S
city'
in
Engl.)
'the
"
ranfais (pi.
'
(adj.)
'
,
/ranfaise 'French'
la Frangaise
'
'
(adj.
French
e Franqaia
the
the
woman
ily
there he
is
'
or
'
there
'
are
'
; y
'
a-t-U
'
is
(are)
there
'
il est
'
'
sont,
they
are
utile
dans
'
useful
jeune
'
'
'
young
'
in
'
; souvent
often
article
Note.
"
The
partitive
after
de.
a.
"
1.
sont
II y
des
bals
et des
avez
dan^
de
coravM^
la ville.
mais
2.
Le^t
etails
bons.
3.
Voua
4.
Le
beaucoup
sont
bijoux
et deperles.
del
sont
noir;
les deux
noirs.
noirs.
. Les
yeux
des
Frangaises 7.
souvent
6.
et
Mon brebis
aievl;
sont
es ateux
animaux
des'Frangais.
utiles.
Le
boeuf, la
de
vache
la
es
8.
parle
{des omitted)
of
are
brebis.
b.
"
1.
speak
to
of
balls;
speak
There
the many
balls.
2.
give
me
jewels
city. of the
4.
my
sister.
3.
; my
Frenchmen
; the
ancestors
in
he
My
ancestors
cousin's
eyes
ancestors
are
French.
; the
5. My
skies
my
; to
nephew's
the
dark There
(= black).
is
a
. The
sky
heavens. 8. Are
7.
jewel
sea?
thereare
jewels) in
house.
there
corals
in the
ADJEOTIVES. 26.
Feminine.
feminine Ex.
'
"
All
form,
adjectives not
made by
adding f. grands;
'
terminating
e
in
-6
have
special
"
to
the
masculine
f.
orm.
grand f
.
'great,'
joli 'pretty,'
f
.
jolie;
ut
sojge
wise,'
so/ge ;
Jeune
young,'
jeune.
XVI
FIRST
PABT.
[27-34
Thus
27.
In
adding
some
changes
may
occur.
"
".
"
Ex.
w/
lively/
the in
f. vive,
the
of
penultimate
letter
of
masculine
the
form form
e,
this
vowel-sound
to
is
feminine the
cruel
denoted
a
either /,
/i,
by
or
its change
t.
:
"
h^
or
(often)by
:
doubling
'cruel
'
of
final
Ex.
cJier 'dear'
cMre;
cr%ielle; net
'neat'
neiie.
[30.]
Final
1^ n^t
and
"
oi
a
adjectives
bon
in ei7,
(m^
oty
and
'
final thick,'
'
monosyllables,
also
few Ex.
polysyllables
'good
'
(as
:
4pai8
etc.
'
are
doubled.
bonne;
pareU
similar
pareil/e;
grros'big':
grosse.
[31.]
Beau
'beautiful,'
'old,'
are
nouveau
'new,'
fou
'foolish, nouve/,
are
e
mou
'soft,'
vieux
before
vowel-sound
6e/,
feminines
fo/
mo/,
vieil
made
and
by
their
doubling
invariably
the
latter
form
I before
(helle
nouvelle^t
fo/le, molle^
Final
Ex.
both vieille),
in singular
and
plural.
[32.]
s.
"
c,
g,
and
are
before
long
usually
written
qu^
u^
public:
publique;
'long':
longue;
jaloux:
jcUousG.
[33.]
Among
exceptions 'fresh, f.
to
the
above
rules
'white,'
may
be
noticed
here:
/rat"
f.
fratche;
'Grecian,'
f. douce;
blanc f.
roux
f. blanche;
sec
'dry,'
s^che;
doux
grec
grecgue;
'red,' f.
faux
rousse.
'false,'
fausse;
'sweet,'
34.
Plural.
"
Adjectives
feminine
finals
usually
forms
form
their
plural
(fo
nonns
the
masculine
and
respectively)
"
like
with
good,'
corresponding
pi. bons
nouveau,
(bonnes) ;
pi.
-jr,
(f. bonne
pi.
pi.
beaux
same.
{belles) \
fou, pi.
-s,
mou,
pi.
-#,
vieux,
4.]
ADJECTIVES.
XVII
Exercise
(a, b).
( beau
rfine'
*
grand
petit
(f
.
'
-e)
^
great,
tall small
'
'
(f beUe)
.
beautiful,
'
'
( vieux
( public
aged
'
public
'
\ heureux
agreer
(theureuse) 'happy
'
aimable
'
(f
.
"
'
lovely,
able
'active' actif(i, axstive)
c^er
secret
Grecian
'
'
f i*esli '
^ Wane
'
(f.blanche) 'white'
'
.
(ch^re)
'
dear
'
'
(secr^e)
secret
'
(f douce)
.
'
'
sweet
c?"weZ
mw"^
ancien
(f.crueUe) (f muette)
. .
cruel
'
?r^s 'very,'
awsst
'
'also,' boy
'
ou
'or
'
mute
'
Ze gargon
Ze voisiii
*
the
(f andenne)
'
ancient,
the
'
'
neighbor
'
old
bon
Note
le monde
'
the
world
'
(f bonne)
.
'
good
agree
or
Za laine
in
'
the
wool
with
"
1.
"
Adjectives
as
gender
and
number
the
Ex.
noun
they pere
ualify,
whether
mere
attributes peres
;
predicate
mere
complements.
bonne.
or
le bon
a bonne
Note
;
"
lea bans
An
common
ma
est
2.
adjective
usually when form, of
may
precede
follow
bon,
its
;
noun.
Only
me
fifteen
vieux,
mauvais
grand,
petit,
sense.
eune,
etc.)
in
their
ordinary
quality
thers
usually
follo^7
color,
denote
HiaHngi^iahing
to
(such
spoken
white
nationality,
from other
etc.), serving
the
same are
separate
rose
the
object
*
objects
always the
kind
past
(e.g.la
blanche
the
se
'),
and
when place
they
participles.
Often,
however,
uphony
decides
of
the
adjective.
a.
"
1. Le
grand 3.
Mon
gargon
et la grande est
file.
et
ma
2.
Je
est
parle
aussi
aux
jeunes files,
4.
frdre
de
ma
oMif
so"ur
tr^s
cti"e.
Les
a
files
la II
bonne
douce.
de
cousine
sont
tr^s cher
aimables,
et
ma
La
brebis
rri^re. ville de
laine
tr^s
6.
Mon
p^re
dans
Mre
7.
beaucoup
a
un
belles
chien
et
maisons
une
Vande
ienne
N.
et de
8.
II
beau
belle
est
brebis^ tr^s
eaux
chevaux aussi
belles
vaches.
9.
Ma
m^re
bonne
ou
t elle est
tr^s heureuse*
10,
Avez-vous
dji lait
frais,
VITI
FIRST
PART.
[34-36
fralche^
reaufrajche?
12.
est
11.
est
J*ai
et
de
Veau
est
et
fat
La
aussi
du
lai
frais.
ami
II
faux^
eUe
fmisse.
est
un
13.
homme
maison
du
de
on
blanche.
little
Uo
14.
Son
voisin
monde.
b.
"
1.
My
son
and
my
little good
4.
daughters. 3.
2.
An
give
ome
good
bread
a
my
sister's
woman.
daughter. My dear
man women
active
an
and
very'^active
is
mute.
men
friend's
and
a
pretty
ittle
sister
;
are
5.
beautiful
beautiful
beautiful
oman
beautiful
many
and
men
6 (^partitive).
women
here
good
and
7.
in
the
old
a
village
cruel fresh
and 12. Have
of N.
He
My
very has
to
cruel
a
father,
very
sweet
and
she
is (elle)
mother.
8.
niece
water
voice. 10.
9.
I give
man
milk
the
and happy
you
fresh
woman.
my
I
The
happy
11.
any
a
white
horses.
new
any
white
pearls
I have
tiful beau-
house.
36.
Comparison.
article
same
or
"
Plus
means
^more,'
^
or,
if preceded
'
by
the
definite
possessive
^
pronoun,
^
most
; and
'
moins
'
eans,
in the
grand
'
way,
great'
'
less
'
or
least.'
"
Ex.
grand
'the
great
plus
(^more
plus
=)
my
'greater,'
le plus
grand
est great-
mon
grand,
greatest.'
36.
Only
without
Pos.
three plus
form
their They
comparative
are
:
"
and
lative super-
Sup.
bon
'
'
'
good
meiUeur
pire
'worse,'
'
better,'
le meilleur
lepire
'
the
best
'
mauvais
'
'bad.': little
'
'the
'
worst'
petit
Note.
moindre
means
less,'
le moindre
comp. and
the
least
"
If petit
petit.
'small mauvais
'
(in size),its
be
superl.
are
plm
petity le plus
Even
may
regularly
compared.
36.]
ADJECTIVES.
XIX
Exercise
Masg.
XI
(a, ").
Fbm.
ar"re
tree
'
.......
^a^ewr
trunk
'
.
the
flower'
leaf'
e tronc
(c mute)
'
'the
'
lafeuiUe 'the
rawd^jjme
e c/^e
the
oak lily
'
.
'the hawthorn'
'the
'
e lis
(s heard) 'the
fir'
ivy
elm
'
la
...
rose
rose
e soptr^'the
'
Z'^jwnc
la vigne
'
the
'
thorn
'
e lierre
orme
the
'
the
'
'
vine
'
'
an
la France
'
France
'
e mMal
'
'
(the) metal
'
VAngleterre VAmMque
'
'
England
'
'
or
(the) gold
'
America
'
argent
the
silver,
'
money
VAllemagne
la Su^de
'
Grermany
'
'
fer
'
(the) iron
'
Sweden Seine
'so
e Bhin
the
que
Rhine
'as
'
'
la Seine
...
'the
.
.
.
'
ussi
.
{or so)
.
.
as'
'
; si
(aft. negat.)
'
que
...
as'
lus
que
more
than
h
'
(or, before
'
vowel
or
mute,'
or
es
(m.
ne
'
f
.
cette
'precious'
'
ls sont
'
are
;. ils
sont
pas
'
they
'
are
'
not
l demeure
Note
are
he
Most
dwells
names
or
lives
of
trees
;
or
en
in
(a country)
(some
in
-e
1.
"
shrubs
excepted)
are
and
etals
masc.
Most Before
always
names
names
of
countries
and
and
rivers
in the
-e
fem.
article
NoTB
2.
"
of countries
*
rivers after de
definite
s used,
except
after
en
in/
and
often
of, from.'
a,
"
1. Mon
fr^e
est
plus
rose
grand
est
que
ma
soeur.
2.
Le
chine
st
le plus
est
ma
bel arbre^
et
la
so"ur
la plus
belle
fleur,
que
mon
3.
Cette
Ule
plus
jeune
est
mon
elle est
ami.
plus
jeune
5. La
fr^re,
est
Cet
homme
meilleur
France
aussi
elle que
PAngleterre.
7. Vor
6. VAllemagne
et est
n^est
pas
si grande
que
AmMque, 8. La
est
Vargent
moms
sont
les
plus
pri-
eux.
Seine
longue
est
le
Rhin.
9. Mon
de
mon
heval
trks bon;
votre
chevdl
meilleur;
pas
le cheval
oisin
est
le
meilleur.
10.
Je
n^ai
le
moindre
souvenir
FIRST
PART.
[36, 37.
II
demeure
(remembrance)
de
b, France;
de
cet
Jiomme.
11.
en
France.
Du
in
le roi
rose
de
more
Sv^de.
beautiful
of
"
1.
The
the
is
than
the
3.
lily.
Iron
2. Charles
(Charles) is
is
youngest
my
brothers.
4.
(Le fer, as
man
generic)
more
useful
5.
as
than
man
gold.
is my
7.
This
young
is
my
earest
friend.
This
vine.
best
is
friend.
more
ivy
beautiful
the England
than
man's
ermany.
8.
is older
woman's
America.
is better.
11.
oice the
is good,
but
man
this in
My
cousin
best
in
(de)
12.
the
My
best
friend
(/.
ives
America. 13. He
I have
the
least
remembrance
of
brother.
is smaller
than
his
little sister.
imHEBALS. 37.
Below
the
to
are
given
to
cardinal
as
and
ordinal
numbers
20
(higher
Cardinals.
numbers
be
learned
they
occur).
Ordinals.
1
2
un
1st
premier second
deux
2d
(c
deuxi^me
g) or (x z)
=
3
4
trots
3d
4th
quatre
cinq
six
5
6
7
(q
k)
Finals
before
"
6th
usually
silent
(x
sepi
(x
z)
consonant-
8 9
hult
sounds.
vowels,
Before
/=
V,
and
z.
dixi^me
onzi^me
douzi^me
(x
z)
onze
douze
treize
(ei
long)
13th
treizi^me
quatorze
14th
quaiorzi^me
37-40.]
NUMEBALS.
XXI
Cardinals.
Ordinals.
15 16
17 18 19
quinze
seize
16th
quinzi^me
seizUme
(ei
long)
16th
17th
dix^ept dix-huU
18th
19th 20th
dix-neuf (diz-neuff)
-ymgt
etc.
20
(^ silent)
Inflection.
vingtUme
etc.
38.
Cardinals
feminine
up
to
wwe,
are
invariable,
'
except 80
'
that
is in the
quatre-vingts of
(literal
have
*four
twenty's,
fourscore'), and
s
multiples followed
deiix
cent
an
^100'
he
plural
"
sign
Ex.
'
when
cents
not
by
cent
added
numera
deiix
^200,' but
trois ^203,'
quatre-
vingt-neuf
Note Note
1.
2.
"
89.'
In dates,
and
a
cent
and
do
quatre-vingt
not
are
invariable. the
"
Cent
*
mille
require
indefinite
article
cent
{mille')ersonnes p 39Ordinals
Anomalous
hundred
(a thousand)
treated
persons.'
are
precisely In
like
adjectives.
before
names
40.
Usage.
are
"
dates
of
and
of
for
overeigns,
first"
cardinals
used
instead
also
"the
ordinals,
except
names
the
(and, optionally,
"
seeond"
^
before
of
sovereigns).
quatre
'
Ex.
Le
dnq
octohre
the
5th
October
'
enri
Henry
Fourth.'
Exercise
Masc.
XII
(a, 6).
Fem.
abitant
^inhabitant*
'
"
habitante
.
. .
,
'inhabitant'
'
e th^me
*
the
theme
\
.
la legon
lesson
'
'
e mot
an
the
(common)
' '
'
word
la parole
une
the
^
(notable) word
'
'
'b,
year
*
annee
a
an
year
hour
'
quart
quarter
une
heure
'
Xn
FIRST
PART.
[40
Masc.
^
Fem.
e soldat
*
the
'
soldier
'
une
'
'
arm4e
^
an
army
'
ctobre
cent
October
"
la date
the
date
100
'
mille
(or mi7
in, in the
^
in dates
^
after
1000
etc.,
'
'
a.d.)
without the
^
1000
'
quatre-vingts
en
'
80
'
:
'
in
81/
final
year
'
(also Van
^
year
avec
' '
')
'
pendant
un"
during
'
; par
per,
'
with
;
heure
an
hour
'
or
one
o'clock
soeur
(deux
heureSy
etc.)
2.
a.
"
1.
J'ai
chevaux.
a ce
un
fr^re,
3. II
a
une
et
trots
ans
cousins.
Vbu^
ez
cinq
quatre-vingts
ans.
*
=
He
a
is 80 years
trois la
ld
');
elle
quatre-vingt-deux
4.
Cette ville
5.
huit
mil
mille
abitants;
et
en
village
trois
cents
habitants.
J^ai
seconds
egon
le troisi^me mil
7. huit
th^me.
cent
6.
En
mil
;
en
ingt;
quatre-vingt
octobre
j
quatreout
ingt-huit.
le
Le
premier
('of
usually
Henri
left
in
French);
II y
deux
premier
('the'
'
omitted)
a
; Charles
cent
*a
trois
(quMre, etc.
anrdes.
mille
arm4e
les
un
(obs.French
premieres
hundred,
not
hundred').
heures, cinq
cow
9.
Pendant
et
0.
b.
II
est
trois
heures
quart.
"
1. He
has
one
and
man
two
oxen.
2.
years
My
mother
'
has
our
white
years
horses.
3.
woman
This
is
85
old
4.
(transl. has
are
'), and
first of
1888
this
is 80
years
old.
There
200
ords
in the
first lesson.
May
5. Charles
and
the
I ; Charles
II ; Henry
V.
7.
The
year
(mai)
sentence
second
of
October.
is
one
In
he
(cf
.
6, under
He is
t is eight
o'clock.
9.
rich
8.
It
o'clock dollars
fifty
(dollars) s.
year.
1-44.]
PEONOUNS,
ETC.
xxin
PEONOUNS
AND
PEONOMINAL
Pronouns.
are
ADJEOTIVES.
Personal
41.
The
pergonal
pronouns
either
conjunctive
b.
or
dis-
jnnotiye.
a.
Conjunctive
(or after) the
or
Disjunctive
the verb,
save :
[placed
directly
before
verb
as
unemphatic
["eparated f r.
at
subject
object]:
predic.
'
emphatio]
'
moi
*
I,
me
toi
thou, he,
'
thee
'
'
hi
elle
nous
'
him her
'
she,
'
'
we,
us
"Ous
'
you,
m.
you they,
'
*n
./ l/es,
Note
"
f.
'
they 1.
"
'
I
me,
'
^""
'
them,'
leur
'
to
them
'
eux
)
.
olles f ) them
te, le, la are
Je,
before
^
vowel-sounds
y', m%
i\
the
, /'.
Ex.
fai
"
I have,'
m*aime
he
loves
me.*
Note
2.
To
*
the
self
disjunctive pronoun
'
is often
appended
etc.
mphatic
mdme
e.g. moi-mSme
[ I myself,'
42.
Position
of
the
Conjunctive
whether
Pronouns.
construed
as
"
The
pronouns,
subject
:
indirect), precede
ye
vous
common
the
personal
it to
verb
you.'
as
e.g.
je
him,' In
two
le donne
cases
'I give
Exception,
"
they
it by
a
follow,
in
English,
:
"
the
verb
The
e.g.
(being
then
attached
to
hyphen),
in
you
viz.
[43.]
:
subject-pronoun (Je,
'
iw,
etc.)
9
'
interrogative it ?
'
lauses
ai-je
have
I,' Vavez-wous
te,
have in
[44.]
The
object-pronoun (mc,
"
etc.)
affirmative replaced
by
impera
clauses,
me,
te being
then,
however,
moi,
tXiV
^IRST
^AM.
[44-46
^
oi^ except
before
it to
*
en
(46).
"
Ex.
donnez-U
give
it/ donnez-fe^give
ui ^give
him/
give
me
aimez-moi
some.'
^love
me/
donnez-moi
me/
onnez-m^en
45.
Of
the
^
two
object-pronouns,
le (la,
that
of
lui
the
3d
"
person
Ex.
comes
earest
donne
verb,
I
les) preceding
him.'
which
the
(lew).
'
Je
vous
give
'
it to
I give
you.'
Donnez-le-moi
G-ive
it to
me.'
le lui donne
Note.
"
it to
of
Two
conjunctives
cannot
occur. me
"
first is
me
direct donne,
*
2d
person,
Hence
to
(not //
//
him
vous
vous
a
object but) //
you
Ist
me
onne
'
h
:
vous
He
vous
gives
you.'
envoie
you.'
lui
He
sends
to
im
but
//
I* envoie
He
sends
to
46.
Pronominal
'thereto'
of
are
PARTICLESi
ordinarily
eux, (elle,
"
En
with
y
'therefrom,
reference instead other
to
thereof things,
en
nd/
used
nstead
de
lui
and elles),
of
It lui
"
(eUe
Ex.
ux^
elles).
en
They
are
then
placed
to
after
of it.*
pronouns.
I lui
parle
'He
speaks
him
Exercise
Indicative
present
XIII
of
(a, 6).
*
aimer
love
nous vous
ing.
1.
faime
aimes
'
I love
'
'
(etc.,f n.) c
.
pi. 1.
2.
'
aimons
aimez
' '
we
love
love
love
to
2. tu
thou
lovest
'
'
you they
only
3. il aime
Note.
"
'
he
loves
3. ils aiment
The
present
French
present
(faime
love
etc.) corresponds
also
to
not
the
ndefinite
loving
in English the
(*1
'),but
the
progressive
("
'), and
aimez
emphatic
'
present
('I do
2d
love').
love
!'
'
(Imperative
donne
pi.)
etc.,
donner
'
'give
(Pres.je
'
like
/atme)
penser
think
'
(Pres.je
'
pense
etc.)
je
crois
'
I believe
il est d
it belongs
de
'
to
'
fai
void
besdn
'
I need
'
(lit. have
'
need
of
')
behold,
here
is, here
'
are
46,47.]
Note
1.
"
PBONOtTNS,
ETC.
XXV
Vous
'
*you is used
'
as
in
English,
refer
to
one
near
person
or
several
Tu
Note
thou
"
intimate
friends
and
relatives. pronoun
the
2. is to
The
place
only
the
or
render form
conjunctive
before
it,
or
personal
emphat
disjunctive
Je
Vaime,
mot
after
the
*
predicate
person
so.'
.g.
Mof,
j'e I'aime,
'/ love
used
:
him.'
For
3d
the
isjunctive
a.
"
form
alone
is sometimes
ijii le pense
He
thinks
1. Je of the
Paime
3d
(give in
:
each
^
instance
all
or
possible
^
ings render"Ous
persons
aime.
here
2.
him/
her/
il
it
'); je
3.
ime;
moi\Je
Pavez
d, dit
les
nous
//
me
le donne;
"Ous
le donne;
je
Kous
5.
nous
une
e lui donne;
le lui
donnons;
je
de
mo/,
le leur
donne.
said
').
4.
II parte
mot
(tot,lui^ etc.).
je
pense
ense
('of') mot
ct elles.
(tot^lui^ etc.);
6. Aimez-moi
une
eux;
ensons
aimez-le.
7.
Donnez-moi
8. 10.
lume;
donnez-lul donnez-la-moL
11.
plume; 9. Pensez du
en
sa
donnez-la-moi.
d moi
et d
Vbtis Ce
12.
du
avez
la
ose^
lui.
hesoin.
livre
est
elle.
des
Donnez-moi
nous
papier,
avons
j'en ai
hesoin.
Donnezheurre: le donne
fous
plumes,
13.
crois.
Void
15.
onnez-m'en. ;
14.
J'ai
parole,
etjy
him.
Je
oi-mhme
b.
"
je
le donne
me,
d lui-mime. and
I love
some
1.
He
us.
loves
3.
2.
4.
We
Here
love is
him,
a
and
:
loves
I give
him
it to of
pens.
; I give
hat
give
ive
it to
him
; I give
her
me
it to
them
; I
it
you.
and
5. They
of
; give
speak
7.
a
and
and
of
him. her
a
6. You
think
8.
of
me
im
her. him
Love
me,
love is him.
to
also.
give
Give
book
are
book. give
9. them
Here
to
book,
10.
it to
her
ere
the
books,
11.
Think
12.
of
I have
(a) me,
a
nd
of her.
This
horse
belongs 13.
him.
fine
ouse,
and
I speak 14.
of it.
They
have
and
they He
peak
a
of them.
Here
I
am
is the
thinking
paper,
15.
as
fine book,
and
(= think)
"
of it. reflexive
47.
The
Reflexive
like
*
Expression. myself,'
lit.
loue
*
English in
'
expre
praise
loue,
etc.,
are
me
French
^
rendered
'
ither
by
or
je
by
me
praise
(=
myself
me
unem-
phatic)
je
me
moi-m%me
'1
praise
myself
XVI
FIBST
PABT.
[47,4a
like
think
preceded
(*myself
etc.,
emphatic),
if
are
etc.
"
Expressions
the
^I
of
myself
by
also
in
French
reflexive
a
is
reposition,
rendered omitted,
only
by
je
pease
moi-mBme
the
person
(meme,
3d
ever, how-
being
It is to
often
especially that
for
with 3d
person), etc.
French
has
^
be
noted
the
pecial
reflexive,
viz., the
'
herself,
For
euXy soi,
himself,
oi.
personal
or
pronoun
reference
(/ui
lle,
elhs)
plural,
with
*
to
individual
person.
"
E.g. II
(die)se
se
loue
He
(she) praises
imself
(herself)'or
pense d
ne
(eUe)
one
loue
lui-mime
of
^
{elle-meme)
thinks
parler
Chacun
soi
Every
qu^d,
thinks
himself
He
(subjec
only
de
indefinite). II
'
songe
lui
(-mBme)
doit
of
imself
(subj.an
seldom
precedes
individual).
speak
other
On
rarement
soi
One
Note.
should
"
of himself
(one's self).'
:
Se
object-pronouns
it
se
rest promis
he
promised
it to
himself.'
POSSESSIVES.
48.
The
possessives
Adjectives
are
either
adjectives or
(the
M.
pronouns.
Pronouns
(combined
M.
with
noun)
F.
noun
understood)
F.
ing,
mon
ma
(or
note
morif
cf
1)
I.
ton
}"
my.
,
le mien
la mienne
"
*
mine.'
mes
les miens
fe Hen les tiens Ie si en les siens le noire
ing,
ta
tes
(or tan)
^^^
/
M
)
thine
'
ing,
son
ses
sa
(or son) \
I..
his, her,
its.'
his, hers,
its.'
ing.
nos
"^.^'^j'our.'^
la nStre lesn6tres
,
^"^^ ^^"-
ing.
"'^^'^Vyour. j
VOS
!"
,
yours.
ing.
/eur
la leur )
tiieirg
)
'
leur"s j
their.'
les leurs
8,49.]
Note
1.
PRONOUNS,
ETC.
XXVn
"
The
feminine
with
a
forms
mon,
ion,
mute.'
are
son
are
used
before
ords Note
beginning
2.
"
vowel
or
'
When
the
are
pronoun-forms contracted,
as
preceded with
to
au
by
the
mien,
de
or
d,
hese
prepositions
de (i.e.
usual,
definite
rticle
le mien
to
du
mien,
d le mien
as
etc.).
49.
The form
in
possessor
to
use,
in
is
English,
which
made
"
sessi posto
then,
noun
farther,
g^ee
mon
gender
livre;
ma
and
number
plume;
mes
with
the
possessed. hava
*
Ex.
ai
livres
'
^1
my
book
(pen,
ooks)
; son
livre
his
(her) book
XIV
; sa
plume
his
(her) pen.
Exercise
Masc.
'
(a, 6).
Fem.
e caract^re
'
(the) character
'
'
la disposition
'
(the) disposition
'
'
'
e courcige
^
(the) courage
^
hardiesse
.la
.
'
(the) boldness
e m4rite
(the) merit
'(the)
la vertu
(the) virtue
'
souvenir
'
remembrance
la m^Tooire
'
savQir-vivre
'(the)
breeding
'
good
. ,
behavior,
la conduite
'
aimable
'
amiable,
'
kind
'
'
courageux
vertueux
'
courageous
'
virtuous
' '
m"morable
a.
"
memorable
1. Mon
et
fr^re
;
mes
et
le
Hen
Tna
soeur
et
la
2.
f tonne
mes
r^es
les Hens
;
"0S
soeurs
et
les
tiennes.
If of
re
mArite
le nbfre
m^rites
et
les nbires.
;
3. Son
de
mon
(give all
frhre
5es
et
possible
enderings
of
son) caro/Ct^re
et
le caractkre
et le mien
et
eur
disposition
la
voire
(et la lour).
de
4.
vertus
les
ours.
5.
et de
Ces
hommes
de
parlent
ies
du
et
au
ion
ami
du
mien,
miens
au
de
ia
ceur
la mienne,
6. Je
d
mon
(o
mien,
miennes).
Je
pense
donne
ami
d
;
ion d
petit
mes
fr^re
amis
et
et
leur
aux
lours.
vdire*
Je pense
d V aimable
enfant
de cette
vertueuse
m^re
et au
XVm
FlUST
PART.
[49-51
his ; my
and
yours
; her
b,
"
1. My pens
book
and
and
his.
his ; my
2.
pen
memory
and
books
;
our
and
memories
is
; my
Our
and theirs
yours.
; his
3.
His
character and
; of
and
theirs.
theirs
4.
character
nd
(her) merits
of
yours
We
speak
and
courage
of
his
ind
I
brother
am
and
his
kind
sister
great
of
yours.
thinking
6.
of my
virtuous
of
friend's
and and
of
ours.
The dear
remembrance
to
me
his
good
disposition
of
ers
is very
(me).
Demonstratives.
60.
The
demonstratives
are
either
adjectives or
Pkonouns
or
pronouns.
Adjectives
(combined
M.
with
the
noun)
(noun
F. M.
phrase
understood)
F.
Sing,
ce
(cet^cf. note)
'this,
that.'
ces
cette
celui
'
celle
or
this
.
(one)
.
.
that
celles
(one).'
I.
ceux
'these,
those.'
ce
'these
'
(ones) or
'
those
c^est
(ones)
that
(or
c',
in
[ence
refer-
is'), indef.
a
Cet
is used
before
words
beginning
with
vowel
or
h *mute.'
5 1
'
To
.
emphasize
'
the
'
difference
'
between
'
this
'
'
and
to
that,'
noun
here
c/ etermined ceci
"
and
-/a
ce, or
there
to
are
frequently With
suffixed
pure be
the
ce
by
celuL
the
may
pronoun
they
to
orm
'this'
Ex.
and
cela
et
'
(which
contracted and
one.'
qd)
one.'
that.'
Ce
cheval-ci
celiii-la 'this
woman
'
horse
that
that
Cette
femme-ci
et celle-la
this hon
and
Cela
(or
n familiar
phrase,
qa)
est
that
is good.'
Exercise
Masc.
XV
(a, 6).
Fem.
'
jour
'
the
'
day
'
la nuit
'
'
the
'
night
the
'
e mois
the
month
la semaine
week
1,52.]
Masc.
PRONOUNS,
ETC.
XXIX
Fem.
e langage
'
'the
language, hoy
^
talk
'
.
.
la langue
la
(the)language
'
e gargon
the
*
JiUe
'
the
girl
'a
enfant
*
child'
(generally)
.
une
enfant
'
little girl
'
onsieuT
(pron.me-s'eu) pi.
sir, Mr.'
m^me
'
messieuvs
madame
(pi. Toesdames)
Mrs.'
;
gentleman,
madam,
'
dame
(pi.
wise,
'says;'
'
-s)
same,
-self
^
\Jlady
; vrai
'
'
sage
dit
prudent,
'said'
tu
good
true
'
'said' (pret.);
dis
'
(past pple)
U dit
'
je
a.
"
dis
'
I say,'
d,
thou
sayest,'
et d,
he
'
says
1.
Je pense
2.
ceux
ce
gargon
cet
cettejille;
d cef
hommes.
et
J'aime
de
votre
nfants
de
enfant fr^re
et
et
;
ces
celui -la
sage
que
dameS'Ci
son
et
celles-ldb.
5.
Ce
larigage
'
n^est
pas
si
elui
ami.
Ce
ce
quHl
(ce
que
that
which,
what
est
') dit
bon,
st
vrai,
a
6.
pas
C'est vrai^
bon.
jour-ci
est
tr^s beau.
mois.
7. Ceci
el
n'est
8.
and
C'est le mime
this night
b.
"
1. This
day
my
; these
days
and
these 3.
nights.
This
girl and
cousin's
4.
(=
that
of my gentleman
more more
cousin).
and beautiful
prudent
These lady.
that
ooks
This
and
my
brother's.
is very
This
that than
than
language
beautiful,
prudent,
you
e.
6. These
Here
?
are some
boys
are
:
very
do
those.
or
pens
prefer
these (pr4f4rez-vous)
9. This
hose
8.
He
loves
true.
this
is true,
week,
ut
that
the
is not
same
10.
month,
the
same
nd-
day.
Interrogatives.
52,
The
interrogatives
are
either
adjectives or
Pronouns
prononns.
Adjectives
combined
with
noun)
(noun understood)
'
qui
que
*
who
whom
'
(or, after
'
'
preposition,
quoi)
what
uel
which,
what
'
lequel
which
(one)?
'
XX
FIRST
PABT.
[53-58
doubling
63.
Qud
fern.
"
is inflected
In
lequel,
like
an
ordinary
of
adjective^
the def
.
in the
compounded
article
; and
:
le and
a
qtiel, each
element
or
has
its
independent
le
as
inflection
usual.
;
" "
precedi
de
combines
m.
with
Thus
lequel
m.
lequel,
f. laquelle;
lequel
pi.
leaqueh^
etc.
f. lesqtteUes
(de
=)
duqud^
(d
=)
auquel^ que^
64.
Qui,
quoi
are
invariable.
Relative
Pronouns.
66.
The
relatives
qui^ lequel^
:
"
quoi
are
also
pronouns.
They
re
described
below
*"
[p^^^ Qui
after
to
a
who,
which,
qui
that
'
has
the
direct and
object-form
can
qm.
But
preposition
(not gwe)
*
is used,
then
dxmt
refer
only
persons
(^whom').
'which,'
less
Whose'
often
by
(59)
except
[57.]
Lequel
used
after
prepositions.
*
It inflects
what'
like
chiefly
the
after
interrog.
prepogitions
*
leqv^
in
a
(53).
general
to
[58.] Quoi
sense
' '
which,
:
is used
a
or
ndefinite
e.g.
to
// n'y
speak
Hen
de
quoi
parUr
There
is nothing
speak
(lit. of
which
')"
Exercise
Masc.
*
XVI
(a, b).
Fem.
le grandrp^re
'
the
'
grandfather
'
.
lagrand'm^re
V Spouse
'
'the grandmother'
'
V^poux
the
^
husband
master,
'
the
^
wife,
spouse teacher
le mattre
'
the
teacher
'
la mattresse
mistress,
'
le roi
the
king
'
la reine
'
. .
'
the
queen
*
Vempereur
the
emperor
^ '
Vimpiratrice
' '
the
'
empress
malade
'
sick
'
; mortel
mortal
r(mge
red
arriv^
re^
'arrived,* 'received'
'
with
aux.
'be,' not
'have'
tomb^
ce
fallen
'
; acheti
ce
'
bought
'
qui
(nom.),
que
(ace.) 'that
which,
what'
8,
59.]
1.
PRONOUNS,
ETC.
XXXt
a.
"
Que/
2.
rot
Quelle
reinef
Quels
Laquelle
livresf
Quel/es
files
quo/
A
per-
onnesf 4.
Qui
aimez-vousf
dit
ces
3.
de
5.
ces
aimez-
ousf
Que
nous
notre
grand-p^ref
est
pensez-
ausf
Lequel
de
maitres
le meilleiirf
6.
Lesquelles
de
es
JiUessont
bonnes?
7.
J'aideuxfr^res
8.
Auquel
de
uxquelles
est
files
10.
pensez-vousf
la
est sont
.
9. C^est
grand^m^re
11.
ui
arrivSe.
C^est
reine
que
faime.
12. Lies
U^poux
(L' Spouse)
d
d qui
vous
elle pense
pensez
malade.
maitres
(Les
dames)
qui
arrives,
parle.
13.
14.
L^empereur Le clieval
{La
qui
reine) de qui
et
(or fax
je
dont
cf
59) je
15.
est
rriv4
que
a^heti. 16.
dis
Le
cheval
auquel
'
'
=
(not
what
qui) je
vrai
onne
de
Veau.
ce
Ce
est
qui
vrai;
('that
ce
which
') est
st
hon; h.
"
que
quHl
king?
which
2.
queen?
which
of these these whom
teachers horses?
(m.)?
which which
love
hich
(f.)?
houses
Which
which 3.
are
(one)
(one)
grandmothers?
?
(one) of
is sick ?
4. Of
one one
books?
do do
you
m.
(ones)
Who
they? which
you
{transl.'love-you')
do you
ones
? who ?
?
whom
speak?
and
o whom
speak
5. Of
6. To
does
{give both
(m.
8. What
f.)?
f which
(m., f
.)
precede
which
he say
?
and
f
are
.)
? to which
nes
(m., f.)?
of
7. What
must
you
(d, which
who has
we
'what':
quoi
etc.)?
whom
you
eacher boys
('is')
love. which
arrived;
10. The
de
the
red
teacher
rose
love;
have
he
whom
rose
which
speak. of
whom
he
white
of
(not
says
qui)
you
11. you
My
are
randfather
(grandmother,
12. What he
grandmothers)
is true.
hinking.
69-
Relative
whose,
Particles.
whence*'
"
Dont
used
'
of
de
(from)
with
for
a
whom
or
hich,
is often
for
relative;
nd
oO
a
'to
which,
with
where'
is generally
to
'
used
or
d
"
(or dans)
Ex. I
Le
nd
relative,
reference
parle
place
time.
heval
dont
(or duquel) je
the
horse
of
which
speak.'
XXXn
FIRST
PART.
[59, 60
^the house
to
La
maison
ou
(or
laquelle) je
be
vais
which
I go.' Note.
"
Dont
must
used
when
in
English
whose'
'
is
must
or
could
be
used,
unless
preceded
by
'
preposition,
whose
of
dont.
as
be
expressed
by
of
duquel
the
(de
laquelle,
etc.),
instead
the
The
if
*
rrangement
words used
man
is in in
whose
au
either
"
case
same
of
whom'
(etc.)
amv4
were
English.
son
Ex.
Llwmme whom
parlez
(font
the 'the
fits est
^the
(lit.*of
voiis
son')
man
has
arrived.'
whose
son
L'homme
duquel fits'
you
speak.'
Exercise
a.
XVII
(a, 6).
qui,
or
"
1. Vempereur
dont
(or
qui,
de
or
duqueC)
vous
Us
parlent,
re^u
2.
Uhomme
3.
4.
dont
La Le
(or
de
duquel)
laquelle,
avez
ce
chevaL
maison
dont
ou
(or de
6.
but
not
de
qui)
Le
parte.
palais
est
(or dans
7.
lequet) il demeure.
Ce
monsieur
5.
p^re
dont
Venfant
donnez
malade.
rose
d,
Venfant
les
duquel
sont
ous
la
rouge,
avec
Varhre
dont
il est
feuilles
tomMes,
h,
"
8.
1. The
Vhxymme
master
lefilsduquel
you speak;
is
arrive,
horses
; the
men
of whom
man
the sick
of which
you
speak. have
2.
The
whose
wife
whose
roof 5. 6.
to
ons
arrived
4.
house
the
of
which
is red.
of
whose
son
he
we
The The
(lady-) teacher
in whose
he
of
whose
I have
beautiful been
books
7, (i"ti),
king
palace
The
which
(where)
has
arrived.
Indefinites.
60.
The
indefinite
inflected
pronouns
at
and they
tout
adjectives are
are
quite like
ous. numer-
When
all,
that
treated
'
.
ordinary
'
(f toute)
quelqu'urt
m.
every,
all
is in
that the
some
one,
somebody
is
in
plural
of quelque
(f.qu"lqu*une) (f quelques-uns
un.
qutlque^-unes),
being
compound
and
61-64.]
Observe
PKONOUNS,
ETC.
XXXni
also
the
'
following
"
[61.]
and
On
one as
(=
'
people
generally,
"
they
^) is
always
gula sinword
used
subject
:
alone.
Unless
for
^
followed
by
beginning
after
with
Z, it is frequently,
euphony,
'
changed
to /'o/
oh, que
; qu'on
e.g. si Von
or
if
one
; et
(^always
usually
silent
before
Von
and
one
que
Von
(the
latter
A^sound).
[62.^
one,
Aucun
or (adj.,
pron.
referring used
anybody,'
personne
*
(pron.
to
definite
and
^
r/en
'
not
are (pron.) anything,' usually (placed before the verb), and mean
with
ne
nobody
they
(not
have
anybody)
without
'and
ne,
^nothing.' if there is
no
This
negative
"
verb.
Ex. II
n'aime
aucune
personne
de
ces
(rien)
'
'
He
loves loves
no
nobody
one
(nothing).'
of these girls.'
JUHes
He
^
H^aimez-vous
'
personne
? (rien)
^No
Do
one
you
not
love
anybody
(anything)?
Personne
^
ne
Vaime
loves
him.'
Qui
aimez^ous?
Personne.
Whom
do
you
like ?
Nobody.'
(pron., only
Ex.
as
subject)
knowledge any,
^none'
requires
ne
before
n'en
the
verb.
"
Hu/
'
ne
Vaime
no
^None
loves
of it.'
him.'
Je
ai nulle
connaissance
a
'
I have
^
[64.]
Tout
before
; but
noun
means
every,
all,' if the
noun
is undefined
whole,
all,' if it is defined
tout
man,'
means
^
by
an
or
pronoun.
tout
As
homme ville
'
^
pure
^
pronoun,
everything,
ville
'
'
Ex.
every whole
(any)
'
toute
'
every
men,'
tovie
la
the
city,' tous
; tout
les
est
hommes
'
all
tout
son
courage
all his
courage
perdu
everything
(all
is lost.'
Exercise
XVIII
'
(a, b).
.
chaque
qu/elque
each
'
chacun quelqu^un
(f
.
'
'
one
'
some
body,
'
anybody
plusieurs
(invar.)several
'
. .
autrui
(invar.)others
'
XXXrV
FIRST
PART.
[64
'
tovt
le monde
'
'
all the
'
world,
everybody
il chante U U
danse
Teste
^
'
he
sings
dances
'
he
he
(it)remains
non
^
'
(mi
Note.
be
"
yes/
it only
no,'
bien
* *
well,'
si
if
The
negatiye
particle
by
/le
not
is placed
before
the E.g.
verb,
and
can
separated
*
from
personal
ne
object-pronouns.
Vaime
*
//
n'cume
personne
a.
He
loves
nobody.' et
Aucun
No
one
loves
him.'
"
1.
On
chante
Pon
danse. mortels.
2.
4.
Tout
homme
est
me
mortel.
3.
Tous
Us
hommes
queJques
sont
Que/qu^un
Va
dit.
5. AveZ'Vous
livresf
de
6.
vos
Oui,
fen
10.
ai
qudques-wns.
7.
Donnez-moi
quelques-unes 9
ne
belles pommes.
8.
ne
ITaimezchante.
vous
personne
Personne
de
9. Je n^aime
me
personne.
12.
Personne
11.
Va
dit.
Qui
Aucune.
aimez-vousf
Personne;
ami
ne
me
Laquelle
cesJUles
belles.
per
aimez-vousf
13. Aucun
reste.
14t. H^avez-vous
sont
r/enf
16.
Je n*ai
a
rien.
une
Rien.
rose.
15.
17.
ne
Toutes
es
files
ChaquefMe
Vont
Tout
one
Plusieurs
parte pas
(or plusieurs
sounds)
19. and
dit.
18.
Cet homme
en
beavxxmp
d'autrui.
1.
le monde
parte.
b.
"
One
2.
sings, Every
4.
is happy loves
are
(=
her
they
sing
and
are
happy).
are
good
All
mother her
children. 5.
3. All
Here
en
mortal.
children
are
or
beautiful.
re
pens
; here
some
en
(=
void
few:
quelques)
^
=
pens
(en
void,
quelques-unes
few').
6.
He
loVes
nobody,
nobody nobody.
and
nobody
of him.
loves
him.
you you
7.
He
thinks
of nobody,
No,
?
and
I love
thinks
8. Do
9. Have
love
not to
anybody?
anything
Nobody.
I have
said
I have
said
nothing.
said
nothing 11.
im.
of I
Nothing. these
child
of
loves him.
this 12.
teacher.
Every dances.
ne
Everybody
13.
am
thinking
persons.
5,
66.]
VERBS.
XXXV
VEEBS.
A.
Regular
Verbs.-
65.
Erench
verbs
are
divided
into
four is
^
classes,
according
"
to
he
ending
of their I.
infinitive,
:
which
aimer
as
below
-en
Ex.
"
love.'
II.
III.
IV.
-/"
-re
Jin/r
rompre
'
finish.'
^
"
break.'
'
-01 r
"
recevoir
nearly all the
receive.'
Classes
I-III
some
comprise few
verbs
of
the
language.
hese,
with
exceptions
(so-calledirregular
of
verbs)
and
conjugated
to
one
without
model.
change
Class
all vary
of
their
radical
only
form,
accor
IV the its
own.
comprises root-form,
sixteen
each
one
(pri mary
verbs.
some
These
and
has,
esides,
peculiarity
The
Regular
three
to
Conjugation
classes. the
is, then,
it is of
some
properly
practical
made
up
of
he
first
As
advantage,
owever,
place
the
paradigms
class
of the
four
classes
on
side
the
by
side,
hat
verb
of
(recevoir) which,
of
whole,
con-
epresents
best alongside
the
character
that
class
is here classes.
that
juga
many
model-verbs
well
to
of the
first three
student regular /^-verbs.
tenses
KoTE.
"
It
may
be
caution
adopt
the four
rammars
(especially French)
II
conjugations
er-verbs,
iV-verbs,
III
o/"-verbs,
of the
IV
66.
The
conjugation
simple
stems
of
verb
consist
in adding
to
its
different
certain
endings.
heavy
These
ndings
few
(in
the
paradigms identical
as seen
below
for
by
type)
are
ith
The
exceptions
of
a
stem
of
verb,
in the I-III
paradigms
unchanged,
some
below,
in
consists IV
often
ither
the
or
root
alone
root
(in
extended
changed),
of the
by
added
ending.
XXVI
FIRST
PART.
[67
tenses
67.
Below
are
given
serve
the
as
simple models
of all
aimer
regular
Unir^
y
and
rompre^
which
may
for
verbs,
and
of recevoir.
Indicatiyb Present
aim-e
*
je Jin-is
(am love)*
loving,
*
je
etc.
*
romp-s
1
je
etc.
*
re^-8
1
I love do
I finisb,'
break/
receive/
etc.
aim-es
tu
Jin-is
tu
romp-8
2
tu
regoi-s
il aim-e
aim-on aim-ez
8
Jin-it
Jin-iss-ons
Jin-iss-ei
il romp-t
nous
vous
il regoi^
notis vous
ous
nous vous
romp-ons romp-ez
romp-ent
^
recev-ons
recev-ez
ous
Us
aim-ent
Us
Jin-iss-ent
Us
Us
regoiv-ent
Imperfect
*
aim-ais
*
je Jin-iss-ais
lov'g,
'
je
'
romp-a/S
I broke/
etc.
je
*
recev-ais
I loved did
(was love)'
finished/
etc.
received/
etc
aim-ais
tu
Jin-iss-ais
Jin-iss-ions
Jin-iss-iez
tu
romp-ais
tu
recev-ais
recev-ait recev-ions
il aim-ait
il Jin-iss-ait
nous
il romp-ait
nous
U
nous
ous
aim-ions
aim-iez
^
romp-ions
ous
vous
vous
romp-iez
romp-aient
vous
recev-iez
Us
aim-aient
Us
Jin-iss-aient
Preterit
Us
Us
recev-aient
faim-ai^
*
je Jin-is
'
je romp-is
'
je
*
*
reg-us
I received
*
I loved
I finished
I broke
aim-as
tu
Jin-is
Jin-it
tu
romp-is
tu
reg-us
il aim-a aim-dmes
il romp-it
nous vous
il reg-ut
nous vous
ous
nous vous
Jin-imes
Jin-ites
romp-tmes
reg-umes
reg-utes
ous
aim-dtes
^
romp-ites
Us aim-erent
ilsjin-irent
Future
Us romp-irent
*
Us reg-urent
^ j*aim-er-ai
"
je Jin-ir-ai'
'
je
' "
romp-r-ai
I shall
#8
'
je
*
'
recev-r-ai
I shall
recev-r-as
I shall
(will) love
"
'I shall
finish
break
receive
tu
aim-er-as
il aim-er-a
tujin-ir-as iljin-ir-a
tu
romp-r-as
tu
il romp-r-a
il recev-r-a
-ent
*
silent
sounds
=
everywhere
e
in and
3d
pi.
cond.
; but
Final
=
dropped
and
'
ai
^
in
must
impf.
^ in pret.
use
'
The
the the
student
stem
observe fut.
present
is the
in
fut. the
infinit.
of
shall
or
will/
Note
its
that
of
the the
however, (^recevoir,
losing
oi)
and
endings,
of avoir
(73).
7.]
VERBS.
xxxvn
Future
atm-er-Ofis
atm-er-ez
nous vous
(continued).
nous
us
romp-r-ons romp'r-ez
nous vous
recev-r-ons
recev-r-ez
us
vous
aim-er-ont
Us
Us romp-r-ont
Us recev-r-ont
Conditional
^
aim-er-ais
'I should
love*
je fin-ir-ais
"
je
*
romp-r-ais
I should
je
break
'
reeev-r-ais
(would)
I should
finish'
"I
should
receive
'
aim-er-ats
tu
fin-ir-ais
tu
romp-r-ais
tu
recev-r-ais
l aim-er-ait
U romp-r-ait
nous
il recev-r-ait
nous vous
us
aim-er-ions
aim-er-iez
aim-er-aient
nous vous
romp-r-ions
romp-r-t'ez
us
vous
Us
Us romp-r-aient
Us
Subjunctive
Present
*aim-e
*
je fin-iss-e
shall)
love
'
je
"
romp-e (etc.)
break'
je
regoiv-e
*I
I (may,
(etc.) finish
"I
(etc.) receive'
tt
aim-es
l aim-e
tufin-iss-es il fin-iss-e
nous vous
tu
romp-es
tu
regoiv-es
il romp-e
nous
vous
il re^oiv-e
nous
vous
us
aim-ions aim-iez
aim-ent
romp-ions
romp-iez
romp-ent
recev-ions
recev-iez regoiv-ent
us
Us
Us
Us
Imperfect
aim-asse
*
je fin-isse
(could,
love
'
*
je
romp-isse
'I
might
je
reg-usse
*
I might
I might finish'
(etc.)
(etc.)
'
I might
receive
(etc.)
'
should)
aim-asses
break
tu
l aim-at
tufin-isses il fin-it
nous
romp-isses
tu
reg-usses
il romp-it
nous vous
il reg-ut
nous vous
ous
aim-assions aim-assiez
aim-assent
fin-issions
romp-issions
reg-ussions
ous
vous
fin-issiez
Us
fin-issent
observe
in
romp-issiez Us romp-issent
'
reg-ussiez Us reg-ussent
'
The
that
student
the
must stem
cond. is the
the
use
of
should
or
would.' losing
ote
of
the
cond.
infinit.
however, (recevoir,
ta
oi) ;
*
'
imperfect the shortened the endings and 3, preceding foot-note Cf page. in is variously The rendered sul)junctive
.
of
avoir
(73).
The
English.
meanings
iven
above
are
only
the
most
typical.
xxvm
FIRST
PART.
[67
Imperative
*
im-e
love
*
Jin-is
love
'
finish
'
romps
break
'
'
refoi-8
recev-ona recev-ez
receive
im-ons
*
let
us
'
Jin-iss-ons
fin-iss-ez
Infinitive
romp'Ons
rompsz
im-ez
love
im-er
(to)
love
'
Jin-ir
'
finish
'
romp-re
break
'
recev-oir
receive
Pasticiplbs
Present
im-ant
*
fin-iss-ant
'
romp-ant
'
receiHint
* *
loving
finishing
breaking
receiving
Past
'
im-e
Note.
loved
'
fin-i
'
finished
'
romp-u
broken
'
ref-u
received
"
like
re-cevoir
are
conjugated
verbs
in
all compounds
-oir
are
of
in
-cevoir
{aper-y con-,
per-cevoir).
II.
^
Other
described
87-9.
I.
^
III.
ccepter
^
accept.'
agir
bdtir choisir
act.'
*
difendre
entendre
'
defend,
forbid.'
riiler
burn.'
'
build.'
^
^hear.'
^lose.'
^
ouper
'
cut.'
choose.'
cure.'
perdre
pendre
onner
^
give.' protect,
gu4rir
nourrir
'
hang.'
^answer.'
arder
'nourish.'
punish.'
^
r4pondre rendre
*
keep.'
^
punir
give,
*
return.'
arler
^
speak.' think.'
le doigt
remplir
fill,fulfil.' vendre
^
sell.'
enser
IV.
'
'
concevoir
conceive
*
the
'
finger
; le
'
; la main
'
the
'
hand.'
'
le devoir
'
the
duty
fruit
main
the *he
fruit
cut
; pauvre
Obs.
II
se
(dat.)coupa
la
his
hand'
and
for himself^).
"
Note.
The
Subjunctive
in
a
is used
is not
chiefly
in dependent
clauses
when
a
the
tatement
contained
it
causes
them
certain aurprise.
of being
The
desire,
or
becoming
reality,
when
akin
lo
subjunctive
command,
is, then,
doubt,
equired
or
by
sorrow,
certain
words
to
(as
in the
of
fear,
a
oy,
etc.)
words
the
subordinate exercises
clause that
such
follow.
character.
ome
of
these
given
7.]
Verbs
VERBS.
XXXIX
(regular) requiring
*ask,
'
the
subjunctive
'wish,'
"
emander
require,'
souhaiter
d^sirer
d
'desire/
^
rdonner
command,
prier'
pray,
ask,'
^fe
ndre
forbid.'
Exercise
XIX
(a, b).
qu^il
2.
le coupe
II
me
a,
"
1.
Je
coupe
Varhre;
;
je desire*
quelqu'un.
;
je
bdtis
son
(2 tenses)
2, p.
mo7i
se
la maison
fentends
gargon
donne
:
ivre ; il pwiit
(2 tenses) le
des
elle vend
(not vendf
mon
cf
note foot.
xxx\i)
livre
;
fruits.
3.
Je
gardai
livre ;
si
je gar-
erai
II
je luiparlais;
;
je lui parlerais
brUlera
fy
pensais.
brida
si
vous
le doigt
aimiez
son
il
cet
se
la
main
il pensaii
son
r^re
homme,
;
nos
il penseraif
A
qu'il
vous,
5.
II
son
emplit
(2 tenses)
6.
devoir
j^ordonnais
amis;
remplH
que
evoir.
Nous
pas
nos
perd/ons
amis;
ens
je
que
souhaite
nous
nous
perdions
nous
il disira
perdJssions
que parole;
nous
nos
nour-
mis;
nourrissi
les pauvres.
lespauvres;
7.
il ordonna
sa
iss/ons
lis
entendaieni
entendu.
Us donneni
r^pon-
raient,
argent I
sHls
vous
avaient
^
(had)
him
8.
lui
en
lis
de
d cet homme
et
je defends
any
;
quHls
donneni
(transl
V utile
;
forbid
them
to
give
');
Us
choisisseni quails
je
esire
;
quHls
Us
mon
choisisseni
rendeni
^V utile
notre
je disirais je
choisisseni
quHls
me
utUe
nous
argent;
regoit
mes
souhaite il
endeni
argent.
9.
II
de
coraux.
V argent;
recevra
des
regoive
1.
Conjugate
forms
in
full
parler^ choisir,
punir,
vendre,
concevoir.
Give
the
and
perdre
that
the
have
forms
and is
fere dif-
endings, agir,
4.
meanings.
3.
Give
of
enser,
and
entendre
that
of 5.
have
the
circumflex,
whose
stem
their
nour-
eaning. and
Give
the
forms
nourrir
iss-,
their
meaning.
terminate
Give
in
-ons,
the
forms
their
of
brdler, meaning,
bdtir^
nd
r^pondre
those
that
and
their
are
and
hen
that
*
terminate
requiring
in
-ions,
the
and
meaning.
spaced.
Words
subjunctive
ii
FIRST
PAR'f.
[68-T2
68.
Minor
E
mute,
a
Changes.
and
also
a
[69.]
their
(save
an
in
e
fut.
mute.
and
eond.),
This following
tu
become
pen
before
syllable
into
mener
containing
^,
or
is denoted
I
ov
change
"
by
the
doubling
pr. ind.
Us
;
of
(cf.29).
;
Thus,
menons,
*lead':
vous
je
mene,
menes,
i
etc.
nene
nous
menez,
mhnent
fut.
je (subj.
mene,
in 1st
and
2d
pi. ; imp've
"
mene)
Cider
'
mh-ne-rai^
pr.
etc.,
etc.
out) (through
fut.
; cond.
"
mhnerais,
Appeler
^
'yield':
Je
"
cede;
Je
ederai,
mener
call
pr.
fappe//e,
etc.
(-e//-herever w
has
"
en-).
^
Note.
Celer
e,
hide,'
geler
freeze,'
I and
acheter
t
buy,'
and
some
thers
take
instead in before
of doubling
[70.]
Verbs
-cer
a,
and
ai,
o.
-ger
"
change
Thus,
and
to
'menace'
and
:
ge
espectively
menacer
pr.
i.
menaqons
etc.
"
(since
menacons
'
would
'
be
menakons)
mangeais^
i before
e
; impf. etc.
enaqais^
manger
eat
mangeons^
y
to
[71.]
Verbs
'
in drown
-ye?* usually
'
change
mute.
"
hus,
7ioyer
pr.
je noie.
Exercise
'
XX
(6).
'
ener
lead
'
'
eeler
'
hide,
'
conceal
'
trox^er
'
trace
'
'
acheter
'
buy
'
'
manger
'
eat
'
ppeler b,
call
employer
use
prot4ger
of above
to
protect noting
"
Conjugate
change
the
simple
tenses
nine
verbs,
very
of letters
according
68-71.
Compound
Verb-forms.
of the
case
72.
avoir
The
'
COMPOUND
tenses
active
certain
are
made
by
the
aid
have
of
'
(or,in
by
the by
of
intransitive
^
verbs,
specially
motion,
the
the
aid
of
itre
'
be
');
and
all the
orms
of the
passive
aid
of "tre
be.'
3.]
73The
VERBS.
XLl
conjugation of
below.
these
auxiliaries,
which
is quite
ular, irreg-
is given
INDICATIVE
A"oir
have
'
itre'he'
Present
Sing.
1.
je
suts
I have
as
'
'lam'
2.
tu
a
tu
es
(pr.
^)
3. U
PI.
1. 2.
i7 esi
avoiis avez
nous 'VOUS
(= ^)
somm6s
noiLS
vous
dtes
sont
3.
lis ont
Us
Imperfect
Sing.
1.
avals
*Ihad'
fStals
*
'
was
2. 3.
PI.
1. 2.
tu
avals
tu
4tais
itait 4tions 4tiez ^talent
U avait
notes
avlons
ame^
n(ms
vous
i;ot"S
3.
Us
avalent
Us
Preterit
Sing.
1.
feus (eu
"
Fr.
je throughout) fits
'
I had
eus
'
'
was,
I became
2.
tu
tufua
3. II eut
Ufut
eHmes eMes
PI.
1.
nous
vous
nousfdmes
2. 3.
Useurent Future
vousfDites Us furent
Sing.
1.
aural
'
je
(wUl)
hare
'
*
serai
I shall
seras
I shall
auras
(will) be
2. tu
3.
U
tu
aura
sera
LII
FIRST
PART.
[73
PL
1. 2.
Tious
aurons
nous vous
serons serez
vous
aurez
3.
lis auront
ils seront
Conditional
Sing.
1.
faurais
*
je
serais
*
I should
(would)
have
'
I should
(would)
be
'
2. 3.
tu
aurais
tu
serais
il aurait
nous
U
nous vmis
serait
serious
PL
1.
2.
aurions auriez
voiLS
seriez
seraient
3.
ils auraient
Us
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Sing.
1.
faie
*
je
sois
*
I have
(may
or
*
I be
(may be)
'
or
shall
have)
shall
2.
3.
tu
aies
tu
sois
il ait
nous vous
il soit
PL
1. 2.
ayons ayez
nous vous
soyons soyez
3.
ils aient
ils soient
Imperfect
Sing.
1.
feusse {eu
*
u)
could,
'
je fusse
*
I had
or
(might,
should
were or
(might,
should
could,
'
have)
be)
2. 3.
tu
eusses
tu
fusses
il eM
nous vous
ilfHt
eussions
nous
PL
1.
fussions
fussiez
2.
eussiez
vous
3. ils eussent
ilsfussent
3-76.]
VERBS.
XLIII
IMPEBATIVE
Sing.
PI.
2. 1. 2.
aie
'
have
'
!'
us
sois
'
be
^
!'
ayons
ayez
^
let
have
!'
soyons
let
!'
us
be ! '
have
!'
soyez
be
INFINITIVE
'
avoir
(to)have
'
^re
(to)be
PARTICIPLES
ayant
ew
'
having
^
'
^ant
^
'
being
'
(=
the
the
Fr.
u)
had
4t4
'
been
74,
To
form
compound
tenses
of
any past
verb,
active
or
assive,
combine
auxiliaries
same
:
with
as
the
participle
of
he
main
verb
on
the Thus
principles
:
in English
^
(observing
f
avals
5-6,
'
below).
I had I
was
*
act.
fai
:
aim4
suis
have
*
loved,'
am
im^
loved,'
etc. ; pass.
je
aim4
loved,'
/^tois
im4
loved.' observed
to
[75.]
It is to be
only
that
the
past
an
participle
(aim^,
eing
in French
f. aimSe;
subject
pi.
m.
inflection
f.
like
adjective (sing.m.
with with
a
im^,
aim^s^
aimSes), agrees
but
ing preced-
the
subject
loved.' 'these
hereafter,
excepted).
have
La
JUle
que
fai aim^
is loved.'
'the
girl
gargons
(that) I
sont
lle
aim4e
'she
Ces
aim4s
oys
loved.'
"
Note.
The
participle direct
with
avoir
is
unchanged
if there
is
preceding
object.
Thus:
J'ai
aimi
cetteJUle.
are
con-
76.
As
already
dire
indicated
instead
be
of
in 72, certain
avoir.
intransitives
verbs
juga
thus
with
Among
always verbs
of
onjugated
should
*
noticed
'
especially
arrive,'
venir
the
three
most
of
otion,
oiler
go,'
arriver
(with
its
LIV
FIRST
PART.
[76
'be born,
compounds)
die.'
"
^come/
II
est
and
also
'
nattre
arise/
II
and
mourir
*
Ex.
arriv4
He
has
arrived.'
eat
laort
He
as
died.' Exercise
Maso.
XXI
(a, b).
Fem.
le
verre
'the
'the
'
'
Za bouteille
Za livre
'
the
bottle
'
'
le livre
morceau
'the
'
pound
le
'
piece
Za trancJie
the
'
le
'
coffre
' '
the
trunk,
'
chest money
la mcdle
la monnaie
'
the
'
wallet,
V argent
(the)
'
'
silver,
(the) coin,
'
change
Dieu
God
d^ease
' '
'
goddess
arriver
si
'
arrive
'
(always
with
^re)
home
'
if,' chez
at, with,
at the
of
Verbs
'
governing
exact,
the
subjunctive
exiger
demand,'
regretter
'
app
r4hender
apprehend,'
regret.'
a.
"
1. J^ai
heureux;
un
je desire
Dieu
que
que
vous
ayez
heureux.
des
serons
un
cheval;
2. Nous
nous
je
suis
je
nous
sois
vons
des amis.
amis;
amis; de de
avions
nous
amis;
4tions
3.
nous assez
nous
Nous
V argent;
nous
bons;
contents^
je
pensais
que
aurions
V argent;
4.
serions
ous
avions
et que
de
soyons
livres.
II
desire 5.
que
avez
nous une
ayojis
moZZe,
courage^
heureux.
Vous
Vavez-
ou^
achet4ef
6.
cette
maUe;
je Vai aohet^
les
livres vendu
au
chez
M.
(for Monsieur)
Us
Ont-ils
8.
donn^
aurions
gar^nf
Oui,
donnis.
Nous
deux
livres^
vous
achet^
vous
(or
acheties:
cet
obs. 10.
the II 12.
difference
regrettait
Les
maisons
9.
II
exige
que
acceptiez
argent,
quails eussent
^4
bdties.
parU. 13.
11. La
maison
fut
que
bdtie.
nt
On
On
exig4
or
cet
argent
(cetteperle) fi
15.
Nous
rendu
(rendue).
aim4s
14.
donna
si
nous
quHl
fCtt puni.
bons
serions
(or aimies)^
etions
(or bonnes)
6,77.]
J^apprShende
expletive
est
"
VERBS.
XLV
6.
que
ne
raa
malle
ne
(verbs
of
fear
"
require
17. Mon
when
affirmative) soil
perdue.
ousin
b.
Conjugate
aim4,
with
avoir
[compound
je
her
her
suis
present
ai
etc.] and
"
[passive
1. He
present;
ainU
; he
(o
has
Her
aim4e), etc.].
her. 2.
Translate
has
loved
sister
oved
She
is punished
4.
by
they
(par)
lost
father.
3.
?
are
yes
will
have
be
Have
their
brothers
horses
Yes,
hey
5.
Their
beautiful
sister
?
lost. have
. Would
you
her.
have 7.
protected I was^desiring
glasses
a
his
Yes,
I would
answer.
rotected
that
he
might
if I
8.
money.
hould
They This
have
have
bought
eaten
and of
sold their
bottles
meat
had
a
had of
piece
and
it
are were
slice
bread.
0.
trunk apprehend
would
that I
regret
be
if
(indie.) good.
(cf. sentence
so
1.
They
books
you
lost thought
6, under
a).
12.
that
have
(ainsi
Interrogative
Construction.
is by
77.
erb
subject (e.g.ai-jef
the
pronoun
connected
^^^
^
hyphen
noun
to
the
*have
a
I?')?
subject
personal
is
placed
efore
verb it
and
corresponding
rompt-ilf
pronoun
the
tree
is appen
after
m^re
^
L'arbre (e.g.
maladef
'
^does
mother
break? The
Votre
est-elle do
"
*is is not
your
rendered
sick?').
-e
a
uxiliary
(does, etc.)
Before
I love
in French.
final
or
Note
1.
'
the
?
appended before
'
je
becomes
(e.g
AimS'je ?
a
do
'), and
f
il
ellej
fter
vowel
2.
"
Aime-t-il (e.g.
Instead
to
does
he love
'
-tA-t-il 9
is
'
inserted
he ?
has
')
Note
of the
regular
the
'
interrogative question
'
construction,
t is quite
common
introduce
by
placing
the
the
hrase
est-ce
que
the
is (pr.^'s'/c*)
it that
common
or
before
pronoun
construction
(or noun)
in
^
and
verb.
EsJ)ecially
surprise
is this
questions
do
implying
?
'
denial.
'
"
Est-ce
que
faimef
I love
Est-ce
quHl
est
aim4f
is he
loved
'
LVI
FIRST
PART.
[78, 79
Negative
Construction.
'
78-
The
negation
viz.
or
not
ne
is with
verb
usually
expressed
by
wo
particles,
and
pas
(or,more
very
or
emphatically,
lacking, is
point)
placed
Ne
(n' bef.
the
vowel personal
^mute^),
verb-form
cases
rarely
a
before
or
preceding
are
:
object-pronoun
immediately
Pds
poiTvt^
in certain
omitted,
"
placed
fter
ne
the
suis
personal
verb-form.
Ex. I
am
pas point
malade.
cet
mon
not
not
sick. love
Je
n^aime
n'ai
ne
enfant,
tMme.
I do
this
child.
my
Je
pas
fini
I have
not
j"nished
theme.
Je
le lui
donnerai
pas
I shall
not
{point).
Note 1.
"
give
it to
him.
^
As
seen
above,
the do
negative
auxiliary
'
do
'
is not
expressed
I love
not
in French
'
(i.e. I
*
not
love
is rendered
simply
by
Je
n^aime
pas).
both
negatives precede
a
Note
2.
"
Usually
aimer
^
simple
tive infini
(ne pas
79.
:
"
etc.).
negatives,
the following
may
Among
other
be
noticed
here
Jamais
'
'
never
'
ne
ne
'
.
.
'
que
rien
plus
no
*
more
le
guere
not
'
much,
ne
personne
scarcely These
are
arranged
a
like
ne
pas,
except
ne
that
ne
gwe,
rien
"
per-
onne
follow
to
participle,
a
and
that
only
plus,
note
are
allowed
ne
precede
simple
infinitive
He
never
78, (cf.
2).
Ex.
II
perd
jamais.
plus.
d* argent.
loses. think
scarcely
of
Je
n'y
n*ai
ne
penserai
I shall
it
any
no
more.
Je
guere
I have
He
has
money.
a
II
ttCa
donni
ne
qu'unefleur.
parler
given
me
only
flower.
Je
disire
plus
(or ne
I wish
to
parler
plus).
speak
no
more.
79.]
'
VERBS.
XLVn
Neither
.
'
.
nor
is usually
' '
expressed
"
by
tenses
.
.
'
'
neither
. .
ni
ne
=
nor
ne
with
.
simple 'neither'
;
.
le
ni
with
(arranged
compound
pas)
ni
'nor'
"
tenses.
Ex.
ne
n^a
"
pense
ni
ne
parte.
He
neither neither
thinks
nor
nor
speaks. spoke.
ni pens^
ni parM,
He
thought
Exercise
Masc.
'
XXII
(a, 6).
Fem.
'
e temps
temple
the
'
time temple
'
une
'
.
.
position
position
'
une
Sglise
'
'
church
'
e cfiemin
'
'
the
'
road
la route
the
'
route,
road mountain
e 7nont
the
mount,
hill
'
'
.
la montagne
'
the
'
'
'
TnoTvtrer
'
show
'
pr^firer
'
prefer
ouvert
open
; id
here
but
'
Verbs
requiring
the
ncertainty
is implied
only
when they
are
doubt
used
or
when
negatively
interrogatively,
jpenser
a.
"
with
si
if
'):
"
'think,'
sparer
vous
'hope,'
donne de 4. id
d^cZarer belles
'declare.'
2.
1. Esi-ce 3.
que
je
fleurs?
est-eUe parle
ne
Stcis-
e aim4f
Les
Sera-t-elle
ne
pr^fMef
pas pas
m'avez
Sa
6.
sceur
punief
fleurs
7.
sont-elles
ne
m^en avez
II
ne
pas
(o
point).
II
ce
Vous
9.
parU,
8.
II
punit
cette"
jamais
es
enfants.
ne
Vous
plus
de
ne
jamais
pas
montri
11.
4glise.
0.
parle
cette
ne
montagne.
Votre
ami
son
n^a-t-il
ue
cheval-ldi
12.
Je
pense
quHl
punisse
enfant
3.
Esp4reZ'Vous
quHl
me
que
votre
flile gu4rissef
15.
14.
Je
que
n'esp^rais
ce
oint
dAfendlL
16.
quHl II
Si
vous
d4clarez
ne
gargon
st
hon^
je Va^ccepte.
ni
ni
n^esp^re
n^entend
sa
ni
r^pond,
17. II
ne
Je
m^a
ne
ense
vende
maison. ni
18.
pens4,
ni
ntendu
appeU,
19.
N^aviez-vous
ni
espiri
u^dle
guMtf
20,
J^esp^re
quefaurai
le temps.
LVIII
FIRST
PART.
[79,80
love
?
b.
"
1. her.
Do
you
love
he sister
her
I do
not
her,
He
and
I shall
not
not
love
2. Has
book
4,
has
accepted road
has
to
no
it.
3. Does
my
He
a)
4. Will
the
be
not
long?
5.
me
does
not
his
has
books.
not
6.
She
them is
shown
her
church
books,
is
never
she
open. of this
shown
route
you.
7.
This
8.
This
longer
open.
9. He
speaks
nor
only
acts ;
beautiful
neither
to
mountain.
10.
nor
He
neither
My
he
me
has
not
thought
ne
acted.
note
11.
has
man
ordered
; my
(de
point
me
78,
speak
no
father
has
ordered
to
speak
of
this
an
more
(cf.79,
Ex.
5).
Verbs.
with
the
Reflexive
80.
Verbs
me
are
'
construed
'
reflexively
or
reflexive
te
irous
"
object
pronouns
'
myself
Ho
nous
(for) myseK,'
*
'
thyseK,'
^
etc.,
himself,
herself,
se
'
itself,'
ourselves,'
.
yourselves
compound
(yourself),' etc.,
reflexive by
'
themselves,
etc.
(cf 47).
the
In
enses,
verbs
"
always
Thus
PRESENT
:
take
auxiliary
itre, to
be
rendered
have.'
IND.
'
je
tu
me
flatte ^
^
I flatter
myself thyself
'
fejlattes
se
thou
flatterest himself
'
il
nous vous
flatte ^ he
nous
flatters
'
flattons
we
flatter
flatter
'
ourselves
"0us
se
yourselves
(or -self)
'
Us
flatter
etc.
themselves,'
COMP.
PRESENT
IND.
je
tu
me
have
flattered thyself
etc.
'
myself
'
il
s^estflatt4
"
he
has
or
flattered
h mute
himself,'
me,
Note
Note
an
1.
2.
"
Before
The
place
vowel
of the
te,
se
become
the
a
m',
t\ s\
except
reflexive
when
pronoun
is before
to
verb,
ith
affirmative
imperative,
to
moi,
it is appended
it by
hyphen
"
(me,
e being
changed
toi)
.
Cf
.
44,
0,
81.]
VERBS.
XLIX
Note
3.
"
In
compound
auxiliary
has
tenses
were
the
past
participle
not
^tre
is treated
recisely
eUe
as
if the
avoir,
(cf. 75).
sont
un
"
x.
s'est
flattered
'
herself/
elle s'est
Us
se
flatt4
coup,
they
have
gave Many
.
flattered
herseK
themselves
; but
donni
she
(ind.obj.) a
are
stroke.'
in French
to
'
8 1
verbs
used
reflexively
are
:
when
not
so
sed
in
English.
or
Such
passively.
or
verbs
generally
il ^arr^te
be
translated
ntransitively
^
Thus
is
he
se
stops/
trompe
il s'ap'
rocke
he
approaches
etc.
approaching,'
il
he
is
istaken/
Exercise
* '
XXIII
'
(a, 6).
s^approcher
se
^arriter covAiher
'
stop
s*
Verier
cry
out
(de)
'
approach
'
se
'
tromper
*
doiUer
(de)
*
suspect
go
to
bed
be
'
mistaken
*
lever
'rise
'
^amuser
amuse
se
d^fier(de)
distrust
'
(enjoy)
se
*
o.
s.'
'
porter
rue
be
(in respect
bien
'
to
health)
'
'
Je
ports
vous
am
well
9
How
are
'
Comment
hier
a.
portez-vous
you
;
'
'yesterday/ aujourd'hui
s*arr^ta.
'to-day
s'est
encore
'yet'
"
1.
L'fiomme
2.
Ma
soeur
Elle
couchie,
3.
Je
me
uis
lev4
d dnq
heures,
4.
s'est
beaucoup
amtisie
lis
se
dans
a viUe.
voiLS.
5. L^arm4e
7.
s'approcha doutais
ne me
de
sa
la mile.
6.
sont
dSfl4
vous
Je
me
de
conduite. pas
ma
8.
Comment
10. 11.
ortez-vousf
vous
9. Je
ites-vous
porte hier,
tr^s-bien.
soeur
A
me
quelle
suis
eure
coucMe
et
Je
oucMe
d,
et
neuf
quart,
heures, 12.
ne
je
me
suis
levee
aujourd^hui
13.
cinq
eures
mon
Arrite-toi;
arr^tez-vous. moi.
se
Approche-
oi,
enfant,
1.
te
dAfiepas
throughout
is
de
b.
"
Conjugate
but
my you
flatter and
well.
se
rijouir,
brother
not
2. had
well,
brother
called
not
3. sister child
My had
topped Do
when
you
not
him,
?
but 5.
been
my
stopped.
everything.
enjoy
women
yourself
have
This
suspects
6.
These
mistaken.
FIRST
PART.
[82-84.
JB.
A
Irregular
irregular which
VerbSm
defeat
student
SJ^*"
full this
treatment
of
the
verbs
would
to
simply
the
a
the
urpose
of reading
brief
the
introduction, earliest of
is
moment
enable with It
common
egin
at
practicable the
a
fair
knowledge
of the
prominent
to
features
here verbs,
to
French few
of
grammar.
has
seemed
and
best,
therefore, of
only
or
the
most
ative representdetermining
the
enough
or
to
help
at
the any
to
student
moment,
in
rregular
forms,
in
consult
the
detailed
xposition
Part
list of
Second,
such
"
161;
add,
for
as
reference,
may
cause
an
lphabetical
some
forms
of
other
irregular
verbs
the
earner
difficulty.
82.
some
The
Irregular in
-er,
verbs,
as
already
noted
(^^),consist
70
of
verbs
; and
-/",
in
-re
"
altogether
about
primary
verbs
of all verbs
-oir
(16 primary).
forms,
83-
Principal past
are
Parts. participle,
the
"
Five
the
infinitive,
and
of
a
present
participle,
present
principal
can
indicative,
parts
preterit
French them
are
dic in-
called
verb,
because
to
be
the
derived
regular
from
ing accordwithout
less
for
verbs
are
exception.
irregular
to
verbs know
or
they
the
at
much parts
so. an
But
usually
it is sufficient in order
to
principal
of
rregular form.
verb
make,
least
recognize,
any
other
[84.]
as
The
a
principal
and
derivable
forms
of
aimer
(which
may
erve
model
verbs) are
(i.e.add \
.
those after
"Li8
described
below:
* Inf.
"
( f^t- faimer-ai
^
aimer
"
-at
"
:;
r). ^
after
( cond.
Pr.
part,
faimer-ais
(i.e. add
r).
for
for
aim^ant
\ T'
(
:
-anO
-ant
Past
Pr.
part, ind.
a/me:
compound
imp've impf.
aime.
tenses,
/ai
aim4,
etc.
fa/me
Pret.
stem
ind,
:
faimai:
cf
.
suh]. faimorsse
(i.e. add
sse
to
the
note
below).
4,
85.]
VERBS.
LI
Note.
"
The
plural
of
the
pres.
ind.
-sse
is the
always impf.
from
the is
pres.
to
part.
aim-onsyjin-iss-onsy romp-ons).
stems
The
of
found
subj.
added
the
ret.
aima-^Jini-y rompiwith
^
(always
the
in 2d
sing.).
of
Compare
partir
the
'
above
:
"
principal
parts
the
irregular
erb
depart
Inf.
parting i
paxt.
f
cond, partir-a/s.
*
Pr.
part-ant
part/
:
(impf.
Past
uia.jepart'ais.
tenses,
part,
compound
"
Pr.
ind.
je pars
pr.
ind.
je
vous
pars,
pars,
il part;
partent.
"
(pL
from
pr.
pars,
part.)nous
partons,
part-ons,
partez.
Us
ImpVe
partez.
:
Pret.
ind.
je parfis
the
impf.
suhj.je
parts of
parti-sse.
86.
Learn
principal
the
following
ten
verbs
(irregularparts
Inf.
Pk.
in heavy
Part.
type)
Past
"
Part.
Pres.
Ind.
Pret.
Ind.
Partir
depart
parfant
parti
je pars je
sens
je
partis
Sentir
feel
sentant
senti
je
sentis
Souffrir
suffer
souffrant
soufferf
je
souffre
je souffris
Offrir
offer
offrant
affert
foffre
je
je
y^ts
mets
foffris je je
vetis
Vitir
clothe
vetant
vetu
Mettre
put
mettant
mis
mis
jLcrire
write
ecr/yanf
liaant
Serif
iu
j'"cris
j'ecriyis
Lire
read
je je
lis
je je
ius
Vivre
Uve
vivant
vecu
vis
vecus
Craindre
"
craignant
craint
je
crains
je
craignis
fear
Instead
oi partissant
(cf.jinissanty
t Instead
ot partis
(cf.^nis).
FIRST
PART.
[85
Each
tense
of
these of the
verbs
is
conjugated
indicative
as
regularly,
is formed
observing
from
that
the
plural
present
the
endings
present
-ons, nous
participle
-ez,
(by
for
vous
substituting,
Hence:
usual,
Pr.
;
the
pars,
personal
tu
-ent
-ant).
partez,
je
parsy
tu
art,
partons,
Us partent
etc.
"
je souffre,
tu
"
souf
fres,
il
souffre, nous
craignons,
souffrons,
vous
je
Us
crains,
crains,
i
on.
raint,
nous
craignez,
craignent;
and
so
Exercise
XXIV
(a, b).
' '
demain
Note.
"
to-morrow
'
; lorsque
requires
(lorsqu^) when
the requires
ne
sur
'
upon
9u".
Craindre
without
"
*fear'
ne,
subjunctive
an
after
ne
When
sed
itself
it
c
generally
expletive fear
he may
before speak.'
the
subjunctive.
a.
"
Ex.
Je
rains
qu*il
parle
*1
Conjugate
Translate:
quHl
partftt
throughout 1. 2.
II
part;
all the
U
verbs
given
hier;
under
^,
pensais
h,
"
partU
je
ne
as
Nous
nous
partons
aujourcPhui;
lorsquHl
qu'U
il d 4 sire
qv"
ous
partions
demain;
vous
partions
et
partons!
;
vous vous
II sent
que
Vaimez,
le sentUes;
je dSsire je n'esp^rais
(it) sentez;
r argent
sur
vous
que
entissiez,
4. si
SHI
part,
avals.
je souffrirai
5.
II met
son
beaucoup;
livre
sur
je
la
lui
offrirai
fen
;
table; qu'U
il le
it
la table
je defends
quHl
Vy
mette;
je d^fendis
6crivent;
Us
Vy
tt.
6. lis
Us
plumes;
^crivent;
je
souhaite
quHls
^criront
de-
ain;
Scrivaient
il
or
lorsque
donna
farrivai;
quHls
Us
4criraient
7.
vivons
nous ne
sHls
vit
avaient
enjcore;
nx"us
es
Scrivissent.
II
v^ut;
je
ct
priais temps;
Dieu
quHl
v^cHt;
nous
encore;
ivions
ce
j*appr4hende
ne
vivions
ne
pas,
crai-
. Je
Grains
quHl
parte;
parte;
je
ne
qu'U
parte;
vous
nez
pas
quHl
craignez-vous
que
vous
quHl
ne
paHef
craigniez
;
vous ne
a
uHl
n'4crivtt;
pas;
je desire
sHl
le craigniez
point
raindrez
souffrait,vous
il est
encore
craindriez.
9. Mon 10.
est
ne nous
fr^e
bonne
eaucoup
souffert, et
lui
moi-m^me.
souffranX.
11.
La
que
Une
osition
(m.)
est
offerte.
II
craint
lettre
vous
4crite,
lisiez
sommes
sa
je Vai
crite
12.
lettre.
3.
Graignant
que
vous
n^arriviez
jioint,
partis.
86.]
86.
make,
VERBS.
Lni
Aller
do.' is
as
"
'
verbs
hold,' dire tenir say,' faire go/ ira/i/" come,' The conjugation of these five very common follows (irregulararts in heavy type) : p
' * ' *
"
Pronounce
wen
(likebien).
faites
Exercise
en
XXV
use
(a, 6).
of
se
aUer
"
^go
'
away
(obs.the
and
tenses
en
^away of oMer,
') ;
de
^to.'
a.
Conjugate
and
throughout
all the
venir,
teniVf
ire, b.
faire.
:
"
Translate
leur
chez
d
1. Je vais
;
cTiez M,
Adam,
2. Mes
le temps.
fr^res
n'iront
as
chez
ira
cousin
son
Us
iraient
avaient ai'ils
3. J'esp^re
y aille.
uHl
cousin;
je n'esp^re
exige
que
vous
point
quHl
4. lis
ll^rent
Paris.
aussi
;
5.
II
veniez;
si
vous
veniez
iendrait
ilvient;
ilviendra;
tient
eUe
rose
est
venue;
ordonnez
ma
u'elle
vienne.
6.
7,
EUe
la
d,
la
main;
ni^
venir
iendra
la
rose,
Vous
dites
mon
quHl
p^re
viendra;
me
dites-lui quHl
il
s^en
de
lle desire
que
je
cela
le dise; il s^en
dit
va;
viendra
ira;
en
(vien drait
je
sou-
disant
alia,
8. II
s^en
aite
quHl
s^en
aille,
mxi
9.
soeur
II demande
que
nous
nous
oMons thee
ensez-vous
que
s^en
aiUef
10.
Elle
Var4;'en
s^en
(^get
alUe.
le
ence,
go
away');
allez^ous-en.
11.
venir;
est
12.
Que fait
le gargonf
je
le
ferai
fordonne
quHl
fosse;
aites-levenir.
87.
Verbs
alike,
""
in
"
recisely
-1 "
Verbs
in
-oiV,
though in
common.
not
conjugated
As
principles
-
model
-^
Pronounce
fai- Ukefe-
here
and
in
derivations.
87-89.]
VERBS.
LV
or
them
all
may
serve
recevoir
67.
receive/ which
and
has
been
parts
scr deare
already repeated
:
under
Its principal
derived
here
Inf.
Pe.
Part.
Past
Part.
Pr.
Ihd.
Prst.
Ind.
Recevoir
p.
recevant
Pr.S.
requ
je reqois
tu
je
recus
Ipf.
rent's
s.
je
rece"Mii
C.
je
tu
regoive
j'ai regu
etc.
il
rw^it
recevons recevez
je
recuaae
refoives
nous vous
je'recevr^is
il revive
nous
vous
recevions
receviez
lis regoivent
Ip've
Us
resolvent
Ipf.
regois
recevons
recevez
je
Note.
recevais
"
Like
in
recevoir -cevoir
'
other
"
verbs
are
as
already
decevoir
^
noticed,
deceive,'
Also
owe,
except the
devoir^
that
its
past
to
participle
dO
circumflex,
devant, dH
guish distin-
du
de
le).
(f.due)^
e dois^ je
[88.]
All
verbs
1st
;
in
-oir
(savoir'know'
pi. present
excepted)
from
'
form,
the
like
ecevoir^
their
and
2d they
indicative
pourvoir
ent presdrop,
participle
recevoir,
and
all
(save
this
provide
some
'
')
'
ike
their the
root
oi in the
future
and
conditional,
slight
:
hange
of
attending
'
loss
(e.g.voir
'know'
'
see
:
fut.
err-ai;
'
pouvoir
*be
'
able
vaudr-ai;
pourr-ai;
savoir
aaur-ai;
cUoir
be
worth
vouloir
'wish
voudr-ai).
classified.
Other
irregularities
cannot
be
conveniently
89.
:
Below
are
'
given
six
of
the
'
most
common
'
verbs
be
in
-otV,
iz.
devoir
owe,
ought,'
voir
'wish,
see,'
pouvoir
able,
can,
may,'
avoir
'know,'
"
vouloir
Tenses
will,' falloir
are
'be
necessary'
(imper
left
unconjugated
regular.
Ip've
sac/ie
9.J
VERBS.
LVII
Pb.
Ind.
weux
"eux
Pbet.
Ind.
vovlu
je
tu
je voulus
Ipf.
s.
il veut
nous
vous
je
voulusse
voulons
voulez
ils veulent
Ip've
*
veuillez
please
fdUu
Ufaut
ilfallut
Ipf. 8.
ilfodlut
Exercise
Note
after doubt
XXVI
(a, 6).
'
1.
"
Vouloir
Also
'wish
savoir
'
a.nd
falloir*be
the
necessary
require
the
que,
subjuncbut only is
iye
que.
or
requires is
or
hen
uncertainty
implied
subjunctive (i.e.frequently
('Xt
him
que
are
after
when
it
used
egatively,
interrogatively, 2.
"
with
si).
is necessary
to
mon
Note
We
say
Ufaut
qu*il vienne
for
that
he
come
'
// lui
*
faut
venir
come.'
(*It
is necessary
come
'),both
*
expressions My brother
He
must
come.'
But
is, two
one
only
//
faut
frere
vienne
ust
That
but
constructions
when
allowed
when
the
subject
pronoun,
a.
only
it is
noun.
"
Conjugate
throughout
recevoir^
devoir,
pouvolr,
savoir,
nd
b.
vouloir.
"
Translate
une
1. Mon
onde
re^it
une
lettre;
une
j*esp^re qu^il
2. Nous
semaine;
ecevra
lettre ;
sp ^rez-vous
nous
quHl
receive
lettre 9 par
;
nous
ecevons
trois
dollars;
recevions
dix
par devez
dollars
Lveut
que
nous
recevions
deux
dollars
vous
jour
venir;
regimes
ne
et
argent
que
hier.
vous
3.
deviez
Je
sais
;
que
je
pense
venir;
as
venir
ils devraient
they
ought')
sing.).
Impersonal
verb
(used
only
in 3d
person
vm
FIRST
PART.
[89, 90.
je
ne
pensais brider
ma
pas
quails
diissent
venir,
4.
II
voit
la maison
l voyait
vit
la maison;
;
il vit s^arr^ter
vei*ra
quelqu\n;
il
me
jevoulais
s'il venait
uHl
nQce
voir
il
me
demain
verrait
ne
Je peux
;
cet
arbre-ld,
pas
je
ne
puis
(or je
peux
;
pas)
pourrai
oir
je
voir
ne
savais
; ;
que
vous
pussiez
le voir
je
Je
ous
demain
ils peuvent
venir
sHls
;
veulejtt,
6.
d 4 sire le
sait
uHl
le
(it)so/che
voire
vous
je
sais
quHl
sache
le
saura
je
savais
qvHU
venir,
;
aveZ'VOus
le"pn
(sachez) quHl
que
vous
favJt
7.
neveux
II
eut
que
parliez;
voie^
U voulait
vous ne
parlassiez
Us
je
as
quHl
me
voudront
qu'il
vousparler;
voudraient
=
quHl fact
or
le veuUle
(orveut
f que
Hhe
that');veuillez
vous
venir il
demain.
8.
mon
Ilfaut frbre
;
que
vous
ous
parliez^
;
faut
;
parler;
faut
que
arle
il
faUait
vtnt,
venir
or
faudrait
a
venir,
venir
nous
^U
;
en
le dAsirait
il
fallu quHl
il
lui
fallu
il
il leur aller,
fcUlait
or
venir,
fallait quHls
nous en
vinssent
faut
il
faut
que
ous
aUions,
List only,
verbs become
an
90.
Alphabetical
of
Other
Irregular list of
the
Forms.
such
common
"
Below
forms
is
of
in
giveo,
or
reference
irregular
he
alphabetical
as
other
ing, read-
(simple)
until
may
cause
learner
some
difficulty
verbs, given
as are
has Part
familiar Forms
be
with
the
irregular
nder
"
161,
II.
it must
easily
inferred
from
that the
those 1st
(thus, especially,
ind.
never
are
remembered
and
2d
the
res.
usually have
a
made in
from
the
pres.
part.,
and
that
irregular
verbs
"ir
stem
cquerrai
Fut. Pr.
I.
zcquiers
y.
or
acqu^rir
boive
Pr.
S.
I
or
I of
S.
*
.
boire
'
cquis
Past
Pr.
P. P.
Pret
acquire.'
botvent
bous bu
3 pi. Pr.
drink.'
sseyant
Pr.
I. of bouiUir
boil.'
sseyerai
)
^^^
)
Past
P.
y
8si"rai
of asseoir
*
of boire
'
drink.'
sseyant
Pr. Pr.
P. I.
seat.*
Pr.
Pr.
P.
ssieds
ceignant
or
P.
"" \ of
ceir ceindre
*
ssis
Past
P.
Pret.
ceignis
Pret.t.
gird.'
tteignant
Pr. Pret
P
tteignis
ri-
P.
ceint Past
P. P.
atteindre
attain.'
ttelnt
Past
0.]
VEEBS.
T.nr
onnais
Pr.
I. Pr.
P. P.
"crivant of connaitre
*
Pr. Pret.
Fut.
P.
onnaissara
Scrims
^nverrai
}""
'
^crire
write.*
nu
Past
know.'
of envoy P.
er
send.'
nnus
Pret. Pr. P.
^eignant
Pr.
Pret.
onstruisant
onstruisis
Pret.
Pr.
jof;
*
construire
construe.'
^eignis
^etn"
of
*
eteindre
extinguish.'
Past 3
s.
P.
ontraignant
P. of contraindre
constrain.'
(or
Pr. Pr.
I.)
P.
'
ontraignis
Pret. Past P.
Pr.
feignant
Past
ontraint
feignis Pret.
of
feindre
feign.'
(or
8.
I.)
I.
.
-
feint
hats
P.
-"
*
urais
(reg.)
Fut.
Ipf
(or3s.Pr.I.)
of courir Pr.
*run.'
urrai
I. of hair
Pr.
P.
hate.'
ru
Past
P.
rtM
Pret.
Pr.
joignis Pret.
of
jotndre 'join.*
usarU
S.
P.
m"
Pret.
Past
}
P.
of
coudre
sew.'
(or3s.Pr.S.)
lis Pr.
I. P.
-fc
su
aignant
Pr.
Pret.
P.
'
"
of /irc
read.'
atgnis
P.
of
Past
s.
craindre
fear.'
ainf
P. Pr.
/mi Past
P.
I. Pr. P.
(or 3
1.)-^
*
/"is Pr.
believe.'
*
ois Pr.
I. of craire
I.
luisant
of luire
shine.'
ois Pr.
oissant
Pr
"
-
}of
J
luisis Pret.
grow.'
men*
croitre
Pr.
Pr.
P.
I. of I.
mentir mourir
lie.'
*
""i'""'^-^! of
Past Past
P. P.
croire'
beUere.'
meurs
meure
die.'
S.
I.
'
meus
Pr. Pr.
Past
Pret
Pr. I.
J of
or
croitre
grow.'
meuve
mouvoir
move.'
S.
P. of P.. P.
mourir
*
"t^e
S.
"
*
jnorf
die.'
of
cueillir
cull.*
eiUerai
Fut.
motdant
mou/u
Pr. Past
is Pr.
I. Pr.
P.
P.
isant
of cuire
*
moulus
ntourrai
mourus OTu TOMS
Pret. t.
Fut.
Uff o |J
moudre
grind.
'xts
Pret.
P. I. I.
or or
boil.'
4
/
of mourir
die.'
it Past
s.
Pr.
*
I. sleep.'
rs
Pr.
dormir
mouvoir
'
move.
uis
Pr.
Pret.
Pr.
I.
uisant
Pr.
P.
of verbs
*
in
-duire
nais
lead.'
natssant
Pr.
P.
of nat^e naquis
"^
'be
born.
Pret. P.
Past
lX
FIRST
PART.
[90
nui
Past
Pr.
P.
sens
I. of
sentir
'
feel.'
serve.*
nuts
I.
*
sers
of nuire
Pr.
P.
hurt.'
sors
I. of servir
I. of
"orftr
nuisant
go
out.'
nuisis
Pret. Pr.
I.
'Solvant -solu
P.
Pr. P
P.
parais
Past
}
!
of yerbs
*
in
-sovdre
paraissant Past
Pret.
Pr.
P.
[ of
f
*
paraitre
paru
appear.'
suffi
su^s
solve.'
parus
Pret.
Pr.
}
I. P.
of
suffire suffice.'
*be.*
peignant
Pr. Pret.
P.
'
svffisant
of peindre paint.'
2.
peignis
1. suis Pr.
suts
I. of efre
peint 3
Past
s.
P.
(or
Pr.
S.)
P.
-
suivant
"ttiw
*
plaignant
Pr.
of su,ivre P. Pret.
Pr.
follow.*
plaignis
Pret. Past P.
of
plaindre
pity,'
suivis
to,"int t" tus
/"/am"
("") 'complain.'
^
P. Past P.
(or
^j
^^,.^^
s.
Pr.
.
I.)
"
(or "i)
Pret.
1^ .besUent.'
J
paisan
I of p/aiVc ^
'please.'
plait
s.
s.
^
Pr.
iJ
1. 1
-
vatlle Pr.
,
.
S.
P.
P.
pleut
,
P.
^
1.
/)/" Past
P.
)" of /
*
pleuvoir ^
rain.
valant
ra/w
Pr.
Past
of vaUnr
*
P. 1
"
of
plaire
^
, *
please.
*
va/u5
Pret.
Put.
be
worth/
vaudrai
'
plut 3
or
s.
Pret.
*
of pleuvoir
please.'
rain
vazir
(3. vau")
Past
P.
Pr.
I.
plaire
Pr.
r^cM
"\
renant
P.
v"cus
Pret.
Pr.
}^^
rture
live.'
renne
Tr.S.
Past
Pr.
l^^prendre }
or
rU
P.
Pret.
J
*
v^^s
1.
take.'
vis ris
Pr.
Pret.
live.'
repens
I. of repentir
repent.'
"
2.
of voir
see.*
rtPastP.
.
1
"
^
ris
Pr.
I.
or
Pret. Verbs
of
nre
M *
u. laugh.'
Note.
t
"
in
-aitre
retain
the
circumflex
only
where
i is followed
by
(^paraxtf butparats).
91-03.]
INDECLINABLBS.
LXI
IKDEOLINASLES.
As
all
indeclinables
(i.e.dverbs, a
here
etc.)are
said
found them.
directly
in
he
dictionaries,
little need
be
abbut
Adverbs.
91.
'
Adverbs
'
are
either:
a.
'
single,
as
id
'here,'
'
oh
etc.
'
'where,'
;
or,
in,' quand
when,'
dijdb already,'
'
Men
well,'
d, peu
'
b.
dverb-phrases
'
like
tout
d d
present
'
at
present,'
pr^s
nearly,'
,peine
Note.
hardly,'
Most
to
fait entirely,'
can
totjit d, coup
into
suddenly,'
by adding
etc.
the
in
"
adjectives
the
be
converted
or
adverbs
uffix -ment
"
feminine
form,
to
the
masculine
if terminating
owel.
Ex.
fort
grand
strong
*
:
'
fortement
:
'
strongly
*
great
grandement
greatly
*
franc
long
'
'frank long
* *
'
:
:
*
franchement
longuement
* *
frankly
lengthily
*
'
facile
*
easy
true
*
r
:
'
facilement
*
vrai
vraimenf
:
jolt
92.
pretty
joliment
'
Comparison.
those
"
Adverbs
capable
of
comparison like
ciall (espe
four
derived aid
of
from plus
adjectives)are
or
compared,
the
tives adjec
by in
^
the
moins.
Only
"
following
this
'
respect
irregular,
viz.
'
ien
'
well
mieux
'
^
better
'
'
le mieux
le pis le plus
'
best
'
'
al
bad(ly)
^
pis
'
worse
* '
worst
'
'
eaucoup
'
much
'
plus
moins
more
'
most
'
eu
little
less
'
le moins
least
Prepositions.
93.
^
Prepositions,
de
*
like
^
adverbs,
through,'
are
either
^
a.
single,
etc.
;
as or,
to,'
from,'
par
contre
against,'
XII
FIRST
PART.
[93-95
'
b, prepositional
'
phrases
far
use
like
etc.
d, travers
across/ ajin
de
in order
to/ jusqu^di
Note
:
'
as
as/
of
*
1.
"
The
.
prepositions
*
is
a
often
*
different from
' '
in
French
parts
and
*
nglish
cf
;
penser
think
*
of in
; acheter
buy early
; de
en
toutes
on
ll
act
sides
de
bonne
man
heure
'
good
so on.
time,
agtr French
honnete
requires
a
homme
like
an
honest
; and
Often,
vice
versa
*
also,
:
ositi prepob^ir
where
'
English
'
does
not,
sonner
and
cf
plaire
please/
etc.
a
obey
; ^couter
listen
in
to/
quelqu'un infinitive
'
ring used
for
some-one/
or
Note
2. To
"
As
English,
an
is
to
'
with
without French
sition. prepoor
the
English
infinitive-sign
correspond
in
de
is used
an
especially
before
subject-infinitive placed
an
after
or
:
its verb,
and
efore //
object-infinitive when
imprudent de
idea
of
separation
est
source
is implied.
x.
est
parler
(but
Parler
a
imprudent
subject-infiniti
de
him
*
ithout
preposition
when
heading
clause).
de parler
*
// s^abstient
He
parler
to
He
bstains
from
talking.'
II lui
defend
forbids
speak.'
Conjunctions.
94.
The
mais
conjunctions
^
are
likewise
^
either:
etc.
;
or,
'
a.
single,
as
and/
but/
'
qiie
that/
^
si
if/
6.
conjimctioii
parce
phrases
like
avant
que
before/
pendant
que
while/
que
'because/
etc.
Interjections.
95.
Simple
interjectionsare
etc.
ah
ah/
"5 or
'
o^
oh/
Mlas
en
alas
avant
ban
'good/
d
few heure
inter
'
jectional phrases,
well,'
etc.,
like
occur.
forward,'
la bonne
very
also
Exercise
ADVERBS
XXVIL
:
' '
Men
'
'
well
' '
toujour s
surtout
'
always
' '
ailleurs
partout
bos
'
'
elsewhere everywhere
especially
'
franchement
doucement
'
frankly
'
'
in
'
low
'
tone
'
gently
'
haut
aloud
'
longuement
'
'
lengthily
'
'
tdt^ bientdt
soon
'
'
(t prherU
at
present
'
quelquefois
sometimes
d, peine
'
hardly
5.]
INDECLINABLBS.
LXni
peu
prds
'
nearly
' '
sur-le-champ
on
'
the
spot,
both marcM
bos
haut
tout
'
cheaply
-
immediately
toiU tout
tout
below
^
'
d coup d de
'
suddenly
'
'
above
'
fait
'
entirely
'
at
'
all
'
suite
*
immediately
'
'
evt'^tre
perhaps
PREPOSITIONS
aussi^
:
si
as,
so
pr^s
'
after
d, travers
'
'
across,
through
to
'
'
vant
before
^
(in time)
'
d^apr^s
'
'
according
even
^
evant
before
'
(in position)
'
jusqu'd,
aiUour
to
errih'e
^
behind
'
de de
de
*
'
around
'
us
'
under
'
hors pr^s
*
out
near
of
'
upon
chez
at
or
to
the
house
'
of, with,
among
CONJUNCTIONS
(those spaced
^for
'
requiring
the
subjunctiye):
que que
fin
4n
order
that
'
mme
*as'
'
'
avant
'before'
'
orsque
when
hien
'
que' que
que
although
uoique
'
'although
'
sans
'without
'in
order
; but
that
that
'
'
uisque
Note.
since
Adverbs
time
pour
follow
the
"
usually
personal
yerb-f
follow
est
venu
a
orm
adverbs Ex.
f specialized
/ parte
toujoursde
hier,
participle.
hier,
1.
Monfrh'e
a
bien,
mats
ma
soeur
4crit N^ous
beaucmtp
tout
mieux,
d,
II lui
parU
franchement.
4. Ne
3.
sommes
fait
chez
ontents
db present.
voulez-vous
vous
pas
venir
tout
de
suite
on
p^e
5. De
quoi plus
coup.
cet homme
a-t-il parlS
vous
si longuement
?
me
. Nous
parlerons
tout
doucement
si
le voulez,
cent
7.
II
^pondit
8.
de
peine
a-t-il
personnes
dans
Valise.
9.
J'ai
peu
livres^ mais
en
moins.
10.
Je
sais
XIV
FIRST
PART.
[95
deux
ue
mon
ami
lui
donn6
la table, moi,
pen
pr^s
cents avant
dollars.
quatre
11.
Le
ivre
4tait derri^re
II
12.
et
II viendra venait
heures.
est
13.
devant
eUe
apr^s.
14.
II
hors
la
16.
JHrai
jusqu'd, V4glise.
soU
16.
J'y
itais
aim4e,
lorsqu'U
rriva.
Quoiqu^elle
vous
bonne
eUe
rCest pas
lui
18.
Je
iendrai
puisque
le voulez.
19.
Je
le
ai
Scrit
fin
ne
qu^il
{pour quHt)
21.
vienne.
II vint
20.
avant
Bienqueje
qu^eUe
(it)sacheje
le dirai
point.
fHU
venue.
INDEX
TO
PART
I.
"
with
le
15
conjunctions
consonants
:
94 pron.
.
indef.
article
14
60 52
inf. sign
93.2
1
16
.
indefinites
interrogatives interrog.
constr'n.
ccent-signs
contraction
16
cent-stresA
accent
3
1
77-9
95
ute
de
with
le
15
interjections
irregular
djectives
agreement
'Ex. X.
26
etc.
partitive
18-20 93.2
see
verbs.
82
etc.
(X. 1).
2.
place
le.
50-1
. . .
U
with
gener.
12 defh
art
constr.
...
dverbs place
demonstratives devoir
15
(Ex. XXVI).
26
89
1
16
18
XI.
2.
ieul
in part,
al=au
23-4 86
1
7
59
spec'l
use
Ex.
Uer
lequelf inter
relat linking
52
lphabet
57
oir
73
6,
11
^ change
in verbs,
12.
69
n.
cun
82 elision
en,
pron.
part
46
mauvais,
comp
art
36 38.1
n, comp
36
etre,
conj
neut.
v
73 76
mille,
no
monophthongs
with
37
39 nasal vowels
40
1
/aire, conj
feminine
:
86
ne
78
dilla
no
(Ex. XVIII.
Y.
neg.
constr
*n
1.)
ntf
art.
38.1
......
nouns,
Ex.
78
21
etc.
rcumflex
1 26
:
adject's
26-33
nouns
d, pi
nul
gender
:
63
mparison
numerals
:
37 25
adject
adv
tenses..
.
36
92
nouns
Ex.
V,
XI.
at/, pi
adject's
generic grave article
acc't
26-38 13
1
oir-
mpound
74 66-8
verbs
87
61
onjugation
on
LXVI
INDEX
TO
PART
I.
"
37
39 pouvoir prepositions
present, Ex.
"
89 97 XIII.
1. 83 savoir
ordinals infl'n
8
:
subjunctive
Ex. XIX,
XXI-XXV.
part,
article
......
18-9 principal
20 75, 80.3
quantity
parts
syllabication
tout
pron.
particles
46 60,64
4 52 56
past
pers.
ersonne
.41-6 62
qui
interr
venir
etit, comp
:
36
relat quoi
:
verbs vouloir
vowels:
pronunc'n,
interr
52-4 56
plural
nouns
21-5
34
relat
4 etc
reflexives
adject's
47
verbs
possessiyes
48-9
reflexive
80-1
.
. .
y, pron.
part
PART
IL
METHODICAL
PRESENTATION
OF
FRENCH
GRAMMAR
WITH
ISTORICAL
SKETCH
INTRODUCTIONS, OF
THE
VERSIFICATION,
OF WORDS
AND AND
RELATION
FRENCH
ANGLO-FRENCH
(Calcuulted
for
Two
Terms,
or
Less)
THE
FRENCH
LANGUAGE.
Fbench,
Italian,
southern
Spanish,
Portuguese,
Ehaeto
Eomanio
(spoken in
that
chian, spoken
in have
popular
Latin,
'
which
or '),
therefore
called
Bomance
Bomanio
Eoman (i.e.
Neo-
Latin The
New-Latin'). (*
development
of the
French
language
other
from
Latin may
under
the accessory
as
of various
tongues
be briefly
sketched
From
the
Gaul
began
to
be
conquered
our
by
the
Eomans
during
last two
centuries vulgar
before
Latin
era,
Eoman
romana
soldiers
aud
colonists
government
brought
(lingua
and rustica)y
(sermo urbaofficials literary Latin Aided in its spread by the into the subdued country. nu8)y and the iron system of Eoman superior culture of its speakers
perhaps
the
colonization,
also by the
Celtic
and
Latin,
the
between
a
the
old
few
centuries conquered
almost
wholly the
obliterated
the native
of the
Gaul, and the or northern middle been to have Basque^ the language seems of southern which Gaul (Aquitania) and these idioms have left but slight traces ; in French.
The inroads and Burgundians,
of of Germanic conquests in the 5th century,
"
barbarians,
Celtic in
tribes
"
Franks,
the
Goths,
brought
contact
Teutonic
tha
form
speech
into
Gaul
and
in
with
SECOND
PART.
omanic.
The
Teutonic succeeded
the
into
dialects
(cafled by
their
common
own
name
iThgua
theodiscd)
of
in
holding
for
long
ime
alongside
were
Romanic
(lingua romana),
it, however,
until,
a
finally,
hey
merged
of
it, bequeathing
considerable
of
Germanic
romanized,
many
which
ave
The
in modern
between the in
or
vulgar
and
Latin her
was
also
radually,
with
decline of
influence
was
in
aul,
decided
more
favor
the
which
meanwhile
uffering This
less
important idiom
dialectical
early branched
of
changes..
into
:
Gallo-Romanic nowise
the
two
leading,
southern,
hough
homogeneous,
families
dialects
*yes'
the
alled
langne
d*oc
in the the
now
(as
expressing
^
by
i.e.
(as spoken
northern,
=
Roman
provincia,'
oc^) or Provence),
'
venc Proand
'
he
called
langae
usually rise
d*oIl
(as
expressing
yes
by
il^
French southern
oui), or
idiom
Old
to
an
French.
early literature,
the 11th then
The
gave
which
12th
hone
with
"
extraordinary the
age of
splendor the
during
"
and
enturies the
troubadours, of southern of
and
perished
ith The
political
independence idiom
consisted in the
France. sub-dialects,
favored
of
northern
that
one
several
of
of
hich
spoken
circumstances
province
the
Ile-de-France,
political
and the
fostering gradually
century,
or
influence took
it
the
niversity
of Paris
or
Sorbonne,
in the 14th
precedence
became
all
the
others,
until,
of
the
ational
a
language of later
united
France,
Modem
French.
lexical and
And
series
the of
modifications,
of
especially
tical, syntacinto
language
the day.
14th
century
has
developed
the
rench
the
present
Oc from Oxl
of
Lat.
disputed
hoc.
origin, in
probably
answers
for
the
personal
ronoun
being the
repeated
(o je, o
Zeitschr.
etc.)
423,
and
il gradually
supplan
others.
[Cf.
Kuhns
m.
1877.]
THE
FRENCH
LANGUAGE.
To
the
above
has
sketch
a
should
be
added
part
that
French,
like
vocabulary
nglish,
borrowed outside
and
considerable
of its present
from Latin, of
from
languages, English.
the
Greek,
talian,
Spanish,
ever
influx
Classical
after
atin
words,
since
but
so
especially
he
time
of
the
Eenaissance,
with
has the
been
large
from
the
that
they
ctually
vie
From
in
number
words they
are,
derived
for
popular part,
atin.
these,
however,
most
learly
distinguished
as
by sketched
not
adhering
under 1
to
the
laws
of
phonetic
hange, There
briefly
will
(next page).
appropriate of form, heads, inflection,
follow
of
hereafter,
under changes
eneral
survey which
of
those
the
sweeping
nd
syntax
course
French
has
"
suffered
changes
during
its
ong
development of
consisting
of sounds,
hiefly
an
in
the
mutation
words
the
variation
almost
of
absolute
suppression and
case-forms,
synthetical
orms
comparison,
and
passive-forms,
and
in
the
evolution
of
a
of
ew
words of
verb-forms,
in
the
adoption
rigid
ystem
syntactical
arrangement.
SSCOKD
tAEt.
[L
I.
ELEUENTABT
SOUNDS
ASL
AOOENTS.
[1.
I.
HISTORY.
have
"
In
many
their
gradual
transition
as
to
modern
French, 'below.
Latin
words
suffered
"
modifications,
accent-
briefly
outlined words
has
Vowels.
A,
The
as
vo'oirel
of Latin
(with few
in form
:
ex-
ce
survived partem
.
such
Lat.
:
in French, accusative
though
has
:
modified
e.g.
L.
(usually
F.
part
;
the
the
French
noun-form,
a
cf
47)
vincere
as
va/ncre
a.
; bonitatem
It received
different b.
:
form
according
it
was
free
(libre, ending
one
(entrav^e, followed
a.
by
two
u,
consonants,
belonging
were, as
tied
"When
:
free,
7,
:
and
also
:
riting
e.g. aml-cus
ami;
now
lu-na
rule,
unaltered
changed
bonne.
as a
Other
vowels
(often
into
was
prevailingly
or
uttered
caused
monophthong).
sounds.
This
"
change
(1)
direct,
(2)
by
neighboring
(1)
Direct Fr.
=e,
Lat.
h,
e;
(exceptionally
phre;
later
now
a,
before
/) ;
ma4um:
e.g.
L.
sanita-tem
F.
santi
pa-
trem:
ama-re
aimer;
mal.
:
01
(or, by
old
change,
af)
e.g.
cre-dit
croit
by
vi-det
hal^-hat voit ;
avoit,
avait pied.
to
(so
all imperfects,
analogy).
CBU,
ueu,
=ie:
=
e.g.pe-dem:
fU
eu
(also
Jidrem
written,
:
denote
:
origin
or
otherwise,
:
OB,
i/e);
boBuf.
e.g.
fleur ;
;
no-vem
neuf;
deum:
gu-lam
gueule;
bo-vem:
u;
eu=o;
ieu
e.g.aurum:
ctr;
dieu.
Palatals
or
=
(2)
+
Palatal,
or
nasal
or
influence: following
"
(c,^,y;
into
T
a
or
', e
vowel)
n
=
preceding
vowel, -f pal.
=
both,
thong diphwith
to
containing
or
parasitic oi;
palatal
/
ui
[viz.a
;
ai ;
or
e,
pal.
ei;
o,
pal.=
ff-\-pal.=:
i=
pal. -\-a
:
iV] ;
habeo
:
directly
[viz. ^+
pal.=
pal. -\- e,
vocem
:
e.g. pdcem
paix;
pacare
ai ;
:
"
voix;
The
:
noceat:
ntiise;
u
payer
a
8olic(u)lu (==pai-ier)
shading
Scem
dix
cera
cire.
labial
sometimes
gave
labial
: ont.
to
preceding
vowel
e.g. clavum
clou
habunt
u
=
(popular form)
o:
"Nasals
efore
nasals
sinum
:
ti =
sein
ai;
;
sumus
S,
T=ei
:
(oi);
e.g.
amas:
aimes;
nasal
lana:
aine;
sommes.
They
was
also
produced
vowels.
b. "When
tied,
the
accent-vowel
usually
unchanged.
Exceptions:
-3.]
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
=e
{mU'tit : met);
(noc-tem;
to
u :
o,
ou
(cor-tem:
ei,
as
cour;
du-Viare:
douter) ;
9,
7+
alat(d=oi
1/1
(tec-turn; toit),or
when
also
:
free
the
(J'/ngam : /eigne) ;
frequent
;
0+pal.
nuit).
e.g.
Here
:
belongs
;
change
:
of
/ after
yowel
a/-ter
vowela
au-tre
cabaNos
cheuaux
in the
fol-lem
fou.
or
B,
Accentless being
then
usually
on case,
surriyed whole,
like
a
initial syllable
except
^
when
ied,
treated,
the
accent-yowels,
for
endency,
in the
e,
former
of retaining
e
(ha-bere
14
especially
7, d,
they
a,
'
into
were
*mute,*
"
cf. after
ing of changrni-nare:
ener).
or,
Otherwise
in
to
case
e
'
usually of
other
:
the
ayoid
:
always
"
ost
of
mute
and
yowels
to
combinations,
:
immed
II.
e.g. partem
part
or
lana
laine
Thus
vaincre,
Consonants
Lobs
often
:
"
were a.
often
ac
lost
",
changed.
-,
A.
Initial
to
(h)
st-, ep
early
changed
to
esc-
eat', esp-,
now
were
arther
reduced
(e.g.achola,
often yowel
older reduced
eacole,
to
:
6cole
tahat:
"
Mait).
b.
So
also
were
Latin
often
(es-) was
lost by
(exclusam
The
"
cluse).
8
Medials
usually
lost
after
a
(patrem
pere).
cote),
t
loss
was
then
often
indicated
than be
circumflex
(costam:
m
Finals
in both.
re
less
in writing
may
c
utterance
(22) ;
disappeared oi
%o
B.
Change.
Here
K
noted
the
frequent
i,
change ^,
or
c
(or s)
s
f /?, 6 to
or
; of
to
(+
gn
"
Lat. the
was
a)
to
ch ; of
",
to
j {g)
to
; of
to
nd
of
s,
+ palatal
n,
last four
sounds
peculiar
French
:
(26).
"
fter III.
m,r,l"
mute
usually
inaerted into
before
French
r,
/ (jmoVre
receiyed,
moudre)
Classical
French
; but
Latin
Words
and
borrowed
also,
somewhat
rbitrarily,
endings, they
irrelatiye
or
of
in
the
Latin
to
accentuation,
inal accent
yielded
Hence,
only
slowly
to
part
the
transforming
are
more
endencies
to
of
the
French.
contrary
accent
popular
the
words, word
:
they cf L.
.
aithful
form
than
to
the
of
Latin
fragilem
obilem:
F.
(borr.) fragile,mobile;
of
(pop.)/r8/e (older/rai7"),meuble.']
"
2.
Notation
French
Sounds.
are
The by
elementary
the
sounds constituting
of
he
language
denoted
use
letters
ts
alphabet,
and
by
the
of
various
are
subsidiary
below,
signs
or
evices.
These
letters
and
signs
proper.
described
before
he
subject
of pronunciation The
as
3.
Alphabet.
written
1.
"
"
French the
more
:
alphabet
contains
exactly
the
ame
letters
The
older
as
English.
common
a,
Note in
and
names
of
^,
the
French
letters
French
denoted
enne,
o,
follows
erre^
6^,
t",
c^,
u,
d",
effe,g",
v",
ache
(h),
t,
ji,
p^,'kUf
esse,
v",
double
ics, i grec,
zede.
SECOND
PART.
[3-7
spelling
as
more
e
modem
as
e
practice,
especially
the
to
in
out
words, and
given
is
to
noun pro-
'mute'
e
*"
(cf. 14),
'
other
its proper
Yowels sound
above,
each
case
consonan
with
or
ce,
an
mute
or
w
added
in
any
[be
de^fe,
2.
"
ghe
Note
k and
only
in foreign from
the
words
; and
y is
rarely
real
owel,
except
in words
borrowed
Greek.
4.
Subsidiary
Signs
or
Devices.
has denote
"
These
are:
[5.]
them,
Accent-marks.
however,
"
French
to
three
the
accent-marks,
accent-stress
none
serving cf.
of
the
are
ord
(about
:
which
10).
Their
rather
mixed
functions
follows
a.
The
acute signs,
*
(/)
used,
:
and
the
the
former
the
grave
to
an
(^)
denote open,
serves
* '
are
a
as
almost
close
entirelysound,
as
honetic
n "p^Q
Note.
:
'
(cf.14
"
^),and
cases
*
latter
in m^re
(14).
nyms homo'
In
a
*
*
few
'
the
;
om
grave
*
accent
'
to
disting^sh
*
e.g.
:
to
has
where
ou
or
; la*
there/ la
the
; dH
since
des
of
the,
some.'
b.
The
circumflex
or
(^) most
of
a
often
denotes
some
etymological
is liable
is usually
'
ontraction,
over
loss
letter
to
ccur
any
dge
'
vowel.
The
vowel
which isle
'
it rests
^
ong.
"
Ex.
; cdte
coast
; briUer
(older brusler)
NoTB.
"
Even
circumflex du
'
sometimes
the,
some';
serves
to
distinguish
nyms: homo*
e.g.
du
cru
*
*due':
grown
*of
*
crois
'grow
(est):
croia
belie
(st)
'
cm
believed.'
[6.] DisBresis.
is used
"
Two
e,
dots
i,
u
("),called
denote
a
diaeresis,
these
separationare
ark,'
over
to
that
vowels
"
in Noel
ronunciation
held
apart
from
preceding
voweL
Ex.
hair (= no-^l)y
[7.]
Cedilla
when
("small
that
z,"
formerly
z,
now
is
^)
has before
a, o,
u
sign
placed
of
*.
"
nder
ga
*
c,
letter written
will
the
sound
x.
(formerly
Silent
letters
cza).
chapter
in this
be
printed
with
roman
type.
-11.]
[8.]
By
a
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
combination
vowels,
of letters,
yarious
simple These
sounds
nasal
all described
etc.) are
also
denoted.
sounds
and
hereafter.
9.
Syllabication.
"
single
medial
thy
consonant
(save
gn)
belongs
nd
y)
the
eX'iL
or
consonant
digraph
:
(c/i, phy
nasal
following
"
vowel
two
a
or
e.g.
cU-pha-bet
the
ut
Of
be
more
only
one
last
if that
the
liquid
(r, I)
to
preceded
the
by
that
:
is not
e.g.
trom-
iquid,
last two,
belong
following
vowel
er,
af'fec-ii^
symp-fdmey
par-fer,
al-lez]
a-p/^s,
sa-bre,
trem-
/e-ment.
Note
1.
"
In
pronunciation,
'
silent
h is left out
of account
e.g.
bo-nheur
written bon-heur).
Note
2.
"
Compound
:
words in-spireT.
are
for
the
most
part
divided
according
to
heir
elements
e.g.
Accent
and
Quantity.
French
a
10.
Accent-stress.
is
given
to
"
In
slight of
a
prominence single
cen (ac
word:
the
last
sonorous
vowel
.g.
parl6^
salade,
opinion^
prohabUUe. in
a
This
prominence,
or
consisting
raised
to
pitch
like all
or
increased
the
strong
mphasis,
in
both,
is
too
weak
dim,
Hence
are
nglish French
accent,
surrounding
save
syllables. in
e
'
syllables
with
of
word,
those
mute,'
uttered
equal
istinctness.
NoTB 1.
; and
"
Authorities
occasional
are
not
as
to
the
as
nature
of the
above,
French
may
ccent
deviations
rule,
stated
be
eard.
NoTB
2.
"
Sentence-accent.
the
some
'
Usuallj
when
word. the
"
last
word
of
not
each
statement
em-
eceives
alone
instead,
accent,
does
intentionally
*
hasize,
other
J*ai
Honor
ctcheti la
demands
salade
it.'
have
ought
the
salad
; L*honneur
le demande
11.
Quantity.
is in French
"
The
not
distinction
very
between
long
in
part,
and
short
owels
marked,
and,
uncertain
10
SECOND
PART.
[11-14.
deviating
arbitrary,
the
usage
of As
in
every-day
a
speech
rule,
than
often the
from
theoretical
is and
more
laws. marked
vowel when
some
.
general
distinction
of
quantity
accented
in
has
unaccented
the
'
syllabl
the and
long
chiefly
when
it
e
'
(e.g. ame),
from
pere,
it is followed protractable
by
mute
(hue), or
it by
sonant
consonant
(j?agf
basGy
table).
the learner
are
While
few
must
here
rely
mainly
on
oral
instruction,
details
The
given
is usually
the
below.
long
:
[12.]
a.
vowel
it has
When
as
circumflex
e.g.
dmf,Jete,
eveque,
mat.
(Rarely
it i
short, b.
c.
in aumdne,
hotel.)
e
*
Directly
before
separated
mute
a
e.g. /ue,
jolie,joue.
vowel, especially
or
e
When
g,
,
from
following
basCj
*mute,'
rr
by
sonant
s,
or
(e.g.page^
dissimilar
tigCy
^glisej
of
gaze),
by
or
(e.g.pere,
or
guerre)
d.
or
by
two
consonants
which
the
first is
nasal
the
second
r,
(e.g. jambe,
syllables
assez,
crainte;
sabre,
table, cadavre).
x,
*
In
final
as,
before
augur,
(silent)",
Jier 'proud
the
by
z,
or
before
an
audible
e.g.
expres,
prix,
(hutJi-iT
suffers
*rely
*),air,
perd.
[13.]
In
to
connected
the
discourse employed
quantity the
various
changes,
accor
emphasis
speaker.
Pronunciation.
14.
Simple
Vowels
is
as
(not
combined
with
other
vowels).
"
Their
pronunciation
In
the
are
described
of
vowels
below.
both quantity the
between
can
Jj^**
pronunciation
to
(about
quality
which
cf.
11)
the
and
quality
is fixed,
that
be
out
considered.
In
The
describing
below,
two
quantity
not
left
of
but In
sight.
a
relation
the the
is not
always
and
nothing
"
long
practice
English
teach French
the
'
student
to
observe
relation.
and
have
vowel-sounds,
it must
be
borne
in mind the
French
long.
never
vanish,'
which
often
accompanies
English
when
(d, d) has
in
two
*
slightly father
of
a
'
different
sounds
so
1. nearly
; 2.
more
that open,
of
English
(not
in
^
quite
a
deep)
pro ap-
that
at,'
in Webster's
ask
representing
14.]
the
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
11
sound
quite
two
well.
The
former
"
occurs
when
base,
is long,
Mt,
except
"
before
consonants.
Ex.
(1) dme,
(tgre;
(2) camavcU,
a
paMe^
table,
tdcJier, IdL.
as
has
different
or
value
according
.
it ends
.
syllable
(as in
le, fe-ra)
1.
-e
not
A
fer-ma) (les,
SYLLABLE
Thus
(cf 9) :
CLOSING
(or
"e
Constituting
inconsistently
a
called
mute"
is somewhat
mv"t^')
so,
general
at
rule end of
(cf. note
words
1,
of
2)
two
it is silent,
or more
practically
:
only
the
syllables
a
e.g. cape,
me,
:
salade,
tasse;
and
when
it constitutes it approaches
syllable
e
by
in
^
itsel
aboi-e-ment.
Otherwise
rapidly and
in sound rounded
pe-sant,
entirely
same
err/
being
uttered
with
me,
closer,
se,
aperture
of
the
lips
(=
1.
"
Germ,
At the
o) :
end
e.g. le,
fe-ra,
is not
to
d-pre-t4.
silent
when by (i.e.
:
NoTB by
:
of polysyllables belonging
a
-c
preceded
two
consonant-sounds
the
the
syllable in le also
fer
, etc.
cf.
9).
It has
then "By
a
slight
tinge this
of
somid the
e-sound
e.g.
sa-brCf
cases.
a-ble, ora-cle,
Note 2.
oyer
"
ca-dre. Within
or
emphasis except
a
is heard
in other
-e
word,
unless
;
in
initial should
syllables,
be
the
is
often
:
lipped
dimmed,
re-ve-nu
harsh
sound
result
e.g.
e-te-nir, Note
de-ve-nir,
but
dk-pre-t".
euphony Thus,
3.
"
In
connected
from above
discourse, rules.
and
emphasis
e
may
cause
or
ome
deviation in
que
a
one
especially,
in
is
suppressed
ne
lighted
ce
or
more
of successive
Final
e
monosyllables
in
je (e.g.
le puis.
silent
verse,
Vst
je rfts).
of
polysyllables
-6/e, etc., of
is entirely
e
efore
vowel
(e.g.oracle ancieny
On
the
treatment
mute
in
423.
.
2.
a-
NOT
an
CLOSING
SYLLABLE
souuds and
also
like before
in
ere
'
(French
but
except
les, est,
^) before
t.
audible
e
consonant,
'
silent
soxt;
early
like
"
in
'
they
(Fr. S) before
nez,
silent
consonants,
ver-re', es,
and
Ex.
;
"
(= ^) bref,fer-ma,
pied,
'
des-pote,
romets
Note
(= ^
"
parlev,
clet
1.
2.
as
Et*
Final
and
-es
*
is pronounced
^.
Note
"
of
polysyllables, E.g.
ames,
and
-ent
of
3d
plural
of
verbs
are
reated
if simply
-e
mute.'
tables,
donnentf
parlent.
(Cf
.,
however,
28.)
12
SECOND
PART.
[14.
NoTB
3.
"
Before
like ^.
doable
consonaDt
=
(usuallj
; hut
pronounced
=
as
simple)
ennemi=
often
sounds
Cf. essayer
isayei
dresser
drh-ser;
k-ne-mi. Note
4.
"
Followed
by
double
nenni
nasal,
'no
sounds
like
French
short
in
femme
Note
indeed/
in
'emment
e
hennir
'neigh/
solennel
'solemn/
in
ail adverbs
hy and
ss,
terminating
e
(e.g.violemment,
in dessous
Followed
'
sounds
like
'mute'
etc.) (= de-sou)
'
under/
dessus In that
these the
"
above/
words
in most
words
an
beginning inorganic
with
ress-
(ressembler
serving and
so
etc.).
Note
.
the
s
first
has
a
is only
insertion
to
denote
following
hissing
sound
(dessous for
use
de
sous
on)
6.
Concerning
the
orthographic
of
to
make
spirant,
cf
23 g.
sounds
almost
short crSes
;
"
like and
in Hhey
'
(=
in Grerm.
e
mehr),
"
but
it
is usually donn4e,
sharp,
except
before
mute.
Ex.
(long
vMt4,
(short and
sharp)
donn^^
cr^r,
d^,
citHbrM.
a
^,
when
long
have
almost
the
sound
and
^
of
when
in
*ere'
or
of
e
ei in
*heir'
"
(=
in
Germ,
mdhre),
trapeze
short
;
"
of
in
'let.'
Ex.
(long) m^re^
proc^de,
tMse^
y^te, ^tre
(short) acMte,
"
br^ve,
(i)/
amie
have
the
to
sound quality.
of
"
i in Ex. limite
according
;
"
'
long
or
short
hydrej
odime,
type^
'
ami,
0,
(d)
or
has
more
rather
open,
closer
sound
than
that
o
o
no/
in
'
chiefly
'
when
o
long
approaching
short.
"
of
not
(=
in
Germ.
gros
c 8olt),hiefly
"
when
sottGy
Ex.
rose, (close)
trdne^
ndtre^
(open) soly
The sound
porter.
{H) :
I,
of this
a
vowel
(=
Latin
to
as
Germ,
has il)
in
as
no
equivalent
direction
'
in English. of and
tongue
It is is produced
changed
it-sound
utter
w
the
'
by
trying
in Ex.
true
with
the
ruse,
in the
;
u
"
ee-position,
in 'tree.'
minute,
sign,
"
(long) nte,
fliUe,pur
the
use
(short) buUe,
as
bu,
23,
.
"bout
of
an
orthographical
cf
under
g.
15.]
1 6.
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
13
Monophthongs.
written independent with
two,
"
A
even
simple
vowel-sound
vowel-signs
"
is in French
often
or
three,
(relicsof
never
nce
vowels).
u or
Such
those
monophthongs described
^, long haisQ^
ginn be-
with
i,
"
are
below.
; but
ai
{a%),ei (ei),are
-ai
pronounced
like
or
short
final
aie,
in
verbs
seigley
"
like
r^tre,
^.
"
Ex.
reine]
at,
"
(long)
aMai
ot
maXtrey
feraiSy
vraie;
(short)aimeT,
faites,faitj
vrai^
peinei;
Note verb,
once
(= S)ferai,
In
deriyatire
by
e
(allverb-forms).
the
1.
"
forms
a
/aire 'do/
radical
vowel
(ai) of
this
if followed
fully
mute.'
pronounced
syllable,
is pronounced
(as
it
as
written)
are
like
a/, e/
monophthong^
occurs
only
in
a
followed
names
by and
vowel,
case
which
rarely then
Note.
except
few
proper
foreign
words.
They
sound
"
like
In
pay
sage
at,
ei,
"
Ex.
Corday,
and its
Ney. deriyatives
as
%
'
'country/
pay
son
(f. paysannti)
'peasant/
eau
pay
landscape/
sound
of
ay
is pronounced
if ai-i,
au,
have
0
the
the
I,
closer
r,
French
exceptionally
of
open
(chieflybefore
faut;
eau,
or
re).
"
Ex.
"
(long)
pause,
pauvre,
restaurs,
maux,
beau,
beaucou^\
(open)
Paul,
centaury.
eu
(ed),mu
*err* 'err.'
usually
when when
long
short
closer
open
sound
sound
than
in
(=
"
Germ,
Ex.
o); (close
;
the
of
in
veux,
monsieur
voeux,
long) (open
eH,
crewse,
jeudi,
usually
account
deux,
and
on
short)
of
the
seul,
jeunB
(but jeHne
close
lengthening
Note.
circumflex),j?etfpZe,
forms of
etc.
*
vewZent,
sounds
UuVyfleur, hamf.
like French
".
"
"
In
avoir
have/
eu
Ex.
eu
*had/y*ei"s *I had/
u
"
(oH, oU)
Ex. rowZer,
f/e
has
the
sound
of
oo
in
roue,
fool,' though
loue;
"
long
or
short.
(long)
doute,
before
Spouse,
voilte,
(slightly shorter)
oil, louer.
sound
i7(/)like
eu.
"
Ex.
at/
(="tt'y),cueiUe
(=skeu'y).
14
SECOND
PART.
[16,17.
Combined
a
16.
not
Diphthongs
into
and
one
Dissyllabics."
sound form
vowels
when
second
=
coalescing
either
over
'
diphthongs
into the
nnit
the
first vowel-sound
it is fully
;
or a
as
=
(i,o,
formed
:
w,
ou)
glides
=
before
^
e.g.
Jier
f*^r
by
proud,'
rC^i
night' be
'
dissyllabie,
forming
^
when
a
'
it is barely
distinct
:
enough
to
counted
'
syllable
; constmit,
"
itself
e.g.
fier
/*-^
rely
Note.
; nmt
"
fC^-i
hurts
Neither
theory
and
nor
usage
has The
definitely
tendency
to
a
settled
is for
the
limits
to
between
dissyllabics.
It and
^t u
the
as
former
covering
or
encroach
latter.
will
be
useful
remember,
majority
derivatiye, diphthong
of
cases, or
that
terminating
by
a
French
consonant,
verb-root
rarely
roota
being
a
preceded
compound
form
with
following
vowel
(cf.examples
of diphthongs
above).
and
vowel
[17.] The
no
pronunciation
each
dissyllabics
or
offers
difl"culty,
its
own
constituent
simple
or
monophthong
in
having the
no
sound
cases
:
"
(more
less
fully
enounced), except
following
in
/aon
*
fawn/
'
paon
peacock
and
in
aomte,
S^iSne,
ttum
(also toon)
ao6
oi
=
gadfly.' 'August
ou
in aout
(the month).'
in
French
oi
(below)
poele
'stove'
and
poele
frying-pan.*
oi
(ot).
in Ex.
Note
This
diphthong by
*^a,
has
sound
wa-
that
may
be
represented
French
*^d
(nearly like
"
in English
voUure,
a
^waft').
"
*"d) poivrBy
"
joiQ, voir;
oi when
(^d)
by
toumcd,
^oi.
23,
1.
gn.
Concerning
nasalized
following
^n,
cf.
under Note
to
2.
"
In
many
:
forms,
an
older
oi
was
in the
:
last
century
,
altered Where
ai
(e.g.foihh
cases
fafble ;
texts
connaftre)
to
in
such
as
classical
customary
pronounce
the
it
ai.
"
For
with
roide
the
rigid'
and is the
its
derivatives
older
not
spelling exclusrve,
u
pronunciation
prevailing,
though
practice.
ua^ (i.e.
+ vowel
or
vowel
combination
ue,
u/,
: etc.)
17-19.J
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
15
a.
Not
preceded
by
g
a
ot
q,
forms
with
or
following
vowel
(or vowel-combination)
pronounced
in
s*^ave,
dissyllabic
like French
(16)
ou,
being
in
more
the like
case
u.
almost
"
but
the
latter
Ex.
(diphthong)
tu-ez,
suace
SuMq,
suite,
huile,
ot
lu-a, (dissyllabic)
common
lu-eur.
b.
Preceded
.
by
q,
as
in
a
mere
^
French
graphic sign
words
to
of
old
that
stock
and
denote
"
like
hard
(in
(=
go
') and
g hard
qu.atre
k respectively.
as
Ex.
fatigua
(= fatiga), gnerre
g^r:
ngniUe
(=
dlgiy
hard), vigueur;
in
gui,
liqnide,
"
vainqxieur.
In several,
mostly
Note.
forms
a
modem,
words vowel,
borrowed
as
from also
the in
,
Latin,
diphthong
with
the
following
it does
English. aiguiser
e.g. most
his
occurs
torguue
chiefly
in
Ungual
and
rguer
{argu-" :
containing
"que8tre
dissyllabic);
quad-
in
about
IGO
words:
words
(quadraturef
y
quadrupeds,
quad?'uple,
etc.);
quintuple
quateury
; requiem
etc.
18.
between
vowels
i combines
{aye,
oya,
etc.)
its
is equivalent
vowel.
=
"
to
French
i-y, of which
with
preceding
Ex.
payer
Note.
"
pai-yeT), royal
a,/
in
to
a
(=
fuyard roi-yal),
in proper
"
fut-yard).
(bayard.
to
After
is
mere
consonant
names
La
Fayette,
is
etc.), and
a
few
treat
other
words
a mere
{bayer, etc).
consonant
According
any
Littre,
except
there
tendency
=
as
after
vowel,
(e.g.royal
1 9-
ro-yalffuyard =/U'yar6f
Vowels.
same
"
etc.).
vowel
one or
Nasal
in the
single by
monopthong
followe is nasalized
syllable
the
nasal
in their
the
(n, m)
mouth
"
(i.e. uttered
with
n,
with
mouth-organs
at
once
vowel-position,
and
but
the
m,
air expelled
lose
e,
as
through
nose),
this
while
their
independent
"
utterance.
Besides
nasalization,
"
(y), u
a,
unless
at,
finals
of
monophthong
(15)
sound
if Fr.
eu
respectively.
no
The
French
nasal
vowels
have
English like
n
equivalents.
Represent
their
'^,
nasality
get
(nearest
following
in
Engl.
thank') by
:
the
sign
we
the
French
equivalents
16
SECOND
PABT.
[19, (
(
20.
Tj,
an,
ruban,
ambre tempete
simple
671,
en/ant,
'fin, mincef
syntoice,
"
nymphe
main,
poulain,
faim
Reims
ombre
frein, peindre,
u
on,
un,
mouton,
parfum, jeHn
humble
ii
kudiant,
client,
effrayant
orient,
audience
6i
coin,
soins,
poindre
etc.
Note
-en
1.
"
In
-ien
like
(-yen)
-in
final
=
or
belonging
"
to
verb-form,
and
in S^n
final,
sounds
(i.e.
"
ai).
Ex.
bien
(= bi-di), mien,
vieni
(verb-
form)
Note
; moyen
(= moi-ydi);
Minor
are
europeen
are
(= europ"-ai).
as
2.
om-n
"
irregularities
follows
"
a/n-/?,
pronounced
'autumn,'
as
d-n,
0-n
(without nasalization) in
em-,
damner
*damn,*
em-niy
automnQ
en-n
are
and
as
their
a-wi,
derivatives.
d-n
pronounced
always
a-m,
when
en-
represent
the
prefix
en
(Lat. in),
i.e. nearly
but
in the
a-n
beginning nasalization
of
word
the
(e.g. vowel)
em-menev,
en-nuyeTf
etc.);
see
like
(no
of
in
femme
(=fiini),etc.,
eni
under
14
2, note
4. cf. 14
:
of
the
3d
person
a
plural is
of verbs,
not
2, note
a
2.
in-
beginning
as a
word
by
o,
nasalized
before
"
vowel-sound,
though
treated
on
syllable
to
itself
more
(9, note
commonly
2).
Ex. in
inactif,inhumain.
is reduced
or
c,
*
monsteuT
'
me-cieu)
'
it is not
nasalized in proper
in bonheur
names,
happiness
see
1).
nasals
etc.,
24-5.
Consonants.
20.
General
Remark.
like
as
"
The
French
But
consonants
are
usually
pronounced
the
English. below
there 23.
:
"
are
various
The
exceptions,
however,
described
may
under
here
"
following
preparatory
remarks
be
made
21-23.]
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
17
[21.]
Initial
to
or
or
medial
consonants,
"
f
than
is the
only
consonant-
ign
peculiax
often
French always,
; g^ y, A,
cA, and
medial
other
are
sounds
for
in English.
\^2,']Final
in
consonants
the
most
are
part
silent,
except
a
hen
connected
discourse vowel
they
sounded
before
c,
ollowing
initial
r
(for particulars
-er,
cf.
23).
Only
^, /.
and
(except
even
in
-ier
of
polysyllables)are
words.
regularly
ronounced
in disconnected
23.
Special
below.
rules
for
the
pronunciation
of
consonants
re
given
m^^
Compound
last
consonant.
final
"
consonants
are
below
are
given
under
as
the
one,
head unless
vof
a
heir
Double
consonants
sounded
pecial
exception
is made
b.
(cf.cc,
gg,
below).
in radoub, rumb,
e,
i,
English
As
final it is heard
has
the
as
a, o,
s.
u.
sound
of
k,
except
to
before
y, where
it is pronounc of
s even
Changed
"
(cf.6), it
has
the
"
sound
ce,
before
Ex.
cas,
a"cte^
lac, accabler;
c^dev,
del;
"
fa, gargon,
c
has
the
soimd
of
g in second heard.
(= se-gd) and
after and
in
its deriyatiyes.
a
-c
final
some
is usually words
'
It is silent
nasal
estomac
a
(blanc, etc.);
*
after
tabac
mon com-
in
marc, (^clerc,
pore)
*
stomach,'
tobacco/
words.
a
croc
hook/
done
coutchouc
india-rubber/ and
be heard,
few
other
when
less
that
"
In
'then/
it may
especially
word
heads
cc
sentence.
",
t,
before
c-c.
"
Ex.
accea
(= aksey
^machine';
by
far
or
ch
sounds
in
'
1. like
"
ch
(=sh)
latter
in
2. like
less
ch
(= fc
whose
chaos.'
on
The
sound,
the
common,
is
heard, English
the
whole
(except, usually,
have
that
before
i),
in words
*
cognates
sound
charme,
(cf. chaos
chasse,
chaos,'
chose,
Christ
chaise,
'Christ,'
chtichoter, architected
etc.).
"
Ex.
(= sh)
choux,
"
chez, chien;
chimie
chemistry
'), monarchie,
Chnst,
chr^tien
Christian ('
(= ^) chaos, '),technologies
icho,
.orchestre\
18
SECOND
PART.
[23
Before
and
a
Before
in
consonant,
ch
or
is
always
k.
rowel,
by
it has late
the
sh-
sound
words
of
Latin
Oermanic
while
in
origin,
most
also, of
change,
in
several
words
of Greek
origin;
words
Greek
origin
it has
the
^-sound.
Note.
in
"
In
'
archange
it is like g. As final final
arch-angel/
ch
is=k
in
almanaQh.
it is mute
and
=
drachme d.
Engl.
it is heard
it is
in sud except
south.'
^=Engl./.
*
As
as
heard,
a
only
in with
c/ef *key,'
a
and
in
neuf
nine,'
jours
NoTK.
nine
"
before
word
beginning
consonant
(e.g.neuf
Irregularly,
when the
/of
b(mf*
ox,'
ceuf
added
silent
plural-sign
and in nert
is
nerve,'
come be-
is also
silent
in chet'd'ceuvre,
de
bosuf.
in
as
has
the
hard
sound
of
English
Fr.
'go/
=
except
^
before forcibly
gant,
{eu)j
i, y,
where As
it sounds
final
j (
2;
in
"
azure/
Ex.
enunciated).
gorge,
naste,
it is usually
"
silent.
=
(= g)
goUter,
gloire,
"
chagrin;
Er.
j)
long,
germe,
gilet, gym-
ligei, nageur;
(silent) bourg,
give
e
ge
gu
a,
-f- vowel.
o,
u
"
To
to
g the
fricative after
sound
{=j)
it
sound
even
before
silent
versa,
is inserted it it
a
(e.g. nagea^
e
na-zha)
silent
; and
u
vice
to
give after
hard
before
as
(eu), i
g
;
"
is
Ex.
inserted
(e.g. gvLerre,
gageure,
if
g^r,
as
in
'go').
hard
With
"
(=J)
gn^re,
na^ea, gneule,
ge
pigeon, gmtarre,
and
mangea
g)
regard
"
gvierre,
to
figne.
before
a
the
combinations
eu
gu
vowel,
under
u
it should
be
noticed: -geure
.
a)
it
in
-geur
is
the
monophthong
(cf. nageur
e
g),
a
while
-ure
in
consists
of
;
"
silent
u
(orthographical)
may
of
suffix
(cf
gageurCf the
Uf
above)
b)
of
.
gu
in
some
words
"
form silent
diphthong
even
with
Of
following
vowel
to
"
(cf
verb
"
p. 15, b. in
-gner
sugg^rer
a,
if it belongs
before final
6,
i,
before
fatiguer),
gg -g
^g-gin
Ex.
*
(= sug-g^r^.
grog,
is heard
joug
yoke,'
zigzag,
pouding.
gn
between
sound
vowels
resembling
(or
is
and
vowel)
gn
is softened in
' '
to
liar pecu-
that
of Engl,
cognac
(= con-yac)
of
But
the
n-sound
palatal
(made
with
the
back
the
23.]
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
19
tongue),
one,
and
two
it blends coming
with
near
the
following
a
y-sound
almost
"
into
the
being
nasal
y{y).
Ex.
gagnev
craignit, r^pugner,
sound
saigne;
indigne
\ dgogn^
\ soi^
ipargnev.
be
ny. in
The
exact
French gn
*
of gn
like
can
learned
only
by
hear
ing
In
2.
Switzerland,
"
sounds
just
Engl.
Note
with
poign-
In
more
optionally
words
beginning
Note
3.
In
certain
:
*
modern
agnat
words
from
Greek
or
Latin,
g/f
etc.
is pronounced
like g-n
in signet
(= ag-na),
stagnant^
stagnation,
and
g is silent
signet.'
is
now
silent
in
French. origin,
Yet
an
in
many
h
so
words
of
foreign,
as
especially when
the
once
Germanic,
pronounced
or
initial
in (aspirated),
it prevents
elision
linking
(26) of
preceding
h
^
word.
'
Hence
h
^
the
necessity
"
of distinguishing
between
mute
and
aspirate.*
;
"
Ex.
mute
') habit
exhorteY
(* aspirate
Note.
"
') h^ros
(leh^ros,
h is
*
'
les
hSros),harpe.
of in
Latin
or
Grenerally
mute
in words
Greek
a
origin
(e.g
omme,
habit,
heroine), but
origin
'aspirate' harpe,
*
words
of
"
different,
chiefly
eutonic,
(e.g.
halle,
:
haie,
'
etc.).
he'roa
as
Among
exceptions
in its
should
be
noted
in
especially
some
h, ia
with
aspirate
in
(but
not
derivaderiva-
tiyes),and
hurler
words
inorganic
A,
haut
well
(L. altus)and
as
tives,
in hora
(L. foras');
note
n huit and
derivatives words
it prevents beginning
mute
elision with
an
but
not
'
linking
*
1).
In
dictionaries,
with
*,
aspirate with
340
against
500
beginning such
as
A
*, or
'
')
are
usually
marked
conventional
ign,
or
the
like.
always
strong
=
sounds
like
"
in
English
azure,'
if enunciated
with
sonancy.
k.
It
Ex.
only
English
occurs
/ regularly
sounds
"
like
English
(e.g.il, JUer,
docile,
are
aile
^l,
Ulustre),
to the
The
combinations
rules
:
"
il and
ill, however,
subject
following
20
SECOND
PART,
[23
in
an
*
-//final
after
"
is usually
a
(cf.note
where
2)
regular,
as
until'
y-sound
(Ft. I)
(=y
"
except
vowel, Ex.
it simply
denotes
in
^boy').
(= y) hkaJI
Note
1.
"
1), exU; (regular) civil, avril (cf. note deuil (= deny). (= 6^d'/), vieil (= vir^y),
Usage
is not
consistent vowel.
with
Though
as
=
regard
to
the
most
-i
pronunciation
part
of
as
final
-t7, unpreceded
it may also
or
'
by
be
or
for
or
the
uttered Littre
=
written,
=
pronounced avri,
*
-Vy
p^ri'y,
simply
"
(thus
is
g^ves
t
avril
avril,
avrVy
p^rtl
etc.).
It
regularly before
other
a
in
haril
(= bari) barrel/
=yentry)
common.
chenil
*
gentil and
(but
a
vowelwords,
sound
*fine/
outii
eyebrow/
Fr.
few
less
Note
2.
"
a,
ue
before
-i7 sound
like
eu
(cf. 15).
"
Ex.
cu/
(=
euy)f
orgue//
(=orgeuy).
is regular, in note
sound 1
as
'ill'
(Fr.%), in
by
a
some
words
enumerated
Usually,
consonant
however,
denotes
i'y, when
a
Jill (e.g.
vowel
or
//'/), or
=
simply
"
y-sound,
preceded
miUe-,
"
by
(e.g
patlle
pay).
biUet,
Ex.
(=iU)
(=
iy
y) JUle
famille,
briUant
; paillej travaiUer,
ccmseMa,
vieiUe,
feuille
fouillei.
Note
*
1.
"
Medial
*
-///-
has
its regular
*
sound:
a.
*
in
mille
'thousand/
and in
their
mille
mile/ ville
; b.
city/ pupille
trisyllabic
c.
ward/
in
tranquille
tranquil/
derivatives their
in
words
a
and
derivatives;
in
few
distiUer, scintilleT, etc.) -iller (e.g. forms less common not enumerated
above.
Note
2.
pronounced
=
il,
are
in
parts
of
*8
France
(especially
above
:
in
the
=
south)
b^tal'y by
of
(0'y"
This
described
e.g. b^tail
Jille JiV y
good Note
older
pronunciation
; but
is adhered the
"
to
certain
authorities
and
in certain
styles like
it is much
eu
less Ex.
common.
8.
"
a,
ue
before
-ill sound
Fr.
(cf. 15).
is owing
oeiUet
(=
^History.
"
The
varied
pronunciation
of
i7(/)
has
to
varied
origin
of this combination
comes
of letters. from
Latin
cases
When
i7(/)
E.g.
its regular
sound,
it generally
directly
//(/).
mille
a
tranquillus). In
changed
:
"
other
it represents
Latin
"
enough
like
heard
cf. note
2), or
to
pronunciation
some
yet
eiVy), or
other
sound,
23.]
or
ELEMENTARY
SOtJKDS
AND
ACCENTS.
21
atin
not.
E.g.
(L. apiculd)
(in yentiU
eiller
is silent -I-
son/
and
in the
plural
^enf/lshommes
omme
y: cf. note
2 under
-i/).
and
Some
*
authorities
prefer
JiU "=ft.
-I
n
final is mute
in cu\
a
backside,*
$ov\
full.'
fi,
not
denoting
nasalized
vowel
(19),are
pronounced
as
in
English.
=
English usually
in
p. the
It
is
silent,
howerer,
m'pt
"
in
the
initials
6ap^,
sculpt-,
etc.
and
; but
combination
(e.g.bapteme,
-p, -ps, -pt
"
sculpter,
compter,
exeviption, 'p
and
redemption,
etc.).
in
For cap.
final
t.
is silent, except
About
final
under
forms
in
coq
with
*
(cf. 17
*
under
where
+
it
vowel).
sounds
Alone like
it
occurs
only
dnq
cock,'
five/
k.
(About
in
combination,
cf.
76.)
and
more as
revere,
is
more
dental
trilled
stated
than
in English.
It is always
ruse^
pronounced,
except
coricert,
below
(-r).
"
Ex.
grand.,
fier ;
-/"
perd,
final
is heard
in monosyllables.
Also in
-e?*,
in
polysyllabics,
r
^
except,
usually
(cf.note), those
is silent. cf.
"
ending
-ier, whose
me
r,
(or
s,
if
Ex.
(heard) /er,
hier^
honneur,
fier
proud
revoir;
16), /ar,
panfeur,
(silent) donnevy
arriveT,
houlangev
(pi. boulangers),
derniev
(pi.demiers),
NoTB.
*
"
tapissiex
(pi. tapissieTS).
is heard
*
final of polysyllabics
*
in
*
amer
bitter,'
'
cancer
cancer/
cuiller
spoon,'
enfer
as
hell,' "ther
ether,'
\iiver
winter
(and
cf. 20,
21).
in
^so,'
has
one
in French,
sonant
as
in English,
'
two
sounds
more
: one
sharp
as
in
rose,'
8
but
occurs
both
forcibly
two
than
in English.
Sonant
I
or
n
between
"
also
between
respirer, poser,
Usually
:
and
vowel.
Ex.
"
pastevr,
rose,
observer
mish'e
8
(op-servev)^asser-, p
transition.
when
it begins
(sonant s)
base,
; balsamique,
sonantized parasol
is not
the
second
member
of
coni
pound
e.g.
entresol,
(para
sol),vraisemWahle.
22
SECOND
PART.
[23
sc
before
e,
t,
souuds
like
s,
"
Ex.
sG^ne,
science,
sc^Z^at,
sceptiqvie,
final
is mute, except
in
in
-s
as
*ace/
bis
^
twice/ h^las
*
alas/ jadis
vis
'screw
'
formerl
Us
*lily in tons
'
(but
*air
silent
when
Jieur-de-lis) mats
Cf. +
sign,
maize/
below
; and
generally
-cs,
cases
pronoun.
consonant
also
(-cs,etc.).
except
consonant
-ds, -fs,
:
"
etc.
(i.e.final
s
s) are
a
silent,
in the
follow,
ing
a.
When
singular
is the
plural
preceding
is heard,
if heard
b.
r
in of
-rs
'
the
(e.g.lac:
where
s
pi. lacs,
chef:
c.
pi.
chefa)
'
but
cf.
^note),
is also
heard,
is not
"
the
regular
plural-sign, is pronounced
sense
*
except
in
volontiera
d. both
willingly'
consonants
(e.g.vers,
are
*
enuers).
in
cens
*
Jils
son
sens
' '
flss
*
heard March,'
census,'
; laps
ours
laps,'
forceps
'forceps
';
mars
mcsurs
(als
ours)
has
*bear.'
usually is
the
sound
of English
t.
But
"
medial except
-ft-
before
s
vowel
pronounced
some
like
cases,
s*
(s sharp),
explained
after
"
(o
x)
tUy
and
in
other
as
below.
Ex.
("
;
"
t)
jetevy
=
tiMe
; bestial^
garantie^
clirkien,
patience,
moitie,
entier
,
(ti
partial
initiev
Usually
English
found
that like
as
-tish,
has
or
the
si- sound,
when by
c
in
ing correspond-
it sounds
sounds
is represented
(cf.ex.
Latin
by
s
above).
or
x
[Historically ti
like
f
si wlien
"
it represents
popular
ti pronounc
tsi, hence
was
not:
once
i
a.
When
it by
is
s
preceded
(e.g
chOtiev
question
preceded
the
(chretien
inflected
the
Christian/
is
final
to
one
of
an
stem
(e.g. parti-e,
i"
parti-ons).
"
c.
When
belongs
of
endings
(participle
excepted),
a
tier
is
diphthong final is
in all of which le (infinitives excepted), tiere, tiers, tieme, (e.g. moiti", entier, entiere, volontiera)." of French origin silent,
except in brut
ne/
-t
*
'rough,'
'neat';
as
chut
hush
'
dot
portion/
"
fat
fop
and
cf. below
:
"
final
authors,
""^f
are
treated
follows after
a
differently
described
i
different
in
is mostly
in
silent
nasal
(e.g. instinct
after
(except
like
strict) and
is silent
"
the
termination
-sped
a
(e.g. asjoect),but
e
*
sounded
kt
"
elsewhere,
i.e. in
generally
after
'
and
in
t'mgt
a
(e.g. tact,
twenty,'
exact,
some
correct,
direct).
uses
-gt
doigt
"
'finger
and
in
of
its
(cf. 88).
except
/t is silent.
in sepf
'
-pt
is
silent
after
set
nasal
:
and also
sounded
after
vowel,
seven,'
pronounced
(cf.76
sepieme).
23-25.3
ELEMENTARY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
23
st
is silent
ouest
in
*
est west.*
'is/ but
sounded
in
Christ
(not
in
J^sus
ChriBi),est
east/ and
th
has
the
sound
English
of simple
v
t,
"
Ex.
ath^.
only
in
sounds
like
Vy
like
except
Wy
which where
is used
foreign
the
words,
value
sounds
u
after
vowel,
it generally
has
of
(New.
york
Neu-york).
like
a
is pronounced lowed by
gz when
initial, like
and
k8
in
in
the
other
prefix
cases.
ex-
fol
Ex
vowel-sound
exil^ eajht^mer;
; but
"
"
Xenophon,
excuse^
Jixe, Alexandre.
dix
the
*
-X
final
is
silent.
Only
sound
proper letter,
'
in of
'
six
ss.
six
and
has
ten/
same
when
sound
not
used
soixanu
tut
adjectives,
'
it has in
some
the
Xalso
as
in
'sixty
(and
names,
BruxelUs,
etc.).
"
Final
is silent. -Ix
Concerning
sounds
except
as
this in English
see
'
18.
gaze
(e.g.a^ur).
When
final it is silent
(e.g.nez),
in
gaz,/ez.
of
24.
Pronunciation
is very
Proper and
usage
Nouns. is
not
"
pronunciation
cases
of Only
proper
a
ouns
irregular,
more
common
fixed.
few
ules
for
the
names
:
irregularities
are
given.
Proper
are
pronounced
according
the
preceding
rules,
serv ob-
A.
As
regards
:
foreign Job,
m
names
"
a.
that
any
final consonant
Brutus, do
sound
is likely
to
sounded
;
"
e.g.
David,
and that
a
n,
Esther,
retaining
em
Jupiter,
their
and
en
Gil Bias,
own
Suez
not
("
"),
a
tc.
b. that
final
and
sounds,
nasalize like
receding
vowel,
=
medial
sometimes
French
(i.e.
=
Abraham (= A-bra-d-me), Jerusalem, ai) : e.g. in Adam) c. that etc. ; ; Benjamin, Memphis,
"
Elohim, ch
in
Eden,
(but
sounds
usually
ike
e.g. Jericho,
Michel-Ange,
=
etc.
some
:
(but
like
Engl,
sh
Michel,
Achille,
Archimede,
B.
Eschyh
regards
:
"sMl,
and
names
others).
"
As
words
etc.
French
a.
that
final
and
st
are
heard
;
m,
in
ome
e.g. b.
Arras,
that
are
Beims
s
Vaugelas,
a
Agnes,
consonant
Clovis,
M^dicis
Brest,
n,
Ernest,
"
medial silent
before
e.g. Basle
(especially /, Bale),
in
i)
nd
also
final
Maistre),
25.
(now
heard
usually
Maistre
(also
Larochefoucault (but
Soult).
Foreign
as
words
with
unchanged
orthography
are
usually
"
pronounc
in
the
;
language whig
from
wliich
,
they
are
borrowed.
Ex.
album,
riumvir,
amen
Cromwell,
(pu-iy)
etc.
^4
S^OKD
l^ARl-.
[^6-28
Joining
of
Words. words
are
26.
In
the
as
sentence,
one,
closely
connected
apt
to
be
pronounced
a.
a
by
elision
that
(" cutting
would
"
off
both
hiatus
in
:
utterance
and
a
=:
writing)
;
of
vowel
occasion
utterance,
e.g, le
Va
and
b.
by
of
linking
one
(in
not
in
writing)
pronounced
=
the
ant end-consonor
word,
vowel
"
whether
of another Final
e
otherwise
:
not,
with
the
initial
R-z^amL
27.
Elision.
in
of
monosyllabics
a
in
-e
and
few
compounds
-que,
a
and
or
final
h
an
'
of
',
la,
are
usually loss
(cf. notes)
indicated
elided
before
by
vowel
use
mute
their
"
being
in writing
the
of
apostrophe.
Ex.
Varhre
le (for.
(for
/a
que
it),Vdme
(for la dme)
The
articles
"
le and
Ex. le
are
not
elided
before
numerals,
except
onze,
le huit ; run.
The by
a
object-pronouns
elided
Ex. only donne-m'en,
{rne.tetle, la)
the
when
en,
appended
to
before
particles
;
the
same
"
menez-ry
but
menez-le
vous,
envoyez-le
Note
eri^chercher.
3.
"
The
note
demonstrative
adjective
its only the than
ce
is cet
before
vowel
or
*mute'
(cf. 107,
4.
"
1).
always
Note
Jusque
parce
elides
que,
before before
compounds those
un
vowel-sound;
quoique
lorsque, puisque,
que, tandis
and
personal
pronouns
; qudque,
"
presque
only
in
quelqu'un,
presqu'ile.
a
In
least
*
other
combinations
described
sporadic
above,
cases
hiatus
:
remains
a.
(at
/ of
SI
in
writing),except
before verb-forms
present when
:
in the
following
if
'
is elided with
sing,
(e.g.s'il) ;
in
an
s
b.
t
in analogy
in the
in
a
in
the
2d
sing,
to
a
imperative
and
in
3d
indicative,
by
is added
2d
imperative
en
ending
vowel
followed cf.
the
a
appended
is inserted
object-particle
between
a
or
(e.g.donnes-en,
in
a
vaa-y in
127),
3d
and and
-tan
verb-form
ending
vowel
the
:
sing,
appended
subject-pronoun
^e.
cf. 151
b).
"
28.
Linking
or
of
Words.
If
one
word the
ends
next
with
begins
consonan
consonant-combination,
and
with
28-33.]
ELEMBNTABY
SOUNDS
AND
ACCENTS.
25
vowel
consonant
or
mute,'
the
it
"
end-consonant
"
or
exceptionally with
"
preceding
vowel-sound,
is
apt
to
be
the
pronounced
two
the
initial
thus
'linking'
words.
Ex.
ous^avez,
cet^Yiabit,
This
respect
humain, when
as
[29.]
linking between
observed is close,
the
matter
the
relation
words
between its
adjective and
other
cases,
verb
of
and
subject, etc.
or
In
option
euphony,
ance utter-
though
or
it is observed reading
than
more
regularly
in
solemn
otherwise.
the following rules
are
In linking
words,
c,
are
to be observed,
viz.
"
[30.]
z
Final
"/, g^ and
"
(or x)
vous^avez
pronounced
like
-,
and
respectively.
Ex.
etc.
(= voU'Z^avez)
/in
grandT
Juymme
{grU-Comm),
A
About
"
neufy
cf. 88.
[31.]
final nasal
cases
vowel close
which
is rarely connection
vowel
u
carried
"
forward,
except
in
an
of
syntactical
usually
=
develo
"-sound
though
before
not
more
the
as
initial
(un
=
ami
vTn^ami;
sometimes,
good,
consonants
u^n^amiy
the
eu).
is usually
[32.]
final
Of
two
or
end-
linking
but
effected
penultimate,
by
the
(e.g.eBt^ici,
two
sept^heures, be always
un
d"serXs'^aride%) ;
with
silent
-t
or
by
the
if the
by
last
none,
consonants
-ct
-ct
(e.g. respect
word
be
a
humain)
singular
des
and
unless
mets
one
pronounced, exquis
;
if the
but in
in silent
(un
exquis,
corps
pi.
des
mets'^exquiBf
corps^exquiB'),
[33.]
d of
Some
end-consonants
is rarely
are
rarely
or a
never
linked.
common
Thus
phrases
especially
:
nouns
linked,
un
except
in
few
e.g.
sourd
tmuet;
chaud
etfroid;
"
marchand
stranger
; but
grand^^hommej of
grii^
vend^ilf gentii,
ied^a
terre:{d=t).
=
-/ silent
un
is not
vent.
"
linked
m
(except
never
in
linking
^en^r^)
-p and
is
not
; e.g.
fusil a
is
linked:
e.g. la
"
/aim
silent
et
soif.
"
of
nouns
linked. are not and camp, plomh -6 of cAamp, linked ; silent is not -r verbs of adjectives and
usually
un
linked,
son
except
in
sustained
a
style,
or
un
as
especially
tort.
"
in
s
poetry in
; e.g.
Spicier
vec
Jils;
; e.g.
'
hlamev
tort
hldmer'^a
avis
of words
the
sing,
is not
linked
et
le bras
'
^endu,
links
en
int^ressant.
thereby
t is rarely
linked
'
after
is
r;
and
and immense
never
(being
paix
;
distinguished
from
est
'):
e.g.
desert
; il "/"wt
lui et elle
(but c^estTelle),
26
SECOND
PART.
[84-36
11.
COMMON
PHONETIO INFLEOTIOH
AND
OBTHOGBAFHIO
AND
CHAKaES
IK
DERIVATION.
34-
The
following
may
changes here
at
are
of
such
regular
occurrence
that
they
be
to
e
stated
the
two
e,
the
outset.
no
[35.]
Owing
^ ;
a or
accent-stress,
other precede
e-sound
an
than
an
open
(d;
-f
consonants)
the
can
end-syllable ^
occurs
containing
silent
only
with
exception
a
being
e
that
in
immediate
connection in inflection
silent
(donn^e).
would'be
contravened,
Whenever
mute
or
this
principle
are
^ of the
tone-syllable
made
if I,
open
n,
(=
*,
^,
or
with
"
the
following verbs,
a
consonant,
especially
or
doubled).
manner
In
radical
(not i) (fem.
'
is
an
treated
e
in
"
analogous
Ex.
before
cher
any
'
syllable
dear
containing
^mute.'
cliJere
(fern
mener
of
^),secrbtQ (pres. of
appeler
^ *
of
'
lead
'),c^de
c^der
(pres. of (fem.
of
^
appe//e
(pres.of
call
');
"
(fem. of
ancien
');
(fut.of mener)
cederai
Note
consistent
(fut.of appeler).
required. The Academy
now
Before
use
-ge
e.
"
was
once or
allows
of
With be
in
Ex.
protige
to the
protege.
of
a
Note
2.
"
regard noticed
:
doubling
consonant
before
mute
the
not
following
may
/ is always
doubled
in
; n
feminine
forms,
but
consistently
tense-forms
(cf
.
126
note)
always
in feminine
irregularly
forms,
in both
but
rarely
in
tense-forms
(cf
tienne,
etc.);
t somewhat
feminine
and
tense-forms.
[36.]
be
two
vowels,
/ is preferable
"
to
:
y before
;
mute,
while/
must
other
vowels.
:
Ex.
croi'e
croyant
; effra/e(or effraye)
effrayer; pa/erai
(or payerai)
payer.
37-40.]
[37.]
e,
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
27
When
and
are
to
retain changed
their
to
are
hard
sound
(as
:
in
can/
go,')
before
i, y, they
vague. In
must
be qu
qu
and
gu
even
e.g. publique
(fern,of
vowels
public^;
Vice
verbs
and
gu
retained
before
other
e.g. moquons
versa,
(of moquef).
when
to
c
and
are
to
have
their
:
soft
sound
before
a,
o,
u,
they
re
changed
q and
ge
respectively
e.g. pla^ons
(of placer) ;
mangeons
(of manner).
m.
AETI0LE8
AND
PAETITIVE
SIGH.
[38.
ille
HISTORY.
*
"
Already
'
in
'
Latin,
sometimes
and
especially
in
manner
the
popular
idiom,
that
'
and
unus
one
were
used
the
in
ing approach-
that
of
real
articles.
In
French
and
as
le
un
(relicof
Lat.
accusative
ilium,
'the'
sense
with
'
irregular,
an,'
proclitic,
a
accent)
function
are
(Lat. unum),
denoting
applies.
like
how
and
have
to
special they
proclitics
of the
word
which the
attached
the
Moreover,
an
Latin
use
of
use
partitive
*
genitive
or
has
in
the
French
given article, By
rise to
extended
noun
general whose
of de
of,' with
be
without
in in in
a
definite
sense.
before
use
any of
meaning
was
is to
accepted unknown
article,
partitive
this
de
(le),which
a or
*
almost partitive
Old
French, corresponding
modern
to
French
possesses
'
special
any,'
as
part
English
'
some
explained
in
45.]
by
some
39.
Prench
nouns
are
usually meaning
preceded
is to
unemphatic
These
word
denoting
the
how
their
apply.
determinants
Definite or
are
(Generic)^the Indefinite^and
below.
the
titive Par-
Article^
described
40.
The
Definite
either
"
(or Generic)
like
is the
Article.
'
"
This
before
made
article
nouns
is
required general
que
more
English
the
'
"
whose
meaning
specialized
and
thus
or
definite
where
Vor (e.g.
fai
'
the
gold
no
which
article
or
I have
occurs
');
"
else
"
in
English
usually
before
nouns
used,
est
definitely,
^
in their
absolute
generic
sense
(e.g.Vor
pri-
deux
gold
is precious
').
28
SBCOND
PART.
[40-5'^
Femikinb.
Masculinb.
Sing.
Ib
*
(or r
27)
y
/a
PL
/es^
"
Ex.
le p^re 'the
the. father
'
; la
m^re
the
'
mother
de
ma
; V amour
masc,
love'
mother's love
comes
love
')or
from
'
m^e
vient
'
'my
du
coeur
Vdmour
'
the
or
'
'
heart fathers
');
les p^res
et les mh'es
'
the
fathers
and
the
the
man
mothers,'
'
and f em.,
mothers
'
generally
; Vhomme
'
or
man
; Vdme,
may
the
in
soul.'
its individuality
Note.
as
"
A
as
conception
be
or cases
definite
entirety
(/*orde
the
num.
pere)
well
in its generality
use
of the
definite
article
the
in both
in French.
in have
for
in
convenience, this
respect,
to
emphasize the
terms
different
usage
French
been
English adopted.
that
definite and
clear
by
generic
the
context
The
distinction
is always
made
(cf.,farther,
prepositions
Syntax,
195).
'of
or
[41.]
Contraction.
a
:
"
The
or
de
and
'to'
one
blend
with
viz.
"
following
le
lea
(never
with
la
V)
into
form,
de le into
du ; des;
Ex.
"
du
p^re
'
of the
father
'
deles'^
le
/as"
"
fathers
'
(mothers)'
fatheTS
au
"
p^re
to
the
father
;
^
aux;
"
auxp^res
(auxm^res)
'
to
the
(mothers).'
But
:
de
la m^re
"
'of the
French,
mother
the
; de
Vami
were
'
of the
friend.'
\_History.
These
In
by
a
Old
contractions
common
process
of mutation
"
in the
change
s,
of
Z to
"
have
become
du
(formerly deu)
to
deSy
aux
(a:for
as
expla
under
Note.
now
"
47, En
*
B).]
in
'
and
les
in
a
are
contracted
fes
(formerly
*
els
or
eus), which
titles,
as
is
retained
es
only
*
few
expressions
denoting
es
sciences
academic doctor
bachelier
lettres
bachelor
of letters,' docteur
of science.'
42.
"
The
Ex.
un
Indefinite
'
Article
father,'
une
is:
m^re
masc.
'
un;
fem.
une
'an,
a.'
p^re
mother.'
48-45.]
43.
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
29
Dependent
only
in
a
and
Independent
of
or
Partitive
or
Sign.-by
When
noun
portion
absolute
for
the
thing
use
things
its
generic part
is really
by
it is in French
the of
most
preceded
de
'of
(=
'
portion word
vin
'
'), whether
icne
grammatically
beurre
.
required
pound
thus
by
preceding
(as in
'
livre^de
'
'
of
butter,'
heaucoup^de
much
wine
wine
=
cf
44), or
wine,'
not
required
sont
'
(as
venus
in
fai du
vin
or
I have
some come,'
des
n*ai
soldata
pas
soldiers any
In
some
soldiers
have
je
de vin
I have
not
wine
').
use,
or
its latter
where
its
prepositional
value
is
no
longer
felt, de
(with
without
Ze, Za,
les) is in French
usually
called
the
As
Partitive
will be
Article
shown the
etc.
{Varticle paHitif).
the
under
head
/"as
of S3rntaz,
where
this
a
subject
as
properly
belongs,
de after
{point,etc.)
; but
is reallj
no
dependent
such
titiv par-
sign
{pas
nouns)
etc.
it is
value
longer
felt in
the
actual
language,
pas
have
the
of negative
particles.
[44.]
on
The
by the
dependent
a
partitive
sign
is
a
(i.e.de
true
save
nouns
grammatically
required
preceding like
word)
'of
preposition. only
that of
It
French
is
used,
whole,
in English,
requires in
wne
it not
only,
like
*
English,
a
after of
quantity
also
(as
livre de
beurre
pound
butter
but '), by
"
after
or
adverbs
of
quantity,
as seen
^
in by
much
plus
'too
English
the examples
rendered below.
'
adjectives
Ex.
otherwise,
heatLCoup
pain
(adv.)
little
de
beurre
(adj.)
(adv.)
much
=
butter
; pen
'more
(adv.) de
bread';
bread'; (adj.)
pain
de
livres
(adj.)books';
assez
trop
(adv.
4-
adj.)
or
'enough
(adv.
adj.)bread,'
construed
'bread
tkiSf that
:
enough.'
'
in English
similarly
before
e.g.
much
[45.]
independent
of
de
partitive
the
sign
(=
the
^partitive
article
de
consists
either
with
generic
article
(i.e. of
du^
la^
30
SECOND
PART.
[45-47.
is the the
the
des:
41),
or
of
de
is
alone.
The
latter
an
case
when
partitive
noun
preceded
by
adjective
^1 have
some
supplanting
good
generic
article
when
fai (e.g.
it is
de
the
ban
vin
wine')
;
a
and
usually
unmodified
accusative
negative
The
verb
(je n'ai
has
or or
pas
de
vin
'
have
occurs
not
any
independent English
'
partitive could
^
'
sign
in
French
only
where
fe
w
have
'some'
sense
(except in
*
of
'a
quelques)
any where
(except in
the
of
sense
every
tout)
but
also
in other
cases
partitive
:
is present.
Examples
J^ai
du
beurre.
I have
beurre
pour
(some)
you
some
butter.
Avez-vous
du
f
vous.
Have I have Do
(any)
butter
J'ai
de
PamitU
des
vin.
for you.
Vendez-vous
J^ai
J'ai
livresf
you
de du
bon
vin pas
I have
I have
(some)
good
red
wine.
rouge,
(some)
no
wine.
wine.
Je
n^ai
de
pas
vin,
I have That
(not any)
wine.
Cela
For
n'est
du
vin.
is not
farther The
details, independent
de.
^
"
cf. Syntax.
[46.]
a
partitive
sign
is
always
excluded
by
preceding
Ex.
VaraignAe
lives
on
vit^de
flies.'
mouches
(not
vit^de
des'^mouches)
The
spider
IV.
irOUNS.
[47.
HISTORY.
been which
"
A.
to
Loss
one
of
in
CaBes.
both
The
six
Latin
plural.
more
case-forms
This barren
only
have
in French
reduced has
singular
noun
and
even
sweeping
reduction,
the
made
the
French
case,
of forms
gradually.
than
English
ancient
with
its possessive
was
brought
about Latin,
Thus,
the six
Gallo-Homanic
this
speech
had,
like
was
five
declensions popular
and
cases,
though
(complicated
system
simplified
in the
speech.
The
Old
French
dialect,
till the
beginning
of
the
12th
century,
47.]
three
NOUNS.
31
ad
declensions
modelled
murs
and
on
two
cases.
Then,
second,
till the
but
end
of
tliat century,
; e.g.
ne
declension, Nom.
Ace.
two
was
the
Latin
still two
pi.
"
cases
sing,
"
mur
Norn.
mur
Ace.
to
one
murs
These
cases
were
in the
14th
century.
thai
type
ne
not
the
a
nominative,
tlie
accusative
(marked
bold
above).
"
Only
few
words
as
Jils
the
(L. JJlius),satur
nominative in both
;
cases,
sire
(L. soror),traitre
instead
as
(L.
traditor)
A
preserved
few
others
in singular
have
; pasteur
form,
but
of
the
accusative.
survived
distinct
words
e.g. patre
.
(L. pastor)
Sign.
been
(L. pastorein)
the
to
(L. senior);
terminated
less
s
seigneur
(L.
seniorem)
B.
PlursLl
having
"
As
accusative
plural
or
in
to
"
all
euters
reduced
masculines, speech
"
often
feminines,
the
already
in sign
a
the
early
Galk)-Romanic
French.
x
naturally
became
pltiral By
in modern
confusion, for
nouns
however, has
come
(for
used
oo,
both
conventional
signs
in
Old
French of -/
yet
to
be
instead in
-u,
-us)
with
in the
a
of
as
s,
as as
or
the
regular
plural
cliange
sign
final
monophthong
:
well
those
which
."
final
to
x
-w
plural in
e.g. (^evau-x
(for chevaco
Farther,
no
chevax
restored
ended
and
retained
a
already
in
hissing
the
chapeau-x.
or
if the change
singular
in the
it suffered z),
plural.
nouns
Some
and
of
actual
names
for
been
the
plural
only
formation
since the these
most
of
compound
century.
neuter
was
(53)
C.
proper
"
fixed
17th the
Gtender.
neuter
Latin
nouns
had
being
three
genders.
for
:
Of
the
lost
in French,
changed,
part,
into
masculines.
Hence
the
following
analogy
and
neut,
Fr. Fr.
masc,
fern. however,
that
fern.
considerably
This
general
correspondence,
has
been
disturbed
:
"
by
various
neuters
influences,
in
-a
chiefly
became
of
false
in
analogy.
Thus with
1. Latin
in
-a
plural L.
feminines,
analogy
feminines
."
e.g.
arma
(n.) :
voile
Fr.
etc.
arme
(f.); L.
2.
folia (n.) :
Latin
Fr.
feuille (f.); L.
in
-us
vela
(n.): Fr.
of
(f.) ;
became
"
Several
feminines with
(especiall
in
; L.
us
names
trees)
masculines ct/pres L.
in analogy
; L.
masculines Fr.
e.g.
L. cupressus Fr.
(f.) :
Fr.
(m.)
casnus
ptnus
(f.):
ckene
in
-e
pin
"
(m.)
3.
cedrus
Lat.
(f.):
cedre
(m.)
; low
(f.):
as
Fr. end in
(m.).
L.
Several
became
masculines
that
(or neut.)
being
the
changed
gender
so
to
in French
e.g.
nine, femi:
usual
of
words
:
-e
cometes
(m.)
Fr.
cotnete
(f.);
Jj.pulverem
Yr.poudre
(f.);
L, ami/letum
(n.) :
32
SECOND
PART.
[47-50.
-eur,
Tt.
amulette
(f.).-*4.
in te, L.
Abstract
nouns
in
in
:
analogy
e.g. L.
with
abstract
ouns
(as
5.
chaleur
A
(f.);
few
sense
became
feminines
color
:
(m.)
peur in
*
Fr.
couleur
in
*
(f.);
L.
pavor but
'
(m.)
Fr.
(f.)
their
nouns
masc.
their guard,
concrete,
abstract
"
e.g.
garde
L.
(m.)
nox,
watchman
masc.
(f.)
guard,
."
are.'
6.
minuit
;
(-nuit:
*
is
in
.)
gent
'race,
analogy
midi of
gens,
(-rfi
L.
dies,
m.)
the
so
gens
sense
on.
(pi. of
person,'
nation':
masc.
Lat. many
gent-em
uses,
f.)
assuming
became
in
but
not
all
(cf
02
d)
and
Nouns
of in
a
Grerman
manner
or
Greek
origin
also main,
preserve
the
German
or
Greek
gender
analogous,
in the
with
that
described
above.]
for the
48,
"
nouns
have
But,
as
rule
different
nouns,
form
singular
other
plural.
unlike
English
they
suffer
no
whatever.
49.
Formation.
nouns
[50.]
X
not
terminating adding
sot
x
already
to the
in
sibilant
form.
(s,", z) form
is simply
monopthongs
some
their
a
plural
by
singular
s
spurious in
in
-u.
(47, B)
It is
substitute
to
for
after
nearly
-eau,
all
added and
of
"
all
nouns
in
-aw,
and -(o)eu,
-ou
(note 1) ;
in plural
always
to
final
in
most
the
cases
required
and
final
Ex.
-al
(note 2)
(note 3).
*
a.
added
Sing,
"
p^re
maison
father^
'
pi.
'
"
p^res
maisons
house
'
"
fleur
flower
b.
X
"
flews
added
(1)
directly
Sing,
"
chapeau
^hat'
'
pi.
"
chapeaux
feu
vceu
fire
'
feux
vceux
"
'
wish
the
'
"
(2)
Sing,
"
after
conversion
'
....
of
-a^, -ail
to
-au
g^n^ral
'
general horse
^
pi.
"
g^n^rav^x
chevau-x
cheval
"
corail
'coral'
'^
corau-x
50.]
NOUNS.
33
Nouns Sing.
"
in
'
sibilant
are
invariable
pi.
JUs
prix
'
son
'
'
jUs
prix
"
,
.
price
^
"
7162^
nose
"
nez
Note
1.
"
Seven
'
nouns
in
*
-ou
add
in
the
*
plural.
They
kibou
*
are
hijou
jewel/ toy/
Note
cailloH
*
pebble/
"
chou
in
cabbage/
-ou
genou
knee/
owl/ joujou
The
pou
2.
louse/
"
Others
nouns
add
s.
A
:
few
in
-a/
simply
add
*
in
'
the
plural.
*
most
some
'
important
are
monosyllables
*
(except
mal
*
evil
and
val
*
vale
');
polysyllables in general
as
aval foreign
surety/ camavcU
names
carnival/
and
r^gal
entertainment
and
of
plants
animals
(nopal
'Indian
fig-
tree/ chacal
Note
'jackal/ etc.).
"
3.
Nouns
in
-a/7
are
differently
treated.
About
and
one-half
a
of
less and
these
(d^ail^ epouvantail^
add
x s
^ventail, gouvernail,
singular.
poitrail, portail,
change
few
-au,
common)
add
to
*
the
The
;
remainder
-ail
to
then
(corail coral/
4 ;
pi.
Yet
corau-x
travail
'
'labor/
in
pi.
travaux,
or
rarely
etc.).
ail 'garlic
has
plural
ails
aulx;
and
b^ail
cattle
has
bestiaux.
Note
4.
"
The
following
the
some
nouns
have
meaning
double of the
:
plural
noun,
form, and
a
an
irregular
retaining
general
manner
regular
restricting
^ancestor,
in
that
meaning
aieuf
grandfather'
]
'
^
'
( aieius
'
^^^,
, '
grandfathers
'.
del
sky,
heaven
^
'
"'^"^
'
^^""^^ ^"^^"^'
in
( dels
'
skies
pictures,
clime,
testers,
etc.
yeux
eyes in
mil
'eye'
"odls
oeils-de-boeuf 'oval
of
4.
windows'
and
many
(
'I
names
natural
products.
'
' //"flKff//labor'
i^
\.
(cf.note
varies
s
4;
3)
with
o\
( travaux
""
labors
omcial
'
( travails
regard
,,",.,
'
, '
reports
form
'
;
of
use
brakes
, '
Note
6.
"
Usage
to
the
nouns
plural
foreign
nouns.
Generally
piano-s,
is added
to
simple
of
familiar and
(alhum-s,
some
operas,
others,
especially
compounds,
pure
Latin
or
words,
unchanged
or
Qes
post-scriptum,
have
^
Us
their
Te
Deum,
les credo
form
-credos,
les requiem
f
requiems^
etc.),or
foreign
plural
{lesmaxima
les minima^
les lazzaroni,
les ladies
les torieSy
etc.).
34
SECOND
PART.
[51-53.
in take
:
[51.]
not
:
Proper used
Nouns
are
for Names
the
most
part
unchangped
however, dynasties
the
the
plural plural
when
figuratively. denoting
of
persons,
or
sign
a)
those
When
"
illustrious
families
by
way
les Bourbons.
to
b)
whom
When they
e.g. La
applied,
properly
of
;
or
comparison, when
;
other
persons
than
belong
a ses
used
as
titles of books
*
or
works
of
art
France
C^sar-s
des
Raphaels
pictures
of
Raphael.'
Note.
or
"
Several
alone
geographical
plural.
so
names
(lesIndes,
les Vosges,
etc.) are
used
chiefly
in the
[62.]
names
' '
As
of
in English,
also
in French
various
or
nouns,
especially
the
abstracts
or
material,
are
*
used
silver,
chiefly
money,'
alone
'
in
singular
,
[e.g.
others
or
ver-
dure
are
'
verdure,'
argent
lait
milk,'
used
chiefly
or
alone
*
in
the
plural
'
[e.g. ancetres
surroundings,'
'
ancest
.)
annales
funeral,'
Note.
more
"
annals,'
*
environs
t"nehres
yj-azs
ex'penseB,*
funeraille
maeurs
customs,'
nouns
shadows,'
etc.]
.
Several
or
have
in the the
plural
specialized
meaning,
ing differ-
less
from
that
of
singular:
e.g.
^er
'iron,'
pl.^ers, generally
grace and
so
'fetters,'
but graces
also
'
'implements
'
of
'
iron,'
'kinds
*
of
iron';
'charm,
on.
mercy,*
thanks
; ciseau
chisel,'
ciseaux
scissors,'
53.
Plural
of with
a
of
Compound
having
form
or
Nouns.
lost
meaning,
more
are
"
A.
or
When less
of
the
members
compound, regard
to
their
identity
written
together
as
without
any
word.
"
intervening
Ex.
hyphen,
the
compound
is treated
single
gendarme
(for gent
^and
d^arme)
under
pi.
or
gendarmes;
banlieue
(for banrlieue
'grandmother,' of
a
precincts
of acity,^
pi. hanlieues;
grand^m^re
64, B) (cf.
pi. grand*m^res,
are
B.
When each
the
of
members
them, in the
to
compound
or
separated and
by
a
7iu
hyphen,
if
noun
adjective (demi
it would
excepted)
the
is put compound
number be
be construed
to
were
according and
its
logical
meaning.
But
other
"
words
Thus,
'
adjectives always
pi.
versver
'
remain
unchanged.
ver-luisant agreeing
'glow-worm,'
worm
luisants
(luisant
place,
'
shining
with
lieu
'chief
'
head-quarters,'
with
pi.
lieu
'
chefs-Ueux
place
leader
being
in apposition
');
arc-en^iel
rain-
53-66.]
pi.
arcs-en-del
'
NOUNS.
86
bow/
"arches (i.e.
skies
")
; Hdtel-Dieu
"
hospital/ pi.
avanircoureurs
in
the
"in hotels
the
of
God/'
not
of gods
") ;
forerunners of
'
; apr^s-midi
afternoon/
pi.
apr^s-midi
t^te-dt-tite
the (i.e.
parts
the
day
coming
"after
midday");
are
'
^interview/
to
(because
two)
words
the
meetings
always
"
head
head/'
passe-partout
master-key/
^l, passe-partout
(because both
following
are
indeclinable).
[54.]
If
From
:
"
this
general
principle
(B)
is
are
derived
the
special
rules,
a.
viz.
one
member
or
*
of
bj
an
compound
noun
qualified
take
by
the
'
another
noun
in
apposition,
adjective,
places,'
*
both
members
*
plural
;
sign.
"
Ex.
chefs-lieux
b.
chief
choux-fleura
are
cauli-flowers
veps-luisanta
glowjworms/
If the
or
grands-peres
members
grand-fathers.'
combined
of
compound chief
*
by
the
*
preposition
expres
understood,
"
the
member
(generally
'
first) takes
the
plural
sign.
*
Ex.
'
arcs-en-ciel
*
rain-bows/
hospitals
master-pieces/ chefs-d'ceuvre
; timbres-poste
*
pots-
de-vin
Note
bribes 1.
"
"
; Hdtels-Dieu
one
stamps.'
are
If
member
does
not
qualify
the
unchan
Ex.
"
tete-a-tete
'interviews.'
member
as
Note
2.
If the
the
*
second
compound,
'
is
plural
be in
in
the
sense,
it has
or
the
"
plural
Ex.
sign,
whether
such,
plural
not.
le
char-a-bancs
c.
coach
(" with
is
a
benches").
verb-stem
If the
first member
unchanged
*
and with
or
-s,
the
second
to
noun,
both
"
are
generally
(usage
*
varying
regard in both
the
and
noun).
*
Ex.
perce-neige d. If the
snow-drops
; essuie-main
sing,
a
pi.,
noun
towels.'
compound particle
consists
of
particle
and
noun,
the
is unchan
if the
"
is
preposition
*
governing
'
it, but
;
otherwise
it is
*
inflected.
Ex.
les
apres-midi
the
afternoons
lea
avant-coureurs
the
forerunners.*
55,
Gender.
or
"
French either
can a
nouns,
whether
or
names
of
living
that
beings
at
not,
are
masculine
teach the
But
feminine.
to
No
rules
are
learner
a
determine,
rules of
in every
will
cases, can
case,
noun.
few in
general
a
help
as
him
to
decide
with
relative
certainty
majority
practice
56S2.
in acquiring These
rules
what
are
only
constant
teach
him
fully.
given
below,
36
SECOND
PART.
[66-59
the
Latin
"
The
by
classical
the
student
is helped
in
gender
and
of
French
French gender,
oun
general
in the
existing
described aid
to
or
introduction,
a
C.
All
with
a
students
French
should,
noun
an
memory,
it
habit
to
associate
a
the
definite
(when
begins
with
vowel)
the
indefinite
article.
156,2
a.
^
Masculines
denoting
le
are
Nouns
the
male
'
beings
ox.'
e.g. le p^re
'
the
father/
le
roi
king,'
not
boeuf
the
b.
Nouns
from
implying
of
distinct
nouns,
sex, as
when
their
termination
below 'the
"
differs
that
feminine
le hU
described
le noyau
(57 b)
kernel,'
le pain
e.g. le
sofa *the
'the
le
sofa,'
^the
grain,' 'the
'
le courage
courage,'
le
fantdme
nam
phantom';
name.'
'
the
bread,'
fer
'
the
are
iron,' le
:
the
[57.]
a.
'
Feminines
denoting
Nouns
female
beings
'
e.g. la
'
m^re
'
the
the
mother,'
cow.'
la
soeur
the
sister,' la reine
not
the
queen,'
of
la vache
sex,
b.
Nouns in
:
implying
distinction
when
they
nate termi-
-e
(thase
usually
'
in
-ge, -^me,
:
trees
excepted)
the
as as well -dme, -cfe, -sme, ' the life,' la table e.g. la vie
names
'
of
the
table,'
la
lumi^re
'
light
'
"
but
'
le
d^e
oak.'
'
'
the
seat,
the
siege,'
le
Steele -fe,
the
century,'
:
le cMne
the
ii^
e.g. la
son
bont4
'
the
:
kindness
; la piti4
'
'
the
'
pity
-ei/r,
'ton,
'
(not
-sson)
e.g. la terreur
'
the
terror,'
la possessi
the
possession,'
gender of
nouns
la maison
denoting
the
the
living
house.'
beings is
the
[58.]
The
in
whose
is
sex
not
implied
the
meaning by their
of
word
as
commonly
*
used, the
for
most
part
determined
*
ending
(e.g.la
*the
be
personne
lobster,'
person,'
la
'the
connais-
ance
the of
acquaintance';
these may,
*
le homard
however,
la for
mouche
fly')
few
or
used for
be
names
optionally
either that
gender
are
(e.g
une
en/ant
gender,
child
');
and
may
*
of
by
m.
animals
using
or
used
in
or
only
one
distinction
or
made
after
them
male
femelle (la
[59.]
baleine
male
numerous
femelle
the
whale'
to
f.).
rules 66,
commerce
Among
exceptions
very
common nouns
the
:
"
general Masculines,
57,
may
*
be
com-
noticed
the following
59-62.]
doute
*
*
NOUNS.
37
merce/
doubt,'
Jleuve
*
river/ parapluie
tonnerre
'
'
umbrella
verre
(but
*
pluie
*
rain/
; comity
*
reve fern.),
dream/
*
silence
silence/
*
thunder/
*
glass
coeur
committee/
c6t"
side/ traits
*
treaty
; bonheur
happiness/
';
heart/
nouns
Aonncur
common
'honor/
ma/Aeur
misfortune/
as
;"oison
*
'poison
and
several
*
of
natural
auteur
gender,
"
camarade
comrade/
r///a, loi
esclave
slave/
deve
vertu
pupil/
'author/
'
Feminines,
*
'law/
"
virtue/ apres-midi
'
afternoon
; image
creme
'
image/
'
page
'
page
'
book)/
'
neige
snow/
Note.
rage
mam
rage/
Nouns
boucle
'
buckle/
cream
'
clef
key
/aim
hunger/
fin 'end/
"
'hand/
in
are
thirst/ so//*'
-e,
on
manner/
6000
to
are
,/af
of
which
some
feminines
sweeping
and
some
2000
masculines,
though
especially
refractory
representing
any
classification. ending
a,
njute,
most
often
some
the
Latin
feminine
quite
frequently
represents
nouns
other with
vowel.
[60.]
(=
'
Several
are
used,
differentiated
*a
meaning,
both
une
'
as
masculine
'a
and
a
feminines.
'
"
Ex.
'
un
enfant
child
(=
'
boy)/
criticism
enfant
child
girl)
la
; le critique
the
critic,' la critique
the
; le manche
'the
handle/
manche
'
'the post,
'
sleeve';
le mode
'the
"
manner,'
/a mode
'
'the
fashion
the
a
; le poste
the
the
;
un
station,'
'
la poste
'
the
post-office
*
; le voile
veil/
la
'
voile
or
the
sail of
aigle
:
an
eagle
(bird),une
'
aigle
an
eagle
(as
standard
coat
arms)
and
many
others.
[61.]
*
Several
nouns
of different and
thus
'
gender, have
'
though
a
identical different
'
in
form,
"
are
of
different the
origin, book,'
a
naturally
meaning.
page,'
'
Ex.
la
livre
'
the
pound
'
; le page
the
'
(boy)
the
'
la page
;
page
round,
'
(of
the
book)
; le souris
the
smile,'
tour
'
la souris
tower
mouse
'
le
tour
the
circuit,
'
the many
turn,'
la
the
; le
vase
the
vessel,'
la
mud
and
are
:
others.
[62.]
Some
uses.
*
nouns
of different
genders
in
singular
and
plural,
or
in
different
a.
Thus
Amour fem.
love/ ddice
plural
delight/
'
orgue
organ,'
are
masc.
in the
singular
and b.
in the
(amour,
*
sing., being
are
often, fem.
'
however,
nouns.
*
fem.
They
in
are
poetry).
masc.
Chose
'thing/
personne
person,'
as
in
the
pronominal
expressions
and is fem.
quelque
personne in
its
chose
*
something
(not, however,
in
quelque
c.
chose Foudre
'whatever')
*
anybody.* proper
sense,
lightning
'of
a
'
but
masc.
when
used
metaphorically
d.
person.
Gens
gent
its
'people,
'
persons' nation
(properly
wavers
plural
masc.
form and
of
the
:
feminine
it is but
masc.
noun
race,
')
between
fem.
when
adjective
follows
(e.g.les gens
'
s"rieux
people
'serious
people'),
a
fem.
'
when
it precedes
(les bonnes
gens
good
').
Yet
preceding
'all
is
38
^ECOKb
PART.
[62-64.
having distinct
lways
masc.
(tous)^save
tons (e.g.
when
followed
tons
a
by
an
adjective
gens, but
feminine
Note.
form
"
lesgens,
by
'
les honnetes
toutes
les bonnes
masc.
:
*
gens).
e.g.
Gens
followed
noun-determinant soldiers';
is always certains
de
nombreux
gens
study.*
de guerre
numerous
gens
d'e'tude
certain
en
of
63.
Formal
Relation genders
by
between
Kindred
Masculine
more commoH
and
Nouns
are,
as
Different
denoted
of
use
persons
and
of
the
rule,
a.
the
of different
words.
are
*
The
difference from
*
is either
radical,
*
when
*
both
words
'
derived
different
'
sources:
'
e.g.
pere
father,'
'
mere
*
mother horse
'
; ftomme
'
m"n/
'
femtne
'
woman
*
; roi
cow,'
king,'
etc.
jeine
or
queen b.
; cheval
jument
feminine for
change
:
mare
bceuf
is
ox,'
vache
derived
relative,
the
.vhen derivation
the
form
the
most
clearly made
from
the
masculine
being
part
in accordance
with
a
the
principles
determining
the chiefly
that
to
m.,
of
masculine
-e,
adjective
are
to
feminine
feminine
tiiat final
-enr
changed
in
the
to
-euse;
and
-teur
masculines otherwise
in
to
-teur
when
derived
:
from ami,
French
m.,
*
verbs,
*
change
'
-tense,
f.,
friend
; cousin,
cousine,
f
.,
'
cousin
-trice ; berger
(cf. 78)
*
e.g.
amie,
shepherd,'
baronne
'
bergere
shepherdess
chien
'count,*
*dog,'
comtesse
chienne
'bitch*;
baron
'baron,'
'baroness';
'
comte
'countess';
acteur
'
tigre
actor,'
tiger,' f/^rcsse
'
tigress
etc.
; danseur,
ra.,
danseuse,
f., 'dancer,'
actrice
actress,'
V.
ADJE0TIYB8.
[64.
HISTORY.
in French
"
A.
The
case-forms
the
same
of
manner
Latin
as
adjectives
those of
have
been
reduced
in
precisely
nouns
(47,
A,B).
B. The genders
The have
latter
-a
also
been
the
reduced
to
two:
-e
the
masculine which
now
and
corresponds
the
feminine.
to
even
has
distinct
bona
=
ending
Fr.
(mute),
though
the
to
.
Latin
such
(e.g. Lat.
as
m.,
bonne),
-a
it is
often
added
feminines
grand,
had
no
in
Latin
grandis,
; Old
to
Fr.
grand,
f. ; Fr.
the
grand,
sometimes
both
the
masculine
and
grand
feminine
seen
m (triste,.
a
f.).
trace
of the
'
old
feminine
where
form
the
an
is yet
in
few
by
words
a
grand*-
iere
grandmother,'
to
apostrophe
t.
is inserted,
ing, misunderstand-
denote
the
loss
of
(imaginary)
64-66.]
Some
ADJECTIVES.
39
adjectives
cf.
Lat.
retain
in the
feminine
'lively,'
more
primitive
Lat. vivus;
form
be'nin
:
than
in
he
masculine: from
vif:
fem.
vive
from
benigne
beau:
benign'
*
benignus;
Lat.
nul: bellus;
nulle
gros:
'none/
*
from
Lat.
from
nullus;
Lat.
elle
beautiful/
In
other
from
cases,
groaae suffers
to
large/
a
grosaus,
tc.
the
feminine
change,
form
purely
its
(and
comparatively by
analogy:
; cruel
:
modem)
e.g.
serving
'
denote
made
:
cker:
f. chere
dear*
'
(e
to
'
avoid
ute
35)
cruelle
(to
long:
avoid
void
onne
longue
of the
public
g
on. as
'
"
publique
Mong';
(to
bon
j)
and
so
C.
of
Comparison
of
independent
expressed,
words
they
more,*
were
already
"
n Old
French,
aid
(/)/ms
moins
=
less,'
Fr.
Lat.
pluSf minus).
pire,
a
Only
have
three
Lat.
comparatives in French,
{nielior^ p^jor,minor
and
no
meilleuTj
except
moindre)
few
been
terms
retained
in -ws/me,
superlative, 16th
if
technical
imported
in the
century.]
form but either
65,
French
Adjectives
and
have,
as
principle,
different
for
singular
no
'or
plural,
change.
and
As
for
masculine
they
and
are
feminine,
placed
suffer
other
attributes
before
after
their
noun
(cf.221).
"
66.
a
Plural
manner
Formation.
analogous plural
to
Adjectives
of
form
their
plural
"
in
that
the
nouns
(cf.50).
so
Ex.
for
joli ^ pretty,'
on
'
all
feminines, grands;
which
"
in sing,
beau
*
in
e) ;
;
grand
'
great,-
pi.
beautiful,'
'moral,'
beaux;
Mbreu
hebrew,'
pi. Mbreux
"
moral
"
moraux
g4n4ral
^general,'
*
pi. gen"raux;
mduvais
'bad/
pi. mauvaia;
faux
false,'
pi.
faux.
Note soft,' add 1.
s
"
Bleu
in the
*hlue,'
plural.
in
feu
Mate
(= deceased),' fou
but
to
'foolish,*
mou
'
Note
2.
"
Adjectives
to
-a ux,
-a/
have forms
slowly
yielded
the
met
tendency with
of
changing
-al
and
plural
in
-ah
are
frequently
they
are
in the
being
literature
etc.);
but
constantly
reduced Note
3.
"
Polysyllables
more
common
in
-ant,
plural, but
the
practice
-ent, is to
may
optionally
it.
"
drop
in
the
keep
Ex.
putssan(t)8.
SECOND
PART.
[67-73.
Formation
of
the
Feminine.
not
67.
General
Rule.
in
e
"
Masculines, remain
:
ending
"
in
6,
add
in
he
feminine
*
; those
'
unchanged.
^
Ex.
grandy
'
fern.
'
rande
:
great
; mauvais
^
mauvaise
bad
'
'
joli: jolie
pretty
imi
aim^e
beloved
'
"
jeune
Before
jeune
this
These
young/
the
form
68.
Special
to
Rules.
"
e,
masculine
either
subject
due
certain the
than fact
being
A.
etymologica
a more serving
to
feminine
;
or
has B.
retained
primitive
chiefly
form
to
the
masculine
orthograpMcal,
the feminine
denote
below
the
pronunciation
of
form,
re
described
(cf.64, B).
Chiefly
Etymological
to
".
A.
Changes:
Ex. br^ve
'
[69.]
Final
f is changed
active
benign
*
"
vif:
^
f.
vwe
^lively,
vivid';
actif:
B^in
'
^active';
bref:
*
brief
(^.-74).
in the
[70.]
:
and
malin
malicious
resume
feminine
ost g
henigne,
Absous
maligne.
'absolved'
[71.]
and
dissous
"
dissolved'
are
in
the
feminine
bsoute,
dissovte,
[72.]
Fims
{from
Germanic
form
/rcsc) afresh'
is in the
eminine
fratche.
Beau
'
[73.]
mou
a
'beautiful,'
'
nouveau
'new,
different,'
singular,
h 'mute,'
fou
'foolish,'
old,' retain
with
a
in the
or
when their
placed
older
before
noun
vowel in
hel
masculine
forms
bel
(also used
this latter
et
bon)
nouvef,
or
fof, mo/,
plural,
e.
vieil
Their
feminine,
form
singular
is always
we
from
by
doubling
I before
ence
Sing.
m.
Plur.
vow.
or
beau
or
(+
mute
') bel
beaux
)
Ugou
tiful
f.
belle
belles
73-75.]
ADJECTIVES.
41
m.
nouveau
or
nouvel
nouvea^ix
)
"- new
f.
m.
nouvelle
fou
or
nouvelles
)
f^^ijgj^
)
soft
)
fol
fous
f
.
fo//e
mou
or
folles )
mous
m.
mol
f
.
mo//e
"/eux
or
mollea
m.
vieU
vieux
-,
f
.
vieille
hel
arbre
'a
vieilles J
Ex.
un
'
beautiful
^
tree/
^
un
'
beau
;
une
palais
*a
fine
'
palace
une
belle dme
'
beautiful
arbres
soul the
belle maison
trees
*
beautiful
*
house
; les
beaux
fine
; les
belles
maisons
B.
Chiefly Orthographical
with
e
:
Changes:
[74.]
" 35,
open
a. a
In
accordance
the
orthographical
form
principle
stated
as
penultimate feminine
of
the
masculine
is designated
in the By
to to
where
"
the
cher:
following
f.
consonant
is not
amer:
doubled
ambre
b.
Ex.
ch^re
sec:
*dear';
sbche
^bitter';
secret:
secrete
^secret';
(ch: 76, 1)
^dry';
b.
.
bref:
By
"
brhve
{v: 69).
of
a
the
Ex.
doubling
cry"l
:
following
* '
/, /i, and
; anden
:
(except
*
of -cret,
'
-plet)
net:
cruelle
muet:
has
cruel
ancienne
ancient
nette
"
*neat';
Inquiet
mweffe
the
^mute.'
inquihte.
NoTB.
'uneasy'
feminine
[75.]
other
Final
/, /?, f,
than
e
as
well
as
s,
are
also
often
doubled
Thus
:
after
vowels
(s for
etymological
/ after
'similar';
ei, i, to
designate f. gentille
'
the
pareille
nvl
gentil:
'nice')j
after
in
(f
nulle
/I,
Lat.
i
and
no.'
and
diminutives)
bellot:
after
e.g. bon
bonne
'good';
sotte
'foolish';
beUotie
'pretty.'
42
SECOND
PART.
[75-80
*
in
monosyllabics
*
(bas 'low/
Also losing
etc.
las
tired,' gras
cypres
fat,' ^ros
'big/
etc.)
Fem.
xcept
?-as
smootii/
two
in
^pais
'thick/
(these
:
their
grave
accent),
'mongrel.'
having
"
orms
basse,
lasse,
(the
and their
^
Lat.
originals,
bassus,
ss).
before
and
s.
"
[76.]
retain
Final
or
:
'
c,
g,
(spurious
utterance,
^
sign
for
s)
qu,
^
are
e,
to
restore
written
:
gu^
'
Ex.
public
publigue
public
; long
longue
long
; heureux
heureuse
Note
1.
happy.'
Grec
:
"
'Grecian'
; and
is in
'
fem.
written
'
grecgue
*
(i.e.grec-qucj
dry
'
to
c
avoid
gre-gue
36)
blanc
white,'
franc
free,'
sec
change
to
li
'false,'
in the
roux
'red'
'
prefix
are,
for historical
reasons,
fem.
douce,
[77.]
To
denote
over
the
unaltered
e.
"
pronunciation Ex.
aigu 'sharp':
diaeresis
(6)
is placed
the
added
aigu-e.
78.
Nouns
in
-(t)eur used
from
be
appositively
as
adjectives
otherwise that
end
in
in
the
fem.
if derived
b.
French
noticed, by
men
verb-roots,
It is to
however,
remain
such
nouns
chiefly
practised
unchanged
:
in
the
danseur:
*
danseuse
'
'dancer';
;
"
chanteur
m.
chanteuse docteur,
serviteur
'singer,'
m.
ctn'ce
actor,
actress
auteur,
f.,
author,'
f.,
doctor.'
the
Note
1.
"
Ambassadeur,
imp^atrlce,
in
e
empei'eur,
enchanteur,
esse,
form
femi-
ines
ambassadrice,
2.
"
enchanter
-sse
servante.
Note
Nouns
the
add
(traitre: traitresse
'traitor').
Favori
favorite'
forms
feminine
/a
wnYe.
*
79.
are
adjectives (dispos
only with
masc. nouns.
lively,'
fai 'foppish/
and
a
aquilin
aquiline,'
'
etc.)
nouns,
few
others
(crasse
'
gross
etc.)only
80.
feminine
Compound
in gender
'
Adjectives.
"
In
compound
when
adjectives, the
co-ordinated
;
first member
the second,
s changed
and
and
number dumb*;
only
with
.g. "our"?-mu""
deaf
f. sourde-muette thin-sown,'
pi.
sourd(e)s'muett(e)s
the determining
are
nu-
ut
nu-pieds
'bare-footed,*
"
clair-sem^*
with
nd
clair- invariable.
*
Compounds
sing,
or
denoting pi.
shades
of color
invariable
.g.
TQuge-f"mc" deep-red/
81-84.]
ADJECTIVES.
43
Comparison.
[81.]
^
The
'
comparative
or
^
of
'
adjectives
the article
is formed
and
by
the
placing super-
plus
more
moins
less
before
positive,
lative
by
the
*
putting
the
definite
"
(or
possessive
adjective)
before
comparative.
'
Ex.
finer
' '
beau
fine
'*
plus
moins
beau
le plus
fine
'
beau
beau
the
finest
least
'
beau
'
beau haut
*
less
'
le moins
m,on
'the
'
fine
*
hauf
high
'
plus
higher
plus
haul
my
highest
[82.]
two
Boriy mauvais,
different
ways
as
petit
"
in
(one
shown
to
their
,
different
(
^
sense,
'
below
good
meilleur
'
le meilleur
le plus
[*good-natured,
'
silly
plus
hpn
6on]rare
mauvais
evil
pine
quality'
plus
mauvais
le pine '^
le plus
mauvais
of poor
(^little'
moindre
le moindre
le plus
first and
oetit
\
1.
"
'
small
(in size)
in
use
'
plus
between and
petit
these
petit
forms
as
Note
The
distinction
second
absolute analytic
of
comparison
(especiallyof
and
the
mauvais
usage
petit)
the be
is not
second
so
to
excliide
NoTB
all option,
2.
"
popular
above
is towards
or
form.
From adverbs
adjectives
and
as
should
carefully
distinguished
the
kindred
6/e/i, mal,
peUy
about
*
which chief,'
of
no
[83.]
eternal,*
Some
etc.,
adjectives, such
by
reason
principal
admit
last,'
kernel
of
their
sense,
84.
'As
(so)
. .
...
as'
is
rendered
'than'
grand
que
vous
by
aussi
(or
is
si
usually
in
que;
U
est
and
aussi
by
que
'
que
vous
(or by
'he
so
'
de
as
before tall
as
a
as
'
'
you
; il n'est
pas que
si grand
vous
he
is not you
tall
; i7
you
plus
de
il est plus
ans
grand
^
'he than
is taller
than
qninze
Note.
he
is
much
more
fifteen
as'
years
is
of age.'
by
autant
"
'As
(many)
.
...
rendered
(or
tantt
usually
in
negation)
que.
44
SBCOND
PART.
[85-87.
or
an
[86.]
'
Man
as
J,
more,
most'
before
noun,
adjective
with
nomi,
are
rendered
follows:
*
'
'many'
beaucoup
de
de
the
(jqt plusieura
def
.
'several');
'
more
plus
de
most
fa plupart
(with
article).
VI.
iniMEBALS.
The
Numerals It should
[86.
HISTORY. Latin
forms
"
are,
as
rule, however
nonante,
derived
:
"
from
the
correspondin
numerals. for
*
be
noted,
octante,
That
which
older
French
70,
even
80,
90,'
septante,
of
in
use,
septarUe
and
nonante,
found
France, the
*
in classical
authors,
are
yet
dialectically,
in parts
of
by
'
have
been
supplanted,
presumably
through
Celtic
influ
awkward
forms
soixante-dix
(*sixty-ten
'), quatre-vingts
') ;
"
('four
*
twenties
cf.
four-score
'),
from
quatre-vingt-dix
;
'
"
('eighty-ten
ending
-lewe
b.
That
1st
is premier
(Lat. primarius)
all
c.
That
'
the
(Lat.
-esimus)
is
used
for
ordinals
second
upward.]
though with
common
87.
list of the
numerals,
properly
belonging given
to the
vocabulary,
88.
1 2
un
is, in accordance
practice,
below.
CARDINALS
(ali masc,
except
une).
14
16 16
quatorze
(f Mfig)
.
deux
trois
quatre
quinze seize
3
4
5
(ei
long)
=
17
dix-sept
dix-huit
(jx
)
ss)
=
cinq six
(q
=
k^
Finals
before
or
'
mute
cons't
18 19
yx
7
8
9
sept
huit
dix-neuf
vingt
vingt
asp.,
are
*
if 20
adjectives 21 Before
6-10
(gt mute)
et
un
10 11
vowels,
(or vingt-un)
22
/=Vf
and
x=z
vingt-deux uingt'trois
etc.
in vingt
sounded
23
onze
12
douze
treizc
13
(ct
long)
not
30
trente
"^
Hciico
follows
usually
in dates
etre
*
(/e cinq
mars
or etc.),
where
no
determined
oun
(six pent
six perhaps
').
88-90].
irente
NUMERALS.
45
et
un
(or trente"un')
:
00 91 92
quatre-mngt-dix quatre-vingt-onze
.
.
trente-deux
quarante cinquante
etc.
i
"ilent'i
quatre-vingt-douze
50
60
soixante
(jx
ss)
(^-x=
70
8oixante-dix
8oixante-onze soixante-douze
quatre-vingt8
quatre-vingt-un
71
72
etc.
80
(gts silent)
81
"yQftin
)
vingt
82
quatre-vingt'deux
silent)
to
a are
89,
un
The
'
cardinals
'
up
million
form
except
that
one
has
the
feminine
une,
that
multiples usual by
an
of
vingt
^20'
sense
cent
s
in their followed
collective
the
plural
sign
when
added
number.
Ex.
'
quatre-vingts
'80'
cents
'
(lit.four
300/
but
twenties
trois
cent
')
dix
but
quatre-vingt-deux
82
'
; trois
'
310.'
But compare year, Fan
not
a
trois
cent
'the
sum
year of
300'
(troiscent
denoting
certain
collective
years),jxige
quatre-vingt
'page
80.'
They
in the
MiUion,
with
trillion, etc.,
de
:
are
nouns.
take
*
plural, books.'
and
are
construe
e.g. deux
millions
de livres
2,000,000
old
Note.
"
Mille
era,
(m.)
*1000'
is mil
(reallythe
by
'
sing,
form)
"
in
dates
of
the
Christian
if it is followed
'
another
number.
'
Ex.
mil
deux
cent
(also douze
cent)quatorze
to
1214
; but
Van
mille
the
year
1000.'
90-
Contrary
from
:
English
usage,
"
French
employs
denote of
the
cardinal
numbers
deux
(inclusive)on
qucUre
mars
'
1. to
the
day
'
of
;
"
the
month
e.g.
le
fourth however,
Henri
March
2. after
names
of
sovereigns
quatre
'
(where,
IV,'
second
is also
used) :
Note
e.g. Henri
'
Henry
deux
'
Henry
II,'
Charles
second
1.
"
Charles
II.'
'Charles
quintus V
In
Charles-
Quint
the
(the emperor)
and
Sixte-Quin
Sixtus
(the pope),
Latin
survives^
46
SECOND
PART.
[90-93.
it is in
:
Note
use
2.
"
In
quoting
or
chapter,
when
page,
the
'
etc.,
optional,
its
as
English,
e.g.
to
cardinals
or
ordinals, 'chapter
numeral
only
follows
noun
chapi-
tre
trois
troisikme
III
(but
for
le troisieme
chapitre).
first'
91-
Ordinals.
the
ordinal
"
Except
premier
and
second
second/
numbers
a
are
e
made
by
suJSixing
the
cardinals,
of which
final
is dropped.
Cinq
'
to
cinguQme,
neuf
in
'
'nine/
21st/
'
neuvi^me;
and
unihae,
instead
of
pre-
mier,
is used
31st/
etc.
92-
Ordinals
are
inflected
Ex.
in
gender
la
j le
ot
and
number les
like
mon com-
adjectives.
"
Je premier^
'
premi^re^
premiers
(m.)
or
premih'es
(f .)
the
first
'
la
sixieme,
les
sixi^mes
'the
Note
sixth.'
1.
"
Deuxieme
and
is optionally
in compounds
used
instead
of
second
when
there
are
more
than
two,
always
Note
2."
Tiers
as
and
e.g.
une
still at
'
times
used
regular
*a
third
person
quart
voleur
fourth
thief
(La Font.).
Other
93.
Collectives.
"
Numerals
"
(Nouns
are
'
and
formed
Adjectives)
by
These
usually number
suffixing days,'
cardinal.
Ex.
une
huitaine
of
eight,
eight
to
93-96.]
10/
une
PRONOUNS.
47
douzaine
: une
dozen/
etc.
une
"
Such
'
forms
about
often
20,
express 100.'
an
mate approxi-
number
vingtaine,
"
centaine
about
94.
Fractionals.
Mo/tiSj
*
t., *half'
the time
(noun;
and
*
construed
'
as
such:
.g.
la moitU
preceding
noun
:
du
temps
noun
half
with
of
a *a
') ; demf
or
half
(either invariable
and
*
nd
its
une
hyphen,
variable,
une
f. demie,
et
following
ts
e.g.
demi-heure
half-hour,'
heure
demte
an
hour
and
half);
quarter
tiers
of
an
(f. tierce)
hour
as
'third,*
quart
*
'quarter'
(e.g. un
*
quart
d*heure
etc.
,
*);
in
"
cinquihme
English,
an
fifth,'
aixfhme
sixth/
the
enominator
being,
ordinal.
95.
MuLTiPLicATivES.
*
"
DoubU
*
double,*
triple
etc.
treble/ quadruple
fourfold/
quintuple
fivefold,*
sextuple
sixfold,'
VII.
FBOHOTJirS
AND
A.
or
FBONOHINAL
General
Reduction
case-forms,
ADJEOTIVES.
of
have FormB. A
[96.
HISTORY. retaining
"
few
prothan the
nominals,
and
two
even
three
resisted
language;
better
but
ouns
adjectives
have in
the
analytic
one case
tendencies
and
one or
of
two
the
reat
majority
only the
genders.
as
The many
personal
as
ronoun
i7, alone
whole
ace,
language,
has in
retained and
three
different
case-forms
(nom.,
The
dat.)
singular
plural,
have
two
masculine
nd
feminine
same
(cf. 100).
cases,
personal relative
pronouns
^e, tu,
forms reduced
forms
for
the
three
and
the
qui, two
were
as
for
two
cases
(nom.,
the
ace).
All
to
the
one
remaining case-form
pronominals for
the
already
as
an
in
14th
entury
singular
as
well
one
for
the
plural,
hat
form
neuter
usually gender
representing,
is
here and
elsewhere,
pronominals,
between the
original
as
mes,
accusative.
nos,
ces,
he
lost,
several
qui,
tc.,
have
obliterated
FormB.
:
even
the A
distinction
of
masculine
and
feminine.
have
two
B.
Double forms
have
tone
plurality
French
pronominals
they
ifferent
as
an
independent
; and
a
(and
usually
to
the in
tone
proclitic word
eo,
are
used
sacrifice
gave
they
their
favor
of
the
they
Lat.
ego
he
proclitic replaced
the
gaye
form
by
je (through
its
io,
jo)
independent
form
gi^
(now
object-form
me
moi) ; Lat.
independent
the
niihi
form
ach
proclitic
form
and
mon
the
mium
the
proclitic
form
and result
independent
(1, B)
but
; and
so
n. a
This
difference
of form
is the
chiefly
(as in
the
examples
quoted)
also,
different
treatment
causes.
of
accented
and
unaccented
vowels,
in
art,
of other
48
SECOND
PART.
[96-98.
be
here
C.
Derivation.
French
With
regard for
the
are
to
derivation,
part
it may
come
noted from
that
the
pronominals
they
most
Latin,
by
though
exceptionally
or
the
use
result
of
new
compositi
by
the
cases
pronominal
where
; lui
of
few
nouns
adverbs.
at
Thus,
to
quote
few
the
is from
connection
a
is not
first sight
ye, moi
(cf. above)
; it is
a
vulgar
has also
Latin
dat.
illui
the
(procliticaccent
independent
on
-lui)
el;
proclitic
dat., and
;
"
replaced
older
ace.
leur
is from
icest,
as
illorum
cet
ce,
the
adjective,
being
ce,
is from
eccistum used
(==ecce
before
eccehoc
istum)f later
and
cest,
(the
last
form
yet
the
:
regularly
neuter,
vowels,
basis
of
the
feminine
; cette)
is from
"
ce/ui
is
is from
but-
the of
fem.
celie from
"
ecc'illam) ;
"
on
from
:
homo
Hen
from
rem
(ace.
res) ;
from
ihi ;
en
from
inde
etc.]
pronouns
97.
The
French
are
the
English,
Personal
and
pronominal
like
Demonstrative,
Interrogative,
of
Indefinite.
a
:
98.
Most
the
have
double
cf. my,
form
in
French they
lose
a
(as
are
more
English
the
mine).
usually
more
:
When
closely
with
word
they
determine, and
they
their
accent-stress
or
in favor
form than the
of that
word,
they We
are
receive
shorter
lighter
as
when
tone.
used
have
independently,
a.
and
such
have
then
proclitic
(usually called
when the
conjunctive, or
is combined
foi-m adjective)
closely
with
which
or
is used
pronominal
verb b.
with
noun
; and
An
independent
(usually called
is
disjunctive
pronominal
or
pure
pronou
form, which
the
name
used
noun
when
the
is separated
from
No
verb
for
sanction
:
or
the
two
it determines.
of
pronominal
The
the
classes
uniform
forms
described
above
has
received
by
usage.
terminology
pronouns,
adopted
below
(conjunctive
for
disjunctive
the other
for
the
personal
though
and
adjectives
open
pronouns
pronominals),
preferred
prefer
to
in
some
respects
to
terminology
by the
French
grammarians.
use
would,
not
indeed,
uniform
a
of proclitic
so
ent, independdeviating
ventured
adopt
terminology
much
from
common
usage
(cf
however,
Liicking.
.,
Matzner
adopts
: conjunctive
disjunctive throughout).]
99,
100.]
All
PRONOUNS.
49
99-
monosyllabic
pronominals
ce:
in
-e
(except
also
only
the
their
demonstrative before
a
adjective
vowel-sound
27.
107,
a), and
for
la, drop
vowel
fai (e.g.
je
at,
as etc.),
already
described
in 27,
2.
Personal 1 00.
The
Pronouns
Pronouns
(Reflexiveincluded).
are
Personal
either
a.
conjunctive
b.
or
b.
disjunctive (98).
a.
Conjunctive
(or after) the verb
or aa
Disjunctive
f r. the
;
[placed
directly
before
[separated
as
verb,
save
unempbatic
.
subject
^-^
object]
predic.
emphatic]:
A
.^
Pers.
NOM.
Ace.
DAT.
NOM.
Ace.
me
moi
me
to
me
me
iu
te
thee
to
toi
thee thou
thee
IT
thou
//
Illm.
he
le
him, it
to
lui
him
lui
(it)
(it)
he
I
elle
liim
f.
elle
she
la
her
lui
to
(it)
(it)
SB
her
(it)
she
I
SOi
her
m.
f.
refl.
nous
we
us
lui, (or
refl.
nous to
us
refl. elle)
we
us
vous
"0US
II
you
you
to
you
you
eux
you
"J
ils
Illm.
they
les
them
(m.)
leur
to
they
(m.)
them
(m.)
f.
elles
they
les
them
them they
elles
(f.)
(f.)
I them
sol
(f.)
se
m.
f.
refl.
(eux,
refl.
refl. elles)
50
SECOND
PART.
[100-102.
each
three different
have only
Note
1.
"
As
and
seen
above,
tu
case-forms,
one.
je and
forms
'
two,
pronouns
cases
Identical
*
may,
nous
*
different
nou8 (e.g.
*
aimons
to
* '
e
"
love
; II
aime
I speak
He
//
nous
"crit
He
writes
us
Je lui parle
it ';
to
{or to her)
'
';
Lui
(note 3) le/era
Him.'
He
will do
*
Qui aimez-vous?
of
*
Zi//
Whom
do you
love 1
Je
parle de lui
Note
2.
"
I speak
him').
*
Vous
Tu
*
you
'
may, is used
precisely
between
as
in English,
refer to and
one
person
or
several.
thou
intimate
friends
relatives
(cf
.
Syntax).
Note 3.
"
To
render
is placed
*
conjunctive
before
it,
or
personal
emphatic,
:
the
disjunctive form
or
after the
For
e.g.
Vaime
Je
Vaimpy
moi
I love
:
him.'
the
*
3d
the
so.'
Je disjunctive
Moiy
form
alone 4.
"
is sometimes
used
He
Note
To
:
disjunctive pronoun
'myself,'
is often appended
vous-meme
the emphatic
*
-meme
*8elf
(107)
e.g. moi-meme
(or
-selves).'
101the
The
Pronominal
are
Particles
also
en
and
/.
"
With
en
reckoned and
the
particles
it, of them'
as
a
/
a
it,
respectively
to them,'
which
of
to
are
used
genitive
and gender
the
3d
person,
in either
number,
to
with
reference
things
(exceptionally with
in
an
reference
sense
persons,
especially
"
if understood Ex.
indefinite
or
to personified
objects).
en
Jl
He
j'e/i ai
Voild,
en.
besoin.
papier
y
du
prenez-
Vos
raisons
sont
bonnes^
je
Your
reasons
are
good,
I yield
m'/ rends.
to them.
Je
my fie.
102.
A.
I rely
of
on
it.
Position
Unlike
the
Conjunctive
usually
Pronoun.
places the
English,
French
as
pronouns,
whether
construed
immediately
102.]
PRONOUNS.
51
before
the verb:
it
to
e.g.
je
;
h
ne
vois
^I
see
him';
*I
ye
not
irous
see
le donne
him.' immediately,
^1 give In two
as a.
jou'
je
le vois pas
they
do
constructions, in English,
especially,
follow
the verb
a
being
then
appended
to it by
hyphen,
viz.:
The
interrogative it ?
'
clauses
e.g.
aije
The
have
'
; Vavez-"Ous
'
have
you in
b.
object-pronoun {me,
"
te,
etc.)
affirmative
changed
'
pera imto
me, en
te
"
being
then,
however, ^give it
moi,
toi, except
*give
me,'
before it
; e.g. donne-le
(but
ne
le donne
pas
not');
donnez-le-lui
'give
me,'
'give
it to
him'; 'give
me
aimez-mei
some.' come
4ove
donnez-moi
donnez-m'en
B.
Of
several the
one
nearest
verb
those
or
of
the
3d
Of
se,
person
the
after).
is 1. gives
latter, if
more
than
occur,
order
of sequence
'he
2. le
me';
(la, les
donnez-
3. lul
{leur).
"
Ex.
le donne
it to
le-m^i;
je le lul
; il
se
donne
'I give
'he
en,
it to him'
promises
; donnez-le-leur
'give
it to The
them'
le promet
particles
donne
en
'
it to himself.' follow
'
pronominal
:
always
me some
other
tives conjunc'
e.g. tZ
'
m^en
he
'
gives
he
; donne-m^en
'
give
en
me
some
; U
lui
"
donne
gives
him
some
; donne-leur
some
'give
them
some.'
En
to
follows
y: envoyez-y-en
'send
there.'
Farther
examples
102
II Paim^e.
He
loves
him
him
(her).
boot
Aimez-le
me
(-Id).
un
Love
(her).
me
II
donne
livre.
He
gives
me.
me
Aimez-mei
Donnez-moi Paimez
me
(ace). (dat.)un
pa^.
Love livre,
Give
Do
book.
Ne
not
love
given
him.
it to
me.
EUe
Pa
donnS.
She
He He
has
II le lui dira,
"Ous en
will
tell it to
to you
me,
him
(her).
II
parle,
speaks it to
of it.
DonneZ'le-moi,
plait.
s'U
"Ous
Give
if you
please
{litif
Send them
it pleases
to
you).
Envoyez'leS'leur.
them.
52
SECOND
PART.
[102-106.
it to himself.
II
se
Pest promts.
He
has
promised
I have
given
speaking
it to
him. about
Je
parle.
amuse.
am
to him at it.
it.
II
He
en
enverra.
is amused
will send it to
me us
Elle
leury
She Tell
them
some
there.
LHteS'/e-lui,
him.
some
Donnez-m'en
(nous en)
en
Give
Take
I will
Gonduisez-nous-y.
vousy
For
there
Je
enverrai,
details,
see
send
you
there.
farther
Syntax,
254-6.
103.
The
Reflexive
from
Expression. English,
the
"
French
reflexive
follows
expression
:
general
[104.]
for
Preceded
the 1st
by
and
no
Preposition,
person
the
unemphatic
the
'
^
=
refle
2d
is simply
object-form
'
of
the
conjunctive
dat. ; ie,
or
personal
pronoun
for
{me
the
'
me
myself
se
ace.
nous,
sing,
plur.
me
3d
person
'
is used
or
for
"
themselves
ace.
dat.).
loue
Ex.
Je
loue
I praise
(she)
praises
himself
II
se {elle)
^He
If the
reflexive
is emphatic
after
(as in
the
'He
praises
himself!'),
form,
the
pronoun
is repeated
not
me
verb
in its
disjunctive
by
myself 'He
an
'
usually
"
(though
Ex.
necessarily) strengthened
loue
II
'
added
m^me.
me
Je
moi-mbme
se
praise
(lit.I
^
praise
himself'
myself). (a luirm^me
parle
se
lui-m^me
to
because
is in the
dat. ; about
soi
cf. note,
105).
Preceded
alone,
"
[105.]
by
by
preposition,
the
not
reflexive
is
the
disjunc
form
-m^me.
usually
(though
a
'
ened necessarily)strength'
Ex.
Je pense
moi-mSme
speak
except
personal
a
I think
of myself,'
Nous
Note.
parlous
"
de
nous-memes
We
used
the
of ourselves.'
in
Soi
{soi-m^me)
In
"
is rarely other
cases
the
singular,
and
in
eneral
statements.
are
uXt
elles
preferred.
Ex.
Chacun
pense
soi
(or soinnemo)
Eveiy-
105,
106.]
thinks
PK0N0UN8.
58
body
of
himself.'
La
parler
vertu
est
*
aimable
One
maux
en
soi
'
Virtue
to
*
is lovable speak
of
in
itself.'
"
On
But:
de aoi
ought
avec
seldom
elles
*
himself.
evils
entrainent
des
Wars
bring
with
them.'
//
(e//e)
songe
qu*a
lui
{pile)-mime
He
(she)
thinks
only
uf
himself
(herself).'
POSSESSIVES.
1 06.
"
The
Possessives
are
either
a.
adjectivesor
b. Pronouns
as
b. pronouns
(cf.98).
a.
Adjectives
with
a
(combined
noun)
(construed
nouns)
o
00
ID
H
CD CO
oc
K O
00
00
00 OQ
o an
"
"
CO
Note
1.
"
The
a
adjective
or
feminine-forms
'
mon^
ton,
son
are
'
used
before
histoire
vowel
mute
"
Ex.
Ttion
dme
on
(f .)
are
'
my
history.'
feminine
to
m',
(f .)
my
soul
IMOf
ta,
sa
the
regular
forms,
and
before
were
a
formerly,
vowel -sound,
like
a
the
con-
definite
article
/a, abbreviated
t\
s'
54
SECOND
PAUlt!.
lor. tio6,
truction
which
ma
has
suryived
and
tante
in
the
expressions The
m*amourf
nCamie
(also,
feminine
in
ncorrectly,
moTif
mie)^
son,
(for Vante?).
in
anomalous became
forms
ton,
introduced
the
12th
century,
regular
he
14th.]
Note
usual 2.
"
When
the
pronoun-forms according
to
are
preceded
take
place.
etc.
one
by
"
de
or
d,
he
contractions,
le
Two
et
41,
le
Ex.
ifu
ien
Note
(for de
3.
"
mien),
ton
au
mien
(for d
mien),
determine
et
possessive
adjectives
we
cannot
noun.
Thus, and
nstead
of Mon
Jr ere,
must
say
monfrere
le tien *my
brother
hine.'
Demonstratives.
107-
The
Demonstratives
are
either
a.
adjectivei or
b. Pronouns
as
b. pronouns
(cf.98).
a.
Adjectives
with
a
(combined
noun)
(construed
nouns)
107,
108.]
1.
"
tHOIfOUKS.
66
Note
The and
consonants,
form form
ce
:
is used
cf 96,
.
before before
the
'
C)
ce
vowels
and
'
mute.'
plural
(ces) comes
"
from
and
boy
feminine
from {cette)
'
Cf
.
73.
Ex.
*
ce
gar"pn
'
'
this
et
enfant
^
this
child,'
homme
'
this
man
; ces
gargona
(or
Jilles) these
Note 2.
"
boys
The
'
(or girls) ;
ce
or
cette
Jille*
this
girl.'
*
pronoun-form
(alone,or
contraction
compounded
with
to
an
-ci
here
nd
-la
'tHere
or
to
ceci\
he
ce/a
bj
or
fa),
"
refers
unnamed
object
What
to
sentence,
expressed says
or
understood.
Ex.
Ce
quHl
'
dit est
vrai
(That which)
already this
or
is true.'
C'est bon
.
That
is good
(viz.something
*
spoken that
"
of,
pointed
to)
veut
or
Voulez-vous
*
...
ceci
means a
'
ou
ce/a f
.
.
Do
you
ish
Ce/a
(or Ca)
masc. noun
dire
That
.'
Note
3.
being
'
Meme
placed
{memes),
before
'
fern., is either
in
pronominal
'
tive, adjecafter
'
its
:
'
the homme
sense
*
of
same
same
man
or
it in
ense
of
*
self-same,
his very
sense
'
very
e.g.
"
le
meme
the
ses
gestes
emes
gestures
*
;
same,'
'
or
or
it is
pure
to
est
a
pronoun,
being
used
ently independpronoun
'
in the
sense
of
suffixed
son
disjunctive
'
personal is the
7 s'aime
In
Note
sense
of
e.g.
livre
le
meme
his book
same
himself.*
is
an
of
4.
"
even,'
meme
adverb,
in pas
and
invariable.
use
*
The
definite
"
article
its original
as
determinative in that
manner.'
is
ometimes
met
with.
Ex.
N*agis
de /a
sm-te
Do
not
act
Interrogatives.
1 08. b. pure
The
Interrogatives
are
either
a.
pronominal
adjective
prononiu
a.
(cf.98).
b.
:
Adjectives
with
a
Pronouns
as
(combined
noun)
(construed
nouns)
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Referring
to
persons
or
a.
Referring
:
to
persons
or
things
things
Sing.
PI.
quef
mjph
I who?
I
quelle quelles
lequel
lesquels
which
one
?
?
laquelle lesquelles
which?
which
ones
56
SECOND
PART.
[108, 109.
Referrmg
pi.
to
b.
persons
alone
Sg. and
qui
who
(Ace. whom)?
things
c.
Referring
to
alone
Conjunctive
Disjunctive
T-v"
"
"."
wnar
quoi
Note and
or
1.
"
In
Uquely
etc., le is nothing
but
the
definite
a
cle, arti-
it is contracted
Hence
etc.
"
in the
=
usual
way
d, lequel
(21) with
=
preceding
de
de
A.
de
lequel
duquel,
auquel,
lesquels
desquelSf
Note
2.
The
interrogative accusative
quoi
qui
is singular
or
plural,
nominativ
Q
Note
who
"
') or
Que
and
whom
one
').
another
as
3.
supplement
conjunctive
only
and
verbs absolutely
disjunctive
forms
(cf.100).
Que
occurs
in the
nominative after
after
and
of condition
is used and
prepositions
"
interrogation.
Ex.
Qu*est-ce?
parlez-vousf
'What
it?' do
you
"
Que
speak
dit-ilf
?
'
'What
does
'
he
!
'
say?'
De
quoi
Of
what
Quoi!
of
ou
What
a
Note
4.
About
the
use
as
pronoun,
cf. 111.
Relatives.
109.
The
Eelatives
are
all
Pronouns
(following
the
word
or
words
referred
to) :
Exceptionally
lequel
(laqueUe, etc.) is
used
adjectively
before
noun.
10,
111.]
The
PRONOUNS.
67
110.
relatives
qui\ lequel
:
differ
from
the
interrogative
n the
following
:
respects
Qui
a.
It has
the
direct
reference
*
object-form
to
que
(except when
word,
as
used
in
bsolutely
without
Vaime both the
bien
any
preceding
I love except
refer
Qui
faime, je
used
Whom
or
I love,
well
').
"
b. It may
for
persons
things,
it
*
after
prepositions,
here,
like
'
interrogative,
less often
can
only
to
persons.
except
of
Lequel
which,'
or
who,'
more
is rarely
specific
reference
used
after
gender
prepositions,
or
for
purposes
of
distinction
number
in
case
of doubtful
(276. a).
and
111.
The
Pronominal
*
Particles
'
dont
for
de
'
ou."Deni
a
(Lat. de-unde)
of
'
whence
which,
d
is often
used
with
; and
or
^
relative
in
ense
of
(from)
used
to
of whom,
whose
a
ou
(Lat. ubi)
when,
est
is generally
for
(or dans)
or
and
in
de
relative
of
vous
interrogative
to
mort
with
reference
"
place
time,
sense
where,
parlez
ou
which.'
Ex.
Uhomme
dont
you
speak
(=
qui)
La
'The
man
of whom loge
'
"
maison
(=
dans
laqueUe) je
Note
a
The
house
'
I live.' by
1.
Whose
(*of
rendered
dont,
The
as
or,
after
preposition, of the
by
duquel
is in
(de
both
laquelle,
cases
etc.).
same
construc
sentence
the
if
of
'
whom the
son
were (etc.)
used
in English,
"
observing
that
le p^re
avec
dcmt
est
must
head
The
relative
clause.
father
'
Ex.
Le
JUs dont
Vhomme
son
malade
whose
is sick.'
le
JUs duquel
arrived.'
vous
Ues
arrivi
2.
"
The
man
with
'
whose
and
you
'
have
Note
D'ol/
means
'
whence
par
ou
by
which,
where.'
58
SECOND
PART.
[112
Indefinites.
112.
The
Indefinites
are
of
three
b.
kinds,
Pronouns
as
viz.
"
a.
Adjectives
with
a
(combined
noun)
(construed
nouns)
112.]
PRONOUNS.
59
c.
Adjectives
or
Pronouns.
m. m.
nu/f f. nuUe
auGun,
f.
us'ly
with
ne
one
(with
with
ref
to
distinct
noun)
no,
nobody,
none,
usually
/le
S.
PI. S.
PI.
m.
tout,
touSy
f. toute f
. .
every,
all, everything
m.
m.
toutes
all
.
.
te/, f
telle
^^.
'
^^
^^^ ^^^^
et Vautre
unes
m.telSytteUesi
m.
m.
S. PI.
run
les
uns
at I'autre,
f. Vune
.
both
both
kinds
et les autres,
f les
et les autres
S.
m.
f.
p/usieurs
several
NoTB
1.
"
As
seen
above, and
about
one
half
of the
indefinite
pronouns
do
ot
distinguish Note
or
gender The
number.
"
2.
"
adjectives
noun
"
as
also
be
the
used
pronouns
if referring
for either
to
precedin
following But
may
indifferently refer
to
persons
tout
things.
pronouns
used
a
absolutely
sense.
persons
alone,
and
rien excepted,
which
"
have
neuter
Note
3.
to
Lon
insert in
for
a a
on.
"
It
is customary,
V before
on
though
when
largely by
a",
optional,
word
"
euphonic vowel-sound,
et
preceded
et,
si,
^nding
Ex. is preferred,
especially
by Pon
:
ou,
que.
si Pon
dit;
(t always
by
an
silent)
^sound
dit. e.g. si
a
On,
on
ever, howdit;
if followed
to
Va
and
qu^on
is preferred
dU; que
now
que
Von,
except
before
A:-sound:
e.g. qu^on
This
was
Pon
commence.
/', though
once
purely
euphonic,
on,
is virtually by
the
noun
definite
article,
"vhich
freely
used
before
as
origin
"
(Lat. homo).
Note
4.
"
Aucun,
a
personne,
rien.
^any
Aucun
one,
(adj., or
*
pron.
referring
to
distinct
noun)
*
anybody,'
personne
are
(pron. used
then
indefinitely) anybody/
with
^no,
and
rien
the
"
anything,'
'
usually
construed resp.
also
ne
no
(placed before
one;
"
verb)
nothing.'
ne
not,'
and
This
mean
nobody;
meaning
they
have,
by
ellipsis, without
whenever
the
verb
is omitted,
and
in certain
phrases.
"
Ex.
60
SECOND
PABT.
[112, 113.
remains
no
Aucun
ami
ne aucune
me
reste,
No
friend
loves
for
of these
me.
21 n^aime n^aime
n'ai
de
ceaJUles.
He He
one
girls.
personne.
loves
nobody,
Je
rien.
vient?
I have
nothing,
comes are
Qui
quoi
Personne.
f
Who
Nobody.
thinking
periseZ'Voibs
What
you
of ?
rien,
a
Dieu
rien
God
has
created
the
world
of
(rien here
Note
*
noun).
Tout
may
mean
'
nothing.
'
6.
"
every,
to
any,
all,
as
whole,
everything
in the
(as
adverb
wholly
') according
particulars
described
Syntax.
For
further
about
indefinite
pronouns,
of. Syntax.
VIIL VEEBS.
[113.
HISTORY.
but
"
The
Latin
not
verb
appears such
in
a
French
sweeping
a
considerably
reduction
as
remodelled,
its forms
have
suffered
actual
those
*
of other
I
am
parts
of speech.
The
loss
of
synthetic
the
use
form of
(like
verb-
mor
loved,'
etc.) is
*1
am
generally
loved,'
compensated
for by
hrases
a new
(je
suis aim"
etc.),
or,
exceptionally,
by
more
the
creation
of
synthetic of
the
form
(like
verbs
aimer-ai:
as
cf.
A).
with
The
the
important
are
eatures
French
compared
Latin
those
described
A.
below. Remodelling.
General
All
:
the
synthetic alone
forms excepted
of
"
the
are
passive
lost
in
its past
participle
The
(Lat. amatus
voice
Fr.
aim")
rench.
the
a
passive
is there
made
'
periphrastically,
as
in
*
English,
aid
of the
not
auxiliary
uncommon
are
*
kre
be
(Lat.
amari
Fr.
etre
aim"
be
loved past of
*)
practice
in the
already
in vulgar
manner,
Latin.
Some
by the
of
the
enses
active
also, in like
expressed
aid loved
the
""
uxiliary
avoir
the
'have
(Lat.
the
amaveram
Fr./auai*
gerund
verbs
aim"*l
has
had
')"
the
arther,
supine
has
disappeared,
the
coalesced all
with
resent
participle,
and
Fr.
deponent
inflected
have
assumed
active
orms
(Lat.
Latin
imitari:
imiter^
like
lost
aimer).
in French
; but
The
form
for the
future
is also
it is replaced
another
synthetical
the
future
form.
amare
Already
in
the
to
vulgar
Latin had
of
the
en*
6th
century,
expression
habeo
I have
love
'
almost
113.]
the
VERBS.
61
tirely supplanted
all adopted
regular
this
manner
future
amabo
I shall
lore.'
and
The
Romance
the
ongues
of expressing
futurity,
in French
wo
elements main,
n the
into one (aimer 4- at) early coalesced its own inflexion). Their independent and
the ago. in
'
(atmerat,at
value
was
retaining,
then
faded
out
f memory,
a
composite
"
nature
of the
French
future
rediscovered which
amare
only has
no
bout
century
Similarly
Latin,
was
the
conditional,
the
xact
equivalent Fr.
formed
from
phrase
habebam
(in
aimer-ais
I should
love
').
there
remain
amo,
Of
Latin
synthetical
forms
in
French
amavi
the
:
present,
fect, imperaimaiSf
:
and
perfect present
the
indicative
(Lat.
amabanif
Fr.
ai'me,
aimai), the
the
and
pluperfect
ime,
aimasse),
present
imperative
past
amavissem
Fr.
(jamare:
:
aimer),
as
nd
and endings
participles
are
(ace. amantem,
distinguished,
changes, the
-ona
amatum
aimant,aim").
main, in
Personal
in
French
in
the
Latin,
allowing,
toward
of
course,
as
for
that
phonetic
reducing
one,
and
for
certain
cies tenden1st
uniformity,
-tmuSf
Lat.
endings
of
the
pi.
but
present,
'Umu8
-amtis,
from
as
in
by
sumus).
analogy,
s
-itnus, Among
"
into
(virtually from
changes
neither,
may
more
anomalous
with
be
mentioned
here:
an
apparently, after
verbs
au,
the
2d
singular
to
of
1st
personal
singular
enses,
organic
(or, x,
of most
eu)
was
added
the I
the
present
:
and
Fr.
preterit
outside the
stem
of
conjugation
terminated
(e.g.Lat.
in
also
-s
nimpo
pres.
indeed,
the Ist
already
(e.g
singular
:
imperfect
Fr.
(hence
; and
en
conditional
sing,
1 1 verbs
(e.g.Lat.
most
rumpebam
oir-verbs,
:
rompais)
dona
:
to
2d
imperative
:
of
Fr.
re-verbs,
;
and
er-verbs
; Lat.
before
Fr.
(e.g. Lat.
but
rumpe
romps
Lat.
$
recipe
Fr.
re^ois
in the
donne,
don^
ea-en,
cf.
127).
like the
This
has
persisted
language
others
in spite
to have
of the
efforts
of authors
Comeille,
ending
in
Moli^re,
4,
Racine,
and of
it removed.
sing,
Further,
characteristic lost
in the
the
and
3d
person preterit
in
Lat.
(ama-t, etc.) is
of
the
French
present
indicative
and
of
verbs
first
of all
a
subjunctive
before
future
indicative
fut.
present
t7 aima,
il aimera,
in analogy
etc.)
with
Only
following
it, but
t is restored,
forms
preserving
if simply
euphonic
(e.g.a-t-il^
divided
into
aime't-il, aimori-il,
B.
the
The
French former,
has,
verbs
may
be
living
dead
conjugation.
verbs latter,
originally,
times, been
derivatives
of Latin
on
in and
its
-are
and
-ire,
from
oldest
new
encroaching
the
the
has
own
also
resources
appropriated
or
verbs
formed
and
latter
within
language
from
to
borrowed
from
without,
The
made
all these
conform
one
of its two
models
of
inflection.
62
SECOND
PART.
[113, 114.
coiDprising,
verbs,
originally,
besides
a
Latin few
'
verbs others,
in
as
-ere,
-^re,
not
now
consists
to
of
the
such
of
these
have
yielded
unifying
tendencies
of the
'
living the
or
growing
and
encroaching comprising
conjugation.
more
It is natural
that
verbs,
living
conjugation,
only
it is
other
than
four-fifths
should regular
-re,
of
all French
be
and
implying
but
two
models
to
of
count
inflection,
to
also
called
one
the large
regular;
group being
customary
the
verbs
also
of
the
conjugation,
regularly
do
not
viz. verbs
to
in
one
the
great
majority
are
of these
counted
inflected that
according conform
to
model.
three
As
irregular of the
all verbs
any
of the
models
The
Begular
conjugation.
verbs
to
can
infinitive
in
-er
of French
end
6600
only
out
in
-er,
-/", -re,
or
-oir.
of
about
Verbs
(amounting
about
at
of the
Latin
a
whole verbs
number
7500
French
many
verbs)
Latin
included
verbs
first and
only
in
-are.
Later,
however,
in
have
-ere
-ifre, and
to
number
-er
of
Germanic,
All,
except
and
of
new-created
er,
verbs,
one
been of
more
added
the
class.
aller, envoy
Verbs
also, well
as
follow
model
to
conjugation.
than Latin
in
by of
-tr
(amounting
of
600)
verbs
verbs.
consist
of
-^re,
Lat.
verbs
in
-ire,
and
transfer,
several
in
-ere,
-esc^re,
{-iscire)
most
as
Germanic,
greatly
-esc-
and
new-created
by these
In
their
-escere
inflection
of
them
have
been
influenced
the
verbs
in
in
(-iscere).The
changed
to
inchoative
syllable
into
(-I'sc-) of
verbs,
French
ts(^s)
imperfect
has
entered
indicative
the
present-forms
great
(the
of
e.g.
infinitive
the
of the
its
having
resisted
majority intercalation):
:
the
verbs
liAt,
"t.
Jleurissons ;
The
but
also
JjaX.
Jinimus
Jinissons ;
ItSit. dgimus
an
Yr.
ag/ssons,
etc.
choa in-
syllable
by
a
(no
vowel,
longer
imparting
t
inchoative
hence
followed
otherwise
(s) :
is
fleurit; ago:
Verbs
in
ag-is,
-re
etc.
to
(amounting
about
325)
one
come
from
of
or
Latin
verbs
in
-ire
or
ere.
About
Verbs in in
two-thirds
-oir (55) differ more
come
of these
from
or
follow
model
conjugation.
-ifre.
Latin
verbs
in
-ere
All
the
primary
verbs
-oir
less in^their
mode
of
conjugation.]
verbs, like
some
114.
With
regard
to
their
use,
French
'
English,
re
either
Transitive
a
Q
In
going
over
to,
affecting
object :
be
either
having i.e.)
direct
direct
object, or
special
uses
Intransitive,
these
as
accompanied
by-
object.
having
or a
verbs
may
Reflexive,
reflexive
pronoun
their
(direct or
indirect
object,
U
Impersonal,
their
having
the
indefinite
(^non-per sonal')
'it' for
subject.
115-118.]
115.
The of
VERBS.
63
conjugation
Voice,
and
of
verb
involves,
as
in
English,
Mood,
meaning
Tense,
the
Nnmber
student
and
Person.
directly
form
is referred
to the
paradigms
below.
of
116.
Classification
of verbs for
French
purposes
Verbs.
means a
manner
"
The
cation classifimore
practical
arrangement
nothing
as
less
than
their
in such
to
be
that
most
easily
learned.
number
as
This
is accomplished
may be
each
by
so
grouping
the
as
greatest
possible
conjugated
representing
as
by
a
the
aid
of
few
type-verbs
while
practicable,
regpular
treated
con-
juga
by
the
remaining
verbs
irreg^^ar
are
themselves.
Note 1. also
"
The
to
same
principle
of
verbs.
classification
Thus,
as
to
some
extent
seen,
may
verbs though
be
pplied 4
the
irregular
so
on,
will
be
30 alike,
in
indre,
in
as
reated
are
all
conjugated
or
precisely
[Note
2.
Verbs
that
are
regular
an
irregular
according point
to
the be
actual
the
very
tate
of the
language
may
from verbs
verbs
historical
in fact
of view
their
pposite.
Many
many
regular irregular
have
have
not
deviated
to
from
it.
old
while
adhered confused.
The
actual
istorical
A
point
of view
should
be
good
vitality
historical
as
classification
not
on
of
the
French
to
verbs,
based
on
their
wn
models,
recent
their
adherence
old
models
nd
adopted
The
in
historical
grammars
(Brunot, CMdat,
f A.
Living
Conjugation
nd
root-extending
("/a conjugaison vivante"), including The Dead Conjugation (119, a), and 6.
-re,
-oivy and
radical
coinciding
other
-ir
"
The above
ractical
followed
by
below and
(nearly
some
historical)is
117.
The
adopted
Mfttzner
recent
authorities.
classified,
follows
:
French
the
or
verbs
are
most
conveniently
according
to
termination
of their
infinitives
all
whose
as
[118.]
of
:
1st
er-Class,
in
^
comprising
language
"
verbs
"
about
ends
6500
in
ut
the
7500
the
infinitive
er
e.g.
aim-er
Only
love.'
two
Irregvlar.
verbs
of
this
class
(a//e^
'
go,'
cnuoycr
send
')
are
rregular.
64
SECOND
PART.
[119-122.
[119.]
whose of two
a.
nd
600 than more all verbs /"-Class, comprising in 4r : e.g. fin-ir ' finish.' infinitive These ends verbs
or
"
re
distinct
or
sorts,
viz.
Regular
Moot-extending
forms
ir-verhsy which
and
all
"
about
660
in their
but extend
present
the
imperative
clu in-
infinitive
root
in their
imperfect
iss
or
ative indicis
the
by
it the
syllable
instead
is
(of
inchoative
b.
origin,
or
cf. 113,
B)
e,g.Jin-is(8y
whose
to
of simplyj^n-.
never
Irregular
90
verbs
Radical
ir-verbs^
root-form this
extended. divided,
are
Nearly
their
(only
into
24
simple)
belong
division.
Being
they
in
turn,
as
several
discordant
groups
all
classified
irregular.
[120.]
Irregvlar.
the
md
or
re-Glass,
ends
a
comprising
-re
all verbs
'
"
about
326
"
whose
infinitive
About
in
e.g.
romp-re
break.'
deviate into
more or
third and
of
are,
these
verbs
(36 simple)
turn,
less
from
model
verb,
in
their
subdivided
discordant
groups
(cf. 169
d,
160).
or
[121.]
IV th
o/V-Class,
ends in
comprising
-oir:
all verbs
recevoir
some
"
about
bb As
"
whose
infinitive primary
the
e.g.
'receive.'
peculiarity
all
the
verbs
class
of this
class
as
have
of their
wn,
whole
"
is treated
irregular
French,
(cf.160, d).
verbs
Note. forming
In
some
grammars,
especially
in
-oir
are
classified
the
the
the
Its verb
III
regular
conjugation
(those
a
in
-re
then
forming
re-
IV
th).
model
verb
is recevoir
compound
not
of
use
and
primary
Becevoir,
(Lat. capere),
as
a
in
alone:
cf.
161.
perfect
only
for
other
compounds
of
-cevoir
(4),
the
main
for
devoir.
The
regular
and
irregular
verbs
will
be
described
separately
below.
Regular
Verbs.
"
122.
Simple
made
Verb-forms.
the
are
The
simple
verb-forms auxiliaries,
as
(i.
those
without
aid
made
of by
independent
in
English verb
love,
loved)
adding
endings with
to
different
stems
of
the
certain
by
endings.
heavy
These
(in
few
the
paradigms
below
marked
for
type)
are
exceptions
ideu^
tical
all verbs.
23.]
1 23.
:
VERBS.
65
As
model-verbs
'
for
'
the
three
'
regular
'
verb-classes
^
may
erve
I. aim-er
love
; II. fin-ir
finish
5 III. romp-re
break.'
the
Verbs
of the
I and
III
conjugation
have
the
II
two
stems
one
[aim', romp-^, and the other of the (or romp-re-)'].Those omp-r4s(s) [Hn-y fin-ir-y ffn-is(s)-'].
adical
infinitive
have,
[aim-er-,
one
besides,
in
1 2
For This
the
t
different
is
origin
of the
Pres.
c,
and d,
*
the
t
Pret.
Jinis,cf.
nearly
113,
B.
always
as
dropped
after
(i.e.in
') etc.
as |lnal
all
verbs
of
III
^
conjugation),
In
verbs
il vend
(from
vend-re
as
e,
sell
ai not
final pronounced
but
"
(cf. 16).
^
^
Cf. foot-note
The
3 of page
preceding. dependent
on
generally subjunctive,
rendered according
some sense
preceding
expression,
is variously
to the varied
of that
expression
(cf.
256,
^
etc.).
For
the different origin pf the Pres. and
123,
124.]
VERBS.
67
PI. 1.
2.
nous vous
aim-ions
aim-tez
nous vous
nows vous
romp-tons
romp-iez
romp-ent
3. Us
airnrsnt
Us
Us
Imperfect
1.
S.
faim-asse
I
jejin-isse^
(might, love)
^
je romp-isso
loved
should
I finished
(etc.)
I broke
(etc.)
2. 3.
tu
aim-asses
tu
fin-isSBS
tu
romp-isses
romp-H
ilaim-at
nous
vous
Ufin-7i
nous
U
nous
PI. 1.
2.
airrirassions
aim-asstez
fin-issions
romp-issions
romp'issiez
3.
Us
aim-asseni
vousfin-issiez Us fin-isseni
Imperative
vous
Us
romp-issent
(Present)
!
S.
2.
aim-e
airn-ons
love
let
fin-isfinish
love
!
romp-S
break!
PI. 1.
2.
us
fin-iss-ons fin-iss-ez
romp-ons rompsz
aim-ez
love
Infinitive (Present)
aim-er
(to)
love
fin-ir finish
PABTICIPLES
romp-re
break
Present
aim-ant
loving finishing fin-iss-ani
romp-ant
breaking
Past
aimr4
124.
The
loved
fin-i finished
which of all French
amasmes
occurs
romp-u
broken
circum^x
in
the
1st
and the
2d
loss
pi. preterit
and
3d
sing,
imperfect
subj.
is for infiuence is for
verbs
denotes
"
of
an
Old
:
s
French
s.
Thus,
aimdmes
the
(for amames
the
Lat.
amavimus
amastes
intercalated amavis-
through and
of
2d
pi.) ;
aim"tes
is for
(Lat.
; tit)
aimAt
amast
(L. amasseC).
3
See
foot-Dote
1, p. 66.
See
foot-note
2, p. 66.
68
SBCOiH)
PART.
[125-129.
Changes.
itself,
or
126,
Phonetic
changes of denoting
mute
and
Orthograpj^ic
the sound
are
"
The the
:
"
following
affecting
simply viz.
manner
it in writing,
and
e
are
or e
to
be
observed,
[126.] E
made
before
with
"
syllable
containing
I and
t
an
mute
open
to
^
(=
^,
following
mener
voils meneZy
^
^
doubled),
je
mhne^ fut. cede,
:
according
35, which
nous
see.
Ex.
lead
Us
'
pr.
tu
mines
menerai,
il mibne;
tu
meneras,
menons,
menent
je
etc.
"
coder
yield':
"
pr.
je
tu
cedes,
etc. ; fut.
tu
je
cederai
appeler
appelons^
^
'calP
vous
pr.
j^appelle^
appelles^
fut.
il appelle;
appelez^
Us
appe/lent;
j^appellerai,
jeter
throw':
pr.
je jetfe;
fut.
je jetterai.
"
Note.
Of
verbs
in
-e/er and
an
-eter
some
e
double
/ and
for
the the
mute
'
f
,
some
take verb.
e,
or
both
methods of 90
of expressing
verbs,
open
are
used
same
Thus,
and
'
out
simple
48
double
especially *buy,'
/ and
t before
'
syllable,
peler
e,
of
the
remainder,
'harass';
16
(note
acheter
celer haleter
so
hide,'
geler
change
freeze,'
e
peel,' 20
harcder
*pant')
the
to
while the
others
becqueter, (bosseler,
etc.)
do
in
present,
but
not
in
future
and
conditional.
[The
is
doubling
in
now
of / and
t is originally
due
to
the
existence
this
of
double
principle
consonant
Latin
(cf
ape/fare, several
-e
jactare),though
cases.]
as
etymological
disturbed Imperatiyes
an
in
[127.]
an
in
(as well
'Give
But
the
irregular
'
va
go
en
! ') are
or
extended
note
by
a
"
before Ex.
appended
a
objective
some
particle
to
(cf.27,
tes
5.
b).
Donnes-en
attention
to
'
Jean
John.'
Donnes-y
soins
some.'
'Give
en
thy
it.'
Envoie
en^chercker
'Send
to
find
Va
(prep.)
noted,
Go
to
s,
France.'
which
is
case,
[As
this
regular
in false
in
the
2d
Imperative
with
the
of
sing,
re-
verbs,
has
been
in
"
either
The
s
analogy
to
2d
of
he
present
indicative.
In
of tr-verbs
e
belongs of
the is
inchoative
stem.]
though
[128.]
future
and
conditional, by
a
-erai^s)
then
sometimes, the
arely,
dropped
if preceded
vowel,
which
takes
circumflex
hus,
louerai
or
(chieflyin poetry)
Verbs
wherever
lourai,
c
[129.]
a.
in
-cer
and
-ger
change
otherwise
and
g to
(f and
ge
respectively
at,
they
r
would
be
hard
before (i.e.
menacais,
o).
"
Ex.
'
menace
'
'threaten':
;
m,enaoons;
etc. J manger
eat
mangeons
mangeais,
etc
129-135.]
b.
VERBS.
69
Verbs
'
in
"guer
'
and
-guer
retain
*
gu
and
'
qu
even
before
a,
o,
u.
"
x.
Jatiguer
tire
fatiguais ;
the
manquer
fail
manquais,
before
[130.]
M.
"
In
Ex.
vaincre
^-sound
with
qu
any
vowel
except
vainquanty
vainquis,
y of
an
[131.]
e
*
The
semivowel
this change
infinitive
efore
mute,
being
optional,
:
-yer however,
or
in
is
usually after
a
changed
and
e.
"
to
Ex.
oyer
drown':
pr. note;
payer
*pay'
pr. joa/'e
(less commonly)
following
in
paye,
1 32.
Minor
regular
Irregularities.
"
The
so
verbs
usual
being
almost
(two
of
them
entirely
their
sense)
re
conveniently
described
II:
here
[133.] Conjugation
Benir
'
"
1.
bless
sense
*
'
is in the
'
past
participle
regularly
b^ni,
or
irregularly
b^nit
in the
of
'
consecrated.'
F/eurir
blossom
changes
its root
indicative
*
to (^Jleur-) Jlor- in
the
present if
particip
and figuratively
imperfect
in the
sense
used
of
fiourish.'
3. Ha/r
*hate'
drops
its diaeresis
and imperative
etc. ;
"
(6)
imp
in
the
singular
of
tu
the
present
it haii ;
indicative
nous
(pr. ind. je
v.
hais^
hais^
hatssons,
hais^
haissonSy
etc.)
[134.] Conjugation
The personal
after
a
III
"
ending radical
t of
c
the
3d
sing,
present
indicative
most
is
dropped
of
verbs
this
conjugation), and
present
and
radical
tt is
in
the
to
L
singular Ex.
vaincre
of the
indicative
and
imperative
reduced
1.
'conquer':
ind.
c
pr. j"
vaincs,
qu
tu
vaincs, any
il "ainc,
vowel,
etc.,
observing
u
everywhere
that
becomes
before
but
except
(130)
vainquons,
*
'
vainquez,
:
'
vainquent;
tu
vaincu:
2.
vendre baftre
*
sell strike
ind.
:
'pr.jevends,
b(xts,
tu
vends, il bat;
il vend,
nous
3.
je
bats,
battons,
136.
Principal
Parts.
Present of
a
"
The
Present Infinitive,
Participle,
Past
Participle^
Indicative^
and
Preterit
are
serve
called
as
the key-
principal
parts
verb,
because
they
may
70
SECOND
PART.
[135-137
forms
forms, be The
by
made
tlie aid
out.
of which,
all
other
regular
of
verb
can
method
of such parts of
derivation
aimer
is illustrated
below
by
by
their
giving aid
the
principal
Parts:
and
the
forms
made
Princ.
Debited
Forms:
Inf
'mar
"
"^*
after
-ais
r).
r).
for
for
o
fai'mer-ais (i.e.dd a
;W/ii-e
i
after
-e
o 2.
T"
"
Fr.
4.
Ci.e. substitute
part,
atm-ant
-awO. (
impf
ind.
-ais etc.
-ant).
3.
Past
part,
a/me
compound
fai
i.i./ir
aim4,
4.
Pr.
ind.
"
fa/me
"^
^^
}
-
"
,.
(cf.note
-o
.
1)
.,
.
i
.
imp've ^
aime
throughout 8
(cf. v
j,
^\
note
1).
j
K 5.
Pret.
( impf.
mm
:
ind.
fat
(i.e. add ^
-sse
to
the
I
Note
1. As
stem
the
cf. note
2).
ind.
as
"
is already
seen,
pi. of present
the
same
of
/r-verbs
the
is itself part,
irregular, part,
to
being
virtually
:
formed
from pi.
stem
"
present
(pr.
finiss-ant
consider
pr.
ind.
finiss-ons,
as
etc.).
of
the
verbs.
to
It
is, indeed,
helpful
pros,
always
the
pr.
part,
the
basis
plural
of
the
ind.
and
imperat.
2.
"
in both
-sse
regular
and
irregular
is added
Note
The
of the
pret.
impf.
subj.
its last
the
pret.
stems
aima-,
Jini-frompi136.
the (i.e.
without
letter).
are,
Impersonal used
Among
*
Verbs.
in
more
"
The person
impersonal singular
may be
verbs
with
in
French
as
in
English,
*
only
the
the
3d
common
the here
:
impersonal
'
subject
it is
snows,'
il
it.'
noted
tl neige
il gele
it freezes,'
'
/*/pleut
(irreg.)*it
'
rains';
il faut
*
(irreg.)*it
'
necessary,'
il importe
it is
'
it is of
'
importance
and such
; il semble
it appears
a*
il/ait (irreg.
is
'
(lit.
'
it makes
such
weather)
; il y
there
etc.
137.
the
Compound
auxiliary
Verb-forms
verb
past
avoir
'
(= Verb-Phrases).
have
^
"
By
using
or
Hre
a
'
be/ conjugated
the
usual,
before
the
participle forms
are
of made.
the
verb,
To
compound
these,
active
must
and
all the
therefore
passive
describe of
two
anticipate
here
to
conjugation
irregular
auxiliar
which
properly
belong
the
verbs.
137.]
VERBS.
71
In
verbs
-affinal
pronounced
as
/, but
not
final
as
(cf. 16).
72
SECOKD
PART.
[13
nous
vous serons serez
PL
1.
rums
voiLS
aurons aurez
2. 3.
Us
auront
Us
serorU
Conditional
Sing.
1.
faurais
I should
je
serais
(would)
haye
I should
(would)
be
2. 3.
PI. 1.
2.
tu
aurais
tu
serais serait
serions
il aurait
wows vows
U
nous
aurions auriez
voics
seriez seraient
3.
i7s auraienb
Us
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Sing.
1.
faie
je
sois
I have
(may
or
I be
(am,
may
etc.
or
shall
have)
tu
shall
be),
2.
3. PI.
tu
ales
sois
il ait
nous vous
1.
2.
soyons soyez
soimt
3. Us
aient
Us
Imperfect
Sing.
1.
feusse
I had
je fusse
(might,
should
I
were
(was, etc.)
have)
2. 3. PI.
1.
2.
tu
eusses
tu
fusses
U
nous
eUt eussions
UfOi
nous vous
fussions
fussiez fussent
i
vous
eussiez
3.
i'Zs eussent
1
Us
Cf.
foot-note,
p. 71.
137-139.]
VERBS.
73
IMPERATIVE
Present
Sing. PL
2.
1. 2.
aie
!
us
sois be !
ayona ayez
have
soyons soyes
let be !
us
be !
INFINITIVE
Present
avoir
(to)have
PARTICIPLES
^tre
(to)be
Present
ayant
having
4tant
being
Past
eu
(pr.w)
"
had
^t^ been
[138.
and
HISTORY.
whose
h
^t^oiVis
from
to
v
Latin
Aa6ere,
and
whose
h is lost throughout,
yocalized
to
is changed
(in
are,
fut.
as
cond. made
or
u),
or
ost.
The
future
aver-
and
=
conditional
auV-,
usual, present
from
the
infinitiye
auT')^ and
at
the
imperfect
verbs
*
its forms
estre,
from
*
least
stare
essere,
three
different
Fr.
etc.
esse
ssere
Fr.
etre)
of
etre
be,'
(Old
suts
ester)
from
stand,'
and
was.'
he
derivation
from
and
sum
(vulg.
sui
As
in
nalogy
other
with/"i)
forms
stortum ;
etc.,
of
are
fus, fusse
not
from
agreed
est-;
ai
fui^fuissem
:
is clear.
"tant,
for
from
he
scholars ",ais
quite
probably possibly
essere,
et"
^
tant-evfij
from
the
radical
^
and
serai
estre
as
in
the
panish,
from.
sedere
'sit'
{seder- scr-)+
(since
gave
ld form
estr-ai),
The
on
139,
Compound
the
same
^
Active
principles
as
Tenses
in
English,
are
formed
the
in
of
French,
by
aid
auxiliary,
avoir
the
have,' verb.
and
"
the
past
participle
compound
(about which
tenses
cf.
141)
are
of
:
main
Thus,
the
of
aimer
74
SECOND
t"ART.
[139,140
INDICATIVE
Comp.
Present
Comp.
Preterit loved
fai
tu
ds
aim4 aim4
I have
f^^
"*^^
^
I ^ad
thou
etc.
Comp.
Future
faurai
Comp.
aim4
aim6
I shall
have
loved
Imperfect
I had
q^^^
Conditional
have
favais
loved and
faurais
so
on.
airrU I should
loved
140.
formed, and
Each the
The
as
Passive
in English,
Voice.
by the
"
The
passive
of
an
tenses
are
also
aid
auxiliary,
of the
dfre
main
'be,' verb.
past
participle
is termed
(about which
like the
tenses
are,
cf.
141)
also
tense
corresponding
as
tense
of 4tre, English,
The the
compound compound
passive
active
in
made the
by
forms
of
itre
(fai
4te,
etc.)and
past
participle
of the
main of aimer
verb.
is
:
Thus,
the
passive
INDICATIVE
Present
Simple
Passiyb
'
Tbnsbs:
Compound
'
Passive
^
Tenses:
je
suis
es
aim4
'
am
loved
fai
tu
as
4t4 aim4
I have
been
loved
'
tu
aim4
thou
etc.
art loved
'
4t4 aim4
thou
etc.
hast
been
loved
'
IMPEBFECT
fitais
'
aim4
was
loved
'
favais
PRETERIT
4t4 aim4
I had
been
loved
'
je fus
aim4
was
loved
'
feu^
4t4 aim4
I had
etc.
been
loved
'
etc.
141,
142.]
VERBS.
75
141.
The
past
participle
or
(awU,
etc.)
The with
is in
compound
verb-
forms
changeable it agrees
unchangeable.
principle
is
that
in gender
and
is
number
it qualities^
provided have
a.
that
the
active
word
already
rule the
:
mentioned.
Hence
following
definite
In
construction,
past
participle
agrees
with
preceding
la)
aim^
(not a following) direct object : e.g. je Pai (V for le I have loved him or (or her) ; je les (m. aim4e
'
'
f.)ai
b.
In
aimSs
passive
or
'
aimSes
construction
I have
loved
it agrees
when
by
inversion
:
(except
^
after
'
the she
'
impersonal
the
participle
or
is loved
b4nie
saved
'
; Us
sont (elles)
aim4s
aim4es
!
^
they
are
loved
; qiie
soU
me
la main
! ' ; but,
qui
U
a
nCa
8auv4
blessed
be
the
une
hand
that
a
has
Hi
fa/t
une
emplette
(=
emplette
H4faite)
^a
purchase
has
been
made.'
in
Where
active
construction
unchanged
:
there
e.g.
is
no
preceding
cette
object,
*
the
past
participle
remains
fai
aim"
Jille
have
loved
tlii
girl.'
[HISTORY.
the word
"
The
'
=
past
'
participle
the
is
verbal
adjective (cf. *I
have
written
letter
have
letter
written
')
and
originally habeo
agreed
with
the
qualified,
une
whatever
:
now
its position
(cf.Lat.
scriptatn the
epis-
olatn
=fai
to
"crite
lettre
as
^crxi). Gradually,
unchangeable of usage,
word in the
part
however, of
the
now
ame
be
looked
upon
an
verb
; and
much
uncertainty
that
and
variation
with
to
the
principle if already
was
followed,
mentioned
in
virtually
it agrees began
the
qualified
15th, and
he
participle,
prevail
established
century.]
142.
the
iire
FOR
avoir.
"
few
intransitive
change
avoir,
verbs
of but
II
(chiefl
or
of
irregular
are
conjugation),
compounded 'He
denoting with
position
always
condition,
"
never
with
'He
dfre.
Ex.
'
II est aUS
or
'
is
(or has)
to
gone.'
est
mort
(has) died
These
He
is dead.'
verbs,
grouped
according
their
meaning,
are
76
SECOND
PART.
[142-146.
'
'
JdUer
^
go
tom^"er
*
fall
'
partir
depart
out
( nattre
'
be
bom
'
'
'
sartir
/
go
*
( 4clore
'
'
hatch
'
arriver
'
arrive
^
( mourir
die
'
"" entrer
*
enter
*
( d^c^der
decease
'
ventV
come
[143.]
the
case.
About
avoir
fifty other
when
verbs
of
a
a
similar
progress
with
kind of
etre
are
used
action the
(somewhat
expressed
reverse
freely)
with
the
by
verb
"
rather Ex.
than
a
and
ce
when
is
the
//
grandi
*
pendant
has
temps
'He La
has
grown
a
*
during
this par
time.'
The
//
est
grandi
He
(is)
La
grown.'
procession
est
pass^
ici
procession
passed
here.'
procession
pass^e
The
procession
has
passed.'
144.
and
ace.
Reflexive
intransitive
or
(or
Reciprocal:
used
are
150)
a
Verbs."
tive Transipronoun
verbs
with
reflexive The
1
in the
se
the
dat. alike
2
vous,
respectively
for 3
ace. se.
reflexive.
are
:
forms
me,
of
pronoun,
nous,
and
dat.,
sing.
2 te,
pi. 1
[145.] The
;
conjugation
reflexive
of
the
refl6xive
verb
is
as
usual,
observing
1. that
the
pronoun
precedes
to
the
102.
verb,
E.g.
'
except
il
se
in
the he 2.
imperative
flatters
that
affirmative,
'
according
^
JUxtt
himself
the
efre,
compound in English
formed
by by
the
'
aid
'
of
:
the
auxiliary
be
rendered
*
have
e.g.
s^esf
fiatt^ * he
their with
lias flattered
himself
"
3. that
agrees
s' est
past
a
participle
as
in compound
active
forms
preceding has
direct
elle
flattie 'she
^
flattered
to
s^est
dit
she
(has) said
an
herself the
one's
: object,if there be one herself but (se dir. obj.), (se indir. obj. dat.).
* =
e.g.
ell
[146.]
here
As
se
example
^
of
reflexive
conjugation
may
be
given
ff after
flatter
self.'
146,
147.]
YEBBS.
77
INDICATIVB
Simple
Tbiysbs
CoMPOirND
Tenses
Present
je meflatte
I flatter myself
je
tu thyself
me
suisflatt4(e)
JUxtt4(e)
ar SB
tu
tefloMes
thou
fes
flatterest
il
sejlatte
he
il
himself
(eUe)s^estJlaM4(e)
ft
flatters
nous
nous
we
flattons
ourselves
noiLS
nous
sommes
Jl(Ut4(e)s
s
flatter
vous
vousflattez
flatter yourselves
vous
vous
^tesflatU (e)s
sont
you
Us
seflattent
they
flatter themselves
lis
(eUes)se
flaU4(e)s
Imperfect
Jemeflattais
I flattered myself,
etc.
je m'4taisflatt4(e)
I had
flattered
myself,
etc.
Imperative
flatte-toietc. flatter
thyself,
jlattons-TKyuslet
us
flatter ourselves,
"
[147.]
As
in English, nearly
also
in French may
several be and
much used
verhs
as
are
exclusively Yet
the
eflexive,
while
all
transitives
more
common
such.
refle
construction habitually
in English.
or
is much
important,
more
and
verbs
that
re
frequently As
examples
reflexive
may
s^arreter
se
*
frequent
the
*
in
French verbs
se
han
be
mentioned s'asseoir
following
(some
fight,'
of
se
them
irregular) :
*
stop,'
'
sit down,'
*
battre
coucher s*"crire
se
go
*
to
bed,'
dotUer
suspect,'
one
s*^crier
cry
out,'
*
s*"crouler
be
bored,
crumble,'
be
written,
write
(to)
to
another,'
s*ennuyer
get
eel, lonesome,'
se
/acher
'be
'grow
angry,*
se
lever
'rise,
se
up,'
se
plaindre
porter
(in respect
away*
health),'
and
161
se r^jouir'rejoice,'
iaire
be
s*en
(cf. 150
under
aller).
English
It
be
especially
noticed
that
when
transitives
ave
identical
kindred
a
intransitive
"
form,
the
latter
is regularly
rendered
in French
'
by
'
reflexive.
Ex,
'close
'
raise
lever,
rise
se
lever ; etc.
78
SECOND
PART.
[148-152,
form
are
:
[148.]
Many
often
se
reflexive
transitive
verbs meaning
followed
by
prepositions Examples
a
expressions s'approcher
se
of special
in English.
s*
de 'approach/
*
douter
se
de
de
'suspect/
*
entendre
'be
judge of/
passer
de
do
without/
The
sermr
use.'
[149.]
reflexive
pronoun has
se,
is
in
French in
often
without
weakened assignable
dat.
reason.
:
of
relation
.
Cf
s*en
slipped however,
is treated
as
an
ace.
eile
s'en
est
alUe).
[160.]
'
Reciprocal
Use
of
Reflexives. love
one one
"
Reflexive
on
forms
se
often
'they
are
denote
reciprocity:
Us s'aiment
'
'they
us
another;
bcU
fighting
; aimons-nous
let
love
another/
151.
Interrogative
pronoun but
it For the
Forms.
is
is
"
In
interrogative personal it by
noticed 6 before
as
a
forms, verb-form,
the
subject
in
'
placed
connected
rest,
after
the
as
English,
have
I ?
with
hyphen
only
the
one
(e.g
that
:
ai-je
a.
').
-e
the
it is to be
to
final
"
of
two
^
verb
is changed
affixed
.
pronoun Ex.
the
words
I love ?
'
being
really
treated
(cf 35)
the
aim4-je
When
the
do
b.
3d
sing,
terminates
t is,
a
in
vowel with
either
note
(e,a)
forms
lost
etymological
it, added,
termination though
a
in
analogy
on
preserving
as
with
hyphen
side,
if being
aime-
nothing
'
but
does he
phonetic
insertion
(cf.27,
5).
"
Ex.
t-il?
love
'
Thus:
INDICATIVE
Present
Simple
*
Forms
Compound
Forms
aim^'je ?
9
do
'
I love
thou
'
ai-je aim4
love
?
'
'
have
'
I loved thou
'
aimes-tu
dost
does
?
'
as-tu
aim4
hast
has
loved
?
'
'
aime-t'il?
he
love
a-t-il aim^f ?
'
he
f
'
loved
we
aimons-nous
do
we
love
avons-nous
aim4
have
loved
etc.
etc.
[162.]
common
Instead
to
of this
direct
a
'
interrogative
question
"
construction,
it is phrase
quite
introduce
by
placing
Mo
'
the
est-ce
que
is it that
(pr. ^*c'A:*) as
is
placed
in
152-156.]
before
Do
VERBS.
79
English
f
"
the
?
subject and
'
the
verb.
"
Ex.
rompu
Est-ce
9
^
que
je
romps
I break
Est-ce
que
je Vaurais
Should
I have
broken
it ?
common
'
Especially
is this the
1st
circumlocution
of the present
where ends
euphony
in two
or
requi
it
(as when
-ge),
In the
written,
or
sing,
consonan
or
in interrogations
language in popular this style
implying
circumlocution
surprise
is
more
denial.
common
Note.
in
"
spoken and
han
the
tense.
used
somewhat
indiscriminately
or any
153-
Negative
expressed
ne
Forms.
by
the vowel
or an
"
The
of
two
simple words,
'not'
is
usually
aid
or
negative
particle
(jC before
personal
'mute')
placed
before
the
verb
more
object-pronoun preceding
the
adverb the
not
pas
(or the
*
emphatic
"
point) placed
:
immediately
after
I do
personal
verb-form.
;
Thus
'
je
ne
finis pas
finished rules
*
(or point)
'
finish
*
je
n^ai
pasfini
"
I have
not
; il n'est
oint
aim4
"
he
is not
and
point
loved.'
For
further
Lat.
see
'
Syntax.
and
punctum
not
=
[NoTB.
point
Pas
(originallyfrom
the real
possum
ne.
step
')
=
simply
*
strengthen
' *
negative
Comp.
English
naught
154.
na
not
voiht
whit.']
Forms.
"
Negative particles,
as
Interrogative
as
These
are
made
hy
placing
the of
negatiye
above,
before 151.
?
'
"
and Thus:
after
the
interrogative
form
que pas
the
verb pas
described
*
under
love
'
"
n'cUme
dost
f)
do
I not
?
'
n*a{mes-tu
aim^f
pas
je
f)
thou
not
love
?
pas n*ai-je
(or est-ce
qite
je
n'ai pas
ainuft)
have
I not
loved
etc.
ISBEGULAB
1 56.
Verbs
as
YEBBS.
deviating regular
are
in their called
conjugation
irregfular.
from
those
already
described
166.
Their
stem,
irregularities, make
a
consisting
mainly
in
variation
in French
of the
important,
few
chapter
accidence.
Yet,
by
guiding with
a
principles,
reference
to
and
those of the
studying
the
irregular
way
verbs, in groups
explained
below
principles,
in the
good
command
whole
field is readily
gained.
80
SECOND
PABT.
[157-159.
be
to
two
167.
The
:
irregular
verbs
may
referred
large
divisions
The
their
First
Division
comprises derived
verbs parts,
that
so
have
that
the the
same
stem
can
in
principal be made,
and
latter
of
always
in accordance
the
with
the
general
sentir
:
rules
deri
vation
(135), from
sent-ant:
plurality
former
fut. senJtir-ai
pr. part,
The
pr.
subj. sent-e,
irregular
on).
to
great
of the
belong
this class.
The
their
Second
Division
parts
comprises in
some
verbs
of
that
change
the
as
stem
of
principal in 160:
the
derived
tenses,
descr
fut. dev^r-ai;
pr. part,
dev-ant:
pr.
subj. doi"-e,
No
doiv-ent).
imperfect
ind.
except
no
imperative,
irregularly derived, (save savais) or subj. is ever and va (of oiler), and sache (of savoir) veuille (of vouloir)^
1 68.
These
two
divisions
with
where
their
the
sub-divisions
student while
he
can
are
farther
an
described
of the
below
their
in 159-160, chief of
have
easy
survey
irregularities,
should referring
study
to
in
detail
verbs
each
gronp
separately,
by
the
alphabetical
verbs, notice
" 161.
that
are
^[^
B,
The
should
the
in
each
sub-division
in
a
(A,
etc.)
model-verbs
in ordinary
the
printed
type.
For
bold
first
type,
course
others,
conjugated
in the
like them,
only
he
is advised
to learn
former,
looking
them
up
for each
group
alphabetical
of their
(afterunderstanding
explained
under the key-verbs
the
principles of
an
description
the
that
easy
list).
"
Knowing
(altogether47), it
like them.
division preceded
is
task
to
acquire
those
conjugated
"
[159.]
The
First iV-verbs
Division.
To
this
-n",
belong by
a.
all irregular
(save
re-verbs the
those
in
-nir
boire,
vowel)
The
; b. all irregular
(save
is
faire).
syllable
tV-verbs b.
No
all
lack
stem-extending
common
119,
other
irregularity
-is(")
or
cf.
to
1 1 ir-
re-verbs.
159.]
The
VEBBS.
81
verbs
groups
"
of
this
:
division
may
be
studied
in
the
following
order, A.
A-E
/i//", entirely
part, and
whose
regular,
except
that
the
stem
is
fui- {fuy-
36)
B.
in pres.
"
forms
derivatives
from
the the
it.
root
iBrverbs
pres.
",
ind., being
follows
(oftenestwithout
and
v^tir
are
its
end-consonant) +
are
3d
conjugation,
that
sens.
which
the
^
otherwise
part.
vHu
regular
:
(observing159), except
:
has
past
:
pres.
ind.
These
"
sentir
so
also mentir,
"
partir^
sortir^ aervir;
;
"
dormir
(reallylike sentir) ;
C.
"
"^iir (pres.vH-s)
pres.
bouillir
the
root
(pr.bovrs),
+
e,
iR-verbs
whose
ind.
being
past
follows
the
Ist
conjugation
in
; and
whose
part.,
if the ind.
inf. ends
couvr-e;
in
-rir,
terminates
convert.
part,
past
conveniently caeillre)^ is
(Meillerai
coimted
to
division
though
so
its also
fut.
(with
-^^
changed
assaillir
D.
"
ouvrir,
; offrir,souffrir
consonant-sound
di-re (e.g.
:
(inheritedfrom
and dis-ant) (e.g. naU^e:
Latin) added
supplanting
naiss-ant;
the
root-vowel
pres. that
part,
any
root-consonant
following
"
vowel
peind-re:
peign-ant).
order
-ire
:
Verbs
in
the same sound -crire also repeat in the following be studied may
to
in pret.
ind.
1.
"
added
and
the
root-vowel
all verbs
in other
luire,
(exc. those
dire;
in
(and
cuire^
compounds
nuire;
"
in
//re ;
2.
ss
"
sufSre, supplanting
confire;
final
"
p/a/re^
radical
;
"
taire.
:
all verbs
;
"
in
-attre,^
-(Atre
viz. connaiire^
^
parattre,
paitre
naitre
cro/ire,
like
the
Compounds
also
verbs verbs
(^con-sentirf etc.),when
are
and
defective
list,
here
omitted.
simple,
described
in the
alphabetical
^
'
161).
Hyphen denoting here
loss
to
s,
Written
The
conduire.
separate
when instead
prefix
i
from
radical.
by
t
circumflex,
exc.
of
used
is followed
(in croltre
always,
before
m).
For
archaic
-ottre
2)
82
SECOND
PART.
[159,160.
3.
4.
supplanting
final
radical
eoudre.
d
:
I(y)supplanting
supplanting
craindre,
final radical
final
moudre
all
"
te-soudre.
in
-Tvdrey
5. gn
radical
ceindre,
nd:
verbs
viz.
peindre,
plaindre,
joindre.
6.
If
added
to the
root
vowel
all verbs in
in
di-crire
(and
in
other
compounds
-crire),
D-group, their
compounds
Observe
-scrire).
that
of aboye
verbs
of the
lire and
pret. in
those
-us,
in
-aire, -aitre
(exc naitre),and
E.
"
croitre, form,
irregularly,
new
BE-verbs
part,
"
with
in
no
radical
in
w,
sound
"
in the
metire;
pres.
"
part.
[past
{(s),pret.
part, in-
is"] r/re;
pret. in
prendre; viwre;
"
"i//Vre ;
[past
us]
croire;
"
con-clure.
[160.]
the
The
two
Second
irregular
-mr
Division.
er-verbs by
a
"
To
this
division
belong
only
in
(aUer, envoyer);
vowel
5
c.
b. irregular
iV-verbs
-rir^
preceded
2 re-verbs
(poire
; faire)
d. all oir-verbs.
common
peculiarity
to
aU
the
verbs
in
-ir
[save courir]
strengthen
and
this
division
is that
they
ie
or
0/,
ou
(old 0)
pres.
to
eu]
in the
pres.
ind.
and
subj. and
sing,
and
dev-oir:
meurs,
imperat.
whenever
:
it receives 1 sing,
the
tone,
i.e.
in
the
3 pi. pres.
(e.g.ten-ir
1 sing,
tiens, but
mourir:
1 pi.
pres.
tenons;
1 sing,
Verbs
1 pi.
mourons).
their
root
in
-ntr
strengthen
also
in fut.-cond.
(cf. below).
be
For
the
rest
were
the
verbs
of this
division
viz.
stems
:
may
studied
in the
order
A.
"
they
enumerated
above, its
ER-verbs:
a/ler
"
forms
from only in
3 different being
roots
(see the
the
"
verb) ;
loss
of
envo/er
to
enverr-
is irregular in the
the
changed
(by
B.
oy)
:
fut.-cond.
iR-verbs
i of -tVin
all lack
stem-extending
syllable
4s(s);
all
drop
fut.-cond.
besides,
modifying
their
in those (courir: fut. cour'rai), -nir, (ten-ir: fut. tiendW-ai). Other root
160,
161.]
are
VBKBS.
83
peculiarities
;
"
best
"
studied
under
each
verb.
other
Here
belong
courir
mourir;
"
ac-quSrir
(with
compounds
in
-quMr)
C.
D.
"
ienir,
venir.
RE-verbs:
oiR-verbs
:
faire
all
"
boire,
compounds
"
(save the
fut.
jw^-,
pour-n)oir)
also
modify
asseoir
lack
the
form
are
oi in fut.-cond.
as
devoir: (e.g.
devr-ai).They
AU,
-us.
stem
described
part,
under
each and
verb. in
save
voir,
their
past
in
-u,
pret. verb.
Other belong
peculiarities
:
best
studied
comp.
"
under
of
each
Here
re-cevoir
(and
"
other
devoir;
-cevoir);
r;
mouvoir;
"
pleuvoir;
sa"Oir;
fa/hi
valoir;
List
wouloir;
of
"oir;
Beference
Irregular
161.
The
The
irregular
verbs
are
described
in alphabetical
follows
:
order.
principles
of arrangement
"
1. Every
simple
verb
even
when
occurring is given
only
in composition
(like -cevoir
Under
use
in re-cevoir,
are one
etc.)
"
in its alphabetical
order. in
it
enumerated
of
its compounds.
is pointed
"
When
out
as
it is
not
itself,
its compounds
place.
model
a
and
described verb
in its alphabetical
whose order
Exceptionally
is
this
compound
derivation
even
is not
evident,
to
given method.
them
in
its
alphabetical
2. The
without
are
reference
principal
tenses.
parts
given
first, and
are
below
those
the
derived
The
principles
of the
of derivation present of
described
regular The
wise other-
in " 135.
The
plural
the
ind. the
is considered
present
whenever
it contains is inflected
stem
partic.
imperative
like
the
present
indie,
(unless
stated).
3. Bold
type
to
denotes
the
irregularities
in
the
principal verbs
tenses
parts
with
reference
regular
simply
with
with
reference
to
to
the
stem)
in
the
derived
reference
^
the
principal
the
parts.
Latin
oi, that
Hittoricallj
it
was
original
vowel,
not
disappeared
as
atonic
(^mouerehdbeo;
mov^r-ai).
84
SECOND
PART.
[161.
Pronounce
2
Hyphen
"
in above
Pron.
list used
to
separate
*
prefix
a*y.
from
verb.
a-kkr-ri
(C. -re).
Pron.
161.]
VERBS.
85
*Ap'paroir
infinit., and
is defective,
occurring
only
in
the
sing.
pres.
ind. il appert.
Asseoir
verb
'
near
') is
used
chiefly
as
reflexive
sit d^jwn.'
Like
also
rasseoir,
:
surseoir
(which,
however,
in
the
pres.
ind.
is sursois
and
defective
cf.
seoir).
Avoir:
for
full
conjugation
3.
Battre:
cf. 134,
So
also
de\
"r-, ra-^
re-battre.
bu
hois
bois
bus
Ipf. 8.
boit
buvons buvez
busse
boivent
Imp've
bois
Pron.
d'soir.
Fron.
a-siV.
Exceptionally
the
form
assois
is also
found.
86
SECOND
PART.
tl61.
[Ft.
To
Lat.
bullire
*boil*
boil/ with
transitively
loss
use
of // in pres.
ind.
sing.]
express
/aire
bouillir.
Like
Br
bouillir also
r tf-bouillir,e-bouillir.
is defective. brairont It
at
re
(low
Lat.
bragtre), 'bray'
brayaient;
il braira,
has
has
brayant;
brait,
braient;
brayais,
; il brairait, brairaient.
Bruire
bruisaant
only
bruyant
bruis, tu
(as adj.) ;
bruis,
jc
ftmyaw
or
bruit ;
je
il bruit
(no pi.); je
bruirai^s).
ceignant
Ceindre
ceint
ceins
ceignis
(169.D.6)girt! Conjugated
like peindre
*
'
(which see).
; ng
So
=
also
en-ceindre.
[Lat.
voir
cingere
capere
girt
*
d intercalated
(^)n.]
aper-cevoir,
all
con-
C6
(Lat.
take
')
occurs
only
in
compounds:
are
cevoir,
d^-cevoir,
per-cei^oir,
re-cevoir.
These
conjugated
like
rece"oir Choir
past
*
(which see).
fall
':
only with
in
the
pres.
ind.
je
part,
chu
itre.
Compounds
Lat.
is
are
"choir,
which
see.
[Old
form
cheoir, from
'
cadSre
Circon-cire
part,
'circumcise
conjugated
that
the
past
is circon-cis.
[Lat. (Lat.
ore
circum-cidere
'cut
around'].
only
in circon-cire^
see
'Cire
c/dere
"
ccedere
'cut')
above.
CI
close
Pr. 8.
Cl08
clos
F.
clos clot
pi. wanting
clorai
C.
close
c/prats
161.]
[This
defective
p. p.
VERBS.
8T
verb
from
JjbX. ciaudere
elote'].
3d sing,
Compounds
and
clar desome
(only
tenses
:
d^clos),(f-clore (p. p.
i^clos and
pi. of
i7 "cl6t^
p. "p./or-doi)
-clure
(Lat.
cludere
past
co/i-c/i/re
(which see),
ex-clure,
re-clure
(only
inf. and
p.).
[Lat. con-ducere
So
pro-y
'
'
conduct
changed
to
where
not
lost.]
all verbs
recon-,
in
-uire, viz.
compoupds
"
of
-duire
en-, (d^-,
in-, intro-,
con-^
tn-,
tra-duire);
"
compounds
"
of -strut
re,
d^-truire ; (jd"-, ; cuire recon-struire) re-)\ p. p. 4ui) ; nuire (p. p. nui). Only bruire (which the defective see) deviates.
luire
: (re-lui're both
Connattre
(159. D. 2)
know
p.
connaUrai
C.
connaitrais
[Lat.
noHre and
co-gnoscere circumflex
know
'
Old
t intercalated
; later
coii-
(the
derived
denoting
of
s) ;
8c
ss
in
connaissant
forms.
in
Cf.
naitre.']
naitre
:
So
all verbs
;
"
i.e. the
compounds
pat^re
m^-connaitre,
re-connaitre
and
/}arat^re
with
compounds,
(defective)
rS'paUrt.
88
SECOND
PART.
[161
Con-qu^rir
'
conquer
ac-yu^V
'
(which see).
=
Con-traindre*
constrain
conjugated
peindre
(which see)
Coudre
coiLsant
Pr.
couse
(160. D. 3)
sew
8.
F.
Ipf.
I.
coudrai
C.
cousais
coudrais
[Lat.
So
con-suere,
whose
appears
outside
of the
inflnit.]
also
d^-coudre,
re-coudre.
Courir
(160. B)
F.
run
courrai
C.
courrais
[Lat. currere
of i,
as
(through cun-ire)
where
'
run.'
The
rr
of
the
inf. through
loss
usual
follows
-nV
cu:-,
a
con-,
vowel. dis-,
en-,
Cf.
wourVat.]
r"-, ""-,
So
also
all compounds
as
par-,
s'entre-secourir
tenses.
(hyphen,
here).
Of
these
ac-courir
usually
has
etre
in comp'd
[Lat. co^perire
So
all verbs ouvrir
as
cover/ p changed
-mr
to
:
r.]
compounds
"
in
and
-frir, viz.
of
couvrir
re(rf^-,
; couvrir^
:
(with entr*ouvrir,
Lat.
; rouvnir)
souffrir, offrir,
e-cn're
-crire
(same
-scrire,
scribere
'write
') in
(which see),d
r"'crire.
Pron.
cour-rai^s),to
distinguish
from
the
Ipf. cou-rais.
161.]
craignant
Verbs.
dd
Craindre
fear
craint
crams
craignts
Conjugated
like peindre
(which see).
from
Lat.
tremere
seems
[The
usual
deriyation
uncertain.]
CPUS
Croire
croyant
Pr.
(36)
8.
CPU
crois
(169. E)
believe
F.
crois
Ipf. s.
crusse
croie
Ipf
"
.
croit
I.
croyons
croyez
crotent
croirai
C.
croyais
croirais
Imp've.
crois
[L.
credere
used
believe only
*:
"
before
'make
vowel
is
oy.]
Ac-croire
infaire
believe.'
CroMre
croissant
Pr.S.
CPOiS
crois
cpAs
Ipf.
crusse
(169. D. 2)
grow
F.
8.
croisse
Ipf. I.
croit
croitrai
C.
croissais
croitrais
[Lat. (^
The from
'
crescere
grow
old
form
In
crus
croistre,
croissant
intercalated
; later
croitre
sc
"
denoting circumflex
cru,
the
loss
of
s).
and
derived
distinguish
forms
these
ss.
of
crus
cru^
crms,
(crusse) to
forms
crois,
of croire
(see above).]
sur-croitre,
-crus
So
also
though
the
vicarious
circumflex
omitted
in
-cru,
-crois,
(crusse).
cueilUs
Ipf. 8.
Cueillir
cueillant
cueilli
cueille
Imp've
cueille
cueiUisse
[Lat. col-ligere
So also
con
legere
(cf.cuetV/arat).]
ac'Cueillir, re-cueillir.
90
SECOND
PART.
[161.
cuis
Cuire
cuiaant
cuit
cuisis
(169.D.l)cook
Conjugated
like
*
I
con-duire
'
[Lat.
coquere
cook
or
in
conduisant,
d^chois
etc.
etc.]
d"chu8
d"chbant
d"choyant
Pr.
d^chu
cf.
Ipf.
S.
C.
S.
voir
d^chusse
d"cheiTai(ja)
*
d^choie
'
D^-crire
describe
destroy
(conjugated
'
"criret which
see).
.
D"'truire*
conjugated
like conduire
(which see)
dots
doia
[LAt'de-struere.
dus
Ipf.
du
(f.due)
s.
doit
devons devez
dusse
dohent
Imp*Te
dois
[Lat. debere
circumflex
to
b changed
to
; and
e,
when
accented,
=
to
oi.
Du
with
the
is
form
from
du
de
le."]
like "evoir
also
Observe
except
devoir
the
conjugated
in
precisely du.
"
of recevoir, which,
that has
circumflex
So
re-devoir,
however,
re-du,
dit
dis
dis dit disons
d/'s
Ipf. s.
disae
dites disent
Imp*ve
dis
[Lat. dicere
So
except and
say,' whose
appears
as
in pr. part,
and
derived
parts.]
parts
also
compounds
of dire has
save
re-dire)
in
that
that
maudire
all,
88
in pr. part,
have
(maudissant)
instead
they
redire,
-disez,
of
-dites,
2d
pi.
161.]
dormant
Pr.
91
Dormir
(169. B)
sleep
F.
B.
dorme
Ipf
I.
.
dormirai
C.
dormais
dormirais
[Lat. dormir
'
sleep.*]
in
So
afto
en-dormir^
r-en-dormir.
in-, \ntro-,
-duire
(Lat. ducere)
con-dufre
pro-,
r"-, "^-
trorduire.
"ch
ant
H-choir
fall due
"chu
il "choit
Ipf. F.
S.
il "chvt
t7 echerra Fonns
not
given,
lacking.
[Lat. ec-cadHre
4cr/t
(through
-cadere)J]
4cri"is
Ipf.
Ecrire
^crivant
Pr.
Scris
^cris
"crit
(169. D. 6)
write
F.
^
s.
s.
derive
Ipf.
^crivisse
I.
"crivons
^crivez e'crivent
Imp've
"crirai
a
"crivai8
^crirais
"cri8
[Lat. scribere
"/",
; "/-)
'
write
changed
"- simply
to
euphonic
(commonly
before
"c-,
"m-,
h lost
or
".]
compounds in
-scnre.
So
also
d^-crtre,
ri-crire;
and
Envoyer
send
envoyant
Pr.
envote
envoyi
envoie
lojpVe
cfivote
(131)
envoyai
Ipf.
(\eo. A)
F.
enverrai
8.
8.
envoyasse
Ipf. I.
C.
enverratf
envoyais
Sometimes
written,
as
it is pronounced,
^chet.
92
SECOND
PART.
[161
the
[Probably
of y and
t
from
.
en
vote
(Lat. via)
con-voyer,
on
waj.'
For
the
InterchaDge
cf
131.]
(but
So
also
ren-voyer
four-voyer regular).
-6^r6.*Faillir
fail,
cf. 137.
faillant
Pr. B.
failli
faux
faux faut
faillis
Ipf. B.
err
F.
faillirai
OT
Ipf.
I.
faiUons
faudrai
C.
faillais
faillez faillent
Imp've
failliraia
or
faudrais
Not
much
used
outside
of inf., past
part.,
also
and
pret.
yh/Z/Ve).] Ai/Y
So
d"faillir.
Faire
faisant
Pr.
(160. C)
do, make
F.
S.
fasse
Ipf.
I.
ferai
O.
faisais *
ferais
[Lat./acerg
part, and
'make':
c,
lost in the
inf., appears
as
s(s)
in
the
pres.
derived
the
forms.]
contre-y
occur
So
but
also
compounds
or
de-, par-,
only
r"-,
surf aire
/or-, mal-
m^faire
in inf. and
part.
il faut
ilfcdlut
Ipf. s.
ilfallut
Pronounce
/"-a:a(16, at,
note
1).
Tron.
fe-zai
161.]
IJj"t. allifre (through f
-otr
VERBS.
d8
I changed
and d
to
before
oons't;
oi of
lacking,
as
usual,
in
./a//ere) f
ut.-cond.,
intercalated.]
Jeins
eindre
feign
feignant
Conjugated
\\\L.e peindre
*
feint
feignis
(which see)..
d intercalated
phrase
sans
[h^t.fingere
'strike*:
inyent
; -ng
(g)n.'}
*
F^rir
only
in
the
cou/)
/"frir
without
striking
blow.'
'fire
make also
=
(which see).
Fleurir
cf. 133,
2.
So
re-fleurir.
in
"freindre conjugated
(hsit. Jiringere
\Tk.epeindre
frangere 'break')
en-freindre
'infringe':
(which see).
=
'frir
Ipy.
which offrivt
see.
Frire
only
past
part.
"
/nf;
pres.
ind.
/m,
^rw, yr?" ;
Jris;
fut.
cond.yrirai(s) throughout.
Fuir^
flee
(159. A)
F.
fuirai
C.
fuirais
'flee.'
For
the
interchange
of g and
36.]
"
So
also
8*en-/uir, e-fuir. r
like /7e{n(ire
Geindre
'sigh'
is inflected
(which see).
*
[Lat. gemercj
I r
*
with
intercalated
ef.]
id
G^"
on
lie
only
gisant;
ci-git
(for
git)
here
lies,' ci-gisent
s
here
lie
'
tomb-stones
; gi8ons,gisez,gisent
; ci-gisait^
ci-gisent.
sharp,
save
in inf.
air:
[From
only
Grermanic
part.
issw.
word,
akin
to
hateJ]
/""tr
born*:
past
oindre
joignant
Conjugated
like
Joint
(which
joignis
rf^-,
join
peindre
see).
ad-,
con-,
en-,
dis-,
dis-joindre.
^
ui is
diphthong.
94
SECOND
PART.
[161.
[liot. ungere : j
So
also compounds
d intercalated
:
; ng
(^)n.]
en-,
ad-,
con-,
d^,
dis-,
re*-joindre.
/us
Lire
lisant
D.
Ju
Us
lis
(169.
read
F.
1)
Pr.S.
Ipf.
s.
Use
lit
lisons
lusse
lirai
0.
Ipf. I.
lisex lisent
lisais
Imp've
lirais
lis
[Lat. legere
So
also
pick,
read
: s
with
disant,
etc.
Zutre
shine
|
So
luisant
lui
luis
that
\
the
lutsis
past part,
Conjugated
is lui.
"
also
*
[Lat.
lie
lucere
shine
mentant
where
it is not
lost.]
mens
Mentir
\
So
menti
mentis
Conjugated
like sentir
*
(which see).
also
[Lat.
mentiri
lie.']
d^-mentir.
161.]
[Lat.
/
=
VERBS.
95
'
m6lere
grind
d inserted
after
/ before
cons't
{moldre) ;
and
M,
or
retained
before
vowel.]
re-moudre.
meurs
mourus
So
also
"'moudre,
re-moudre,
meura
Ipf.
mourusse
8.
meurt
mourons mourez
meurent
Imp've
meurs
[Lat.
voir);
vowel
mifriri
(for mori)
in
accented
as
"u,
unaccented
-rir
ou
(cf
pouby
i dropped
fut.-cond.,
usual,
when
is preceded
mus
Ipf.
mnsse
8.
meut
mouvons
mouvez
meuvent
Imp*ve
meus
[Lat.
mdvere
move
accented
ew,
unaccented
ou
(cf
pouvoir^
mourir) ;
So
in fut.-cond.] as usual, oi of -otV, lacking De'-mouvoir^ are used pro-mouvoir also ^-mouvoir.
"
only
in inf. and
part.
n6
: (etre 142)
na/s
naie
naguts
Ipf. 8.
nan
naquisse
nais
^
Pronounce
mour-rai(^s),
to
distinguish
from
Ipf.
mou-rais.
96
SECOND
PART.
[161.
113):
old the
[Lat. nascere
; later
(for
naitre
nasci
*be
born':
fomi
naistre,
calated t inters
(the
circumflex
denoting
loss of
");
sc
"
in
naissant
and
deriratives.
Cf.
croitre.']
So
also
re-naitre.
naitre
(h"t. gnoscere) in
nuisant
connaitre,
which
nui
see.
Nutre
hurt
nuts
nutsts
Conjugated
nut.
like
con-dutre
that
the
past
part,
is
[Lat.
nd-cere
(through nocire)
otffrant
hurt
'
"
where
not
lost.] offris
Of/rir
offer
qffert
offre
Conjugated
like
couvrtr
Oindre
an6int
oignant
oignii
Conjugated
Vik.epeindre
(which see).
ng =ign pr. ind.
or
[Lat.
'hear
ungere:
'
d intercalated;
past part,
oui;
simply
etc.;
n.]
ipf.
*Ouir
only
ouUf
subj.
otitssa,
etc.
[Lat. audire."]
ouvrant
Ouvrir
open
ouvert
ouvre
ouvrU
Conjugated
like
'
couvrir
'
(which see).
changed
but
not
So
also
r-oavrir,
[Lat. aperire
'graze'
ptirt.
=
open
to
v.]
in
*Paitre
past
connaitre;
=
used
the
pret.,
and
rarely
in the
Re-paitre
connaitre.
*
[Lat. pascere
(for pasct
feed
'
113
A).]
parais
parus
Paraitre
appear
paraissant
paru
Conjugated
like
connaitre
(which see).
*
[Vulg.
tercalated, and
Lat.
parescere
(for parere
C*" for
appear
the
') :
of
old
form
sc
=
paraistre,
s8
in
later
paraitre
loss
s) ;
in
paraissant
derived
also
the
forms.]
compounds
ap-,
com-,
So
-paroir Pa
rtir depart
dis-, re-paraitre.
which
see.
(Lat. parere
'appear')
in ap-paroir, parti
partant
pars
partis
161.]
Conjugated
like sentir
*
VERBS.
97
(which see).
"
[Lat. partiri
divide,
separate.']
peint
So
also
re-partir^
d^-partir,
Imp've
peins
[Lat. pingere
a
'
paint
ei; d intercalated
in inf. ; n^
or
(before
vowel) gn."]
So
all verbs in
:
-ndre
in [i.e. with
-aindre
contraindrey
craindre,
plaindre
"
in
-eindre
ceindre
comp.,
feindre,
peindre
a-,
(compounds
of;
rf^-,
re-), -preindre
of
teindre
re-),teindre(and
rat',
:
re-,
compounds
,
or
which
see:
at-,
d.^', "-,
(in ^-) ;
poindre
form
in
oindre
joindre (and
All,
save
compounds
cf. the
oindre,
a
(defective).]
-ngere,
treated
craindre
with
are (*?),
derived
as
Latin
in analogy
pingere,
explained
above.
Plaindre
pity
plaignant
plaint
p/aine
plaignis
Conjugated
like peindre
."
[Lat. plangere
a
d intercalated
PI
ire
D.
plaisant
plu
S.
plais
plais plait
plus
Ipf. 8.
(159.
please
1)
Pr.
plaise
Ipf.
I.
plusse
F.
plaisons
plairai
C.
plaisais
plaisez plaisent
Imp've
plairais
plais
[Lat. pldcere
lost.
(through
vulg.
Lat.
placifre)
by
a
please
*:
where
not
(= placet) denoted
d"-plaire,
and
have
one
circumflex.]
however
has
no
So
com-plairej
may
taire, which
circumf
this
in tait, but
form
in p. p., tu
(or tu),to
distinguish
from
tu
thou.'
98
SECOND
PART.
[161.
il pleui
Fleuvoir
rain
plewbant pleu^ant
Pr.
plu
s.
it plut
Ipf.
(160. D)
F.
B.
t7 pleuve
Ipf.
I.
ilplut
il pleuvra
C.
il pleuvait
il pleuvrait
[Lat.
vowel
plui^re
(through
vulg.
Lat.
pluBre) :
are
intercalated
usual, in
before
(cf.Lat.
figurative
8ur
plu-vi-um);
use
as
fut.-cond.]
compliments
In
the
3d
found
(e.g.les
pieuvent
indre
*
elle).
'
*Po
dawn
only
a
il point
il poindra
ng=
; poignez,
[Lat. pungere:
pouvant
Pr.
intercalated,
(^)n.]
peux
Pouvoir
pu
S.
(oT puis^)
pus
(160. D)
be
able
F.
pu/'sse
Ipf. I.
pourrai
C.
pouvais
pourrais
[Vulg.
before
Lat.
;
potere
o
(for
=
posse
cu,
be
able
'):
=
t
ou
lost
and
.
intercalated
'
vowel
accented
unaccented
as
(cf
for old
:
mourirf
mouvoir)
in fut.-cond.
oi of -oir
lacking,
in
usual,
and
rr
dr."]
like
peindre
-preindre
(Lat. premere)
"-preindre,
em-preindre
both
(which see).
Chiefly
in questions
with
ne
(je
ne
puis
.),
161.]
*
VERBS.
99
Qu^rir
the
seek,
find
'
out
only
in
inf.
(with
aller, envoyer^
compounds
ac-querir
(which
see), con-qu"rir
in
re-qu^ir.
Re^evoiv vol
(160. D) .D)
ve receive
F.
rai recevrai
C.
/.
pais receyrais
[Lat.
when
re-ctp^re
(through
to
vulg.
Lat.
re-cipere
changed
to
v,
and
e,
accented,
oi
(cf. devoir).']
con-, (^aper-,
So
all compounds
de'-, like
per-cevoir).
Re-pentir
Lat.
(se) 'repent':
conjugated
sentir
(which
see).
l-pentirfrom
paenitere.']
^
R^'Soudre
r4sofvant
Pr.
rho/u
rSsous
re'sous
reso/us
Ipf.
(169. D. 4)
S.
s.
resolve
F.
resolve
Ipf.
I.
r"sout
r"solu88e
rfyoudrai
C.
r^sdvent rAoudrais
IiDp*ve
r"sous
[hzX.
exc.
re-solvere
or
intercalated
-ou-
in
inf.;
-olv-
-olv-
(before
vowel,
"),
So
also
part.
(before consonants).]
m.
part.
ab80U3,
f.
di8-8oudre ab80ute),
(but
past
m.
dissout,
f.
di88oute).
ri
riB ns
Eire
laugh
riant
Pr.
(159. ")
P.
s.
Imp've
Ipf. 8.
rie
Ipf. I.
rit
risse
rirai
C.
riai8
rirais
[Lat. ridere
^
laugh.']
So
f
also
in
sense
sou-rire
'
smile.' changed.'
AUo
r^foiM
(no
.)
of
dissolved,
100
SECOND
PART.
[161.
M-ouvrir
'
'
re-open
ouuriry
which
see.
*Saillir
fut.-cond.
plur.
"
'project' conjugates
is
like
it
as-saillir
occurs
'
that
sing,
the
saillerai^s)
.
But
'
only
it is
3d
persons
and
(In
the
sense
*
of
spout
out
regular).
see
[Lat.
salire
jump/]
For
as-sailltr, tres-sailliTf
SU
the
former.
sus
Ipf.
susae
Savoir
sdchant
Pr.
sais
sai8
(160. D)
know
F.
8.
s.
sache
Ipf. I.
salt
salons
saurai
C.
sayez
savais
sayent
aaurais
Imp've
aache
sachons sachez
[Lat.
sachant,
sapire
etc.,
(through
to
rulg.
Lat.
sSpere)
as
be
*:
wise
to
a
=v;
ch
in
owing
;
"
the
reduction
of pi in sapientusual,
fricative
j (cf
diurnu8=jour)
'Scrire
(Lat. scribere)
conjugated
sentant
Pr. sente
lacking,
in fut.-cond.,
pre-,
and
"o"-,
v=u.']
tran-
circon-, in;
see.
pro-,
scrire, all
Sentir
senti
s.
sens
sens
sentis
Ipf.
(159. B)
feel
s.
sent
sentons
sentisse
F.
Ipf. I.
sentirai
C.
sentais
aentez
sentent
sentirais
Imp've
sens
[Lat. sentire
So
also
feel.']
(as-, con-,
pres-,
; res-sentir) and
compounds
r
farther
mentir
(d^-mentir), parti
'fit':
only
u di-partir), (re-,
(ressartir)
*8eoir
s"ant;
past
part,
ind.
il sied;
fut.-cond.
seated.'] : as-seoir (see the verb), sur-seoir (only past surseois, pret. sursis), raS'Seoir (see asseoir).
BBirant
servt
be
part,
sur-sis,
Servir
serve
sets
serms
161.]
Conjugated
like sentir
*
VERBS.
101
(which see).
So
also
[Lat. servire
serve.*]
sorfant
des-servir.
But
sons
as-servir
is regular.
sortts
Sortir
go
out
sorti
Conjugated
like
*
sentir
(which see).
So
also only
res-sortir.
[Lat.
sortiri
go
out.']
Soudre
the
inf.
"
Also
in
the
compounds
ab-8(mdre,
rS-soudre
(which
last
see). souffris
Souffrir
suffer
Bouffrant
souffert
souffre
Conjugated
like
couvrir
Souloir
in il soulait.
pres.
Sourdre
up,
gush' hi
only
ind. sourd^
sourdent.
both
-streindre peindref
'St
rut re
'press')
a-streindre,
re-streindre,
like
see.
(Lat.
struere
'build')
see.
in
con-struire
iri'Struire, (recon-struire),
all
like
conduire,
which
Suf-fire
(161. D.
suffice
F.
1)
suffirai
0.
suffirais
':
where
not
lost.]
part,
except con-Jire,dicon-Jire,
past
d^confit. confit,
"
Also
(exc. past
suivant.
Pr.
part.
-as).
SUlVt
Suivre
suts
8UIS
SUlVtS
(169. E)
follow
8.
Ipf.
S.
suive
F.
suit
suivisse
Ipf. I.
suivons
suivrai
C.
suivais
suivez
sutvent
smvrais
Imp've
8U18
102
SECOND
PART.
tl61
'
[Vulg.
So
also
Lat.
sequere
(for sequi
poursuivre.
tu
follow
113,
A)
only
qu
r.]
sing,
s'entre-suivref
S*en8uivre
in 3d
and
pi.
Taire
keep
taisant silent
tais
tU8
Conjugated
like
plaire
(which
Usually
that
'be
*
tait
(3d
sing.
pres.
ind.)
has
no
circumflex.
se
taire silent
silent.'
=
[Lat. tacere
(through
yulg.
L.
tdcifre)be
:c
where
not
lost.
Tenir
(160. B)
hold
F.
tiendrai
C.
tiendrais
[Lat. tenere
fut.-cond. tendre
:
so
e,
: (through tihire)
if accented
=
to
I'e or
(pret.);
i
in
though
unaccented,
ie
(to
from
fut.-cond.
of
also
viendrai
of venir to distinguish
"
fut. of
d intercalated.] lost, and So also compounds 'ir d"-y entre-, venir. main-, oh-, re-, sou-tenir'). Also
"
Teindre
tint
teignant
teint
teins
teignis
Conjugated
like peindre
:
(which see).
under
Comp'ds
dAeindre,
reteindre,
[Lat.
=
tingere
cf
in
pingere
at-,
teindre teindre
peindre,
rat-teindre
in
^-,
r^
[fr.Lat.
in
Cf. {ex)tinguere'].
treindre
"treindre
(Lat. stringere)'tighten,
trait
S.
trats
bind':
conjugated
like
teindre.
trayant
Pr.
Traire
milk
(pi.trayons etc.)
traie
trairai
C.
Ipf.
I.
Imp've
trayais
trais
trairais
[Lat. trdhere
So
also
draw.']
(abs', di9;
d"-truire,
ex-,
ren-, re-,
compounds
sous-,
at-traire).
"truire
in (Lat. struere)
which
tee.
161.]
ere
VERBS.
103
Vain
vatnquant
vaincu
vaincs
vatnquis
conquer
Regular,
observing
"
that
becomes
qu
"
before
all
vowels,
except
(cf.134, 1).
So
vaux
also
convaincre.
valus
Ipf. s.
vaux
vaut
valusse
valons valez
valent
[Lat.
-oir
valere
as
be
'
worth
/ changed and
to
before
consonant
; oi
of
lacking,
usual,
venant
in fut.-cond.,
venu
intercalated.]
Yiena "in8
Venir
* '
{etre')
come
like
'come
tenir
'
(which see).
treated like
tenire, cf.
con-,
tenir."]
inter-, par-,
also
compounds
"ou-
contre-^ Icircon-,
de-, discon-,
pr"',
re',rede't
vefs
vets
vitis
Ipf.
8.
etc.
=
vetisse
conj'n
ImpWe
vets
[Lat.
So
'
vestire
clothe
the
loss
of
denoted
by
circumflex.]
also
compounds
Vivre
vivant
Pr.
"Sou
8.
VIS
vScua
vis
Ipf. 8.
v^eusse
(169. E)
live
vive
P.
Ipf.
I.
vit
vivans
vivex vivais vivent
Imp'v"
vivrai
C.
vivrais
ift"
104
SECOND
PART.
[161.
before
[Lat. vivere
Lat. ^-Bound
in
live
'
i changed vic-si,
to
(which
represents
the
vixi
viC'tum.']
So
also
re'vivre, sur-vivre.
Voir
voyant
Pr.
(36)
8.
VU
VOIS
VIS
(169. D)
see
VOIS
Ipf.
s.
voie
F.
votes
"Oit
voyons
visse
verrai
C.
voyez voient
Imp've
verrais
voient vois
Ipf.
I.
voyais
[Lat.
old dr
videre
see
f ut.
verr-ai, with
lacking
oi
as
usual,
and
rr
for
(yedrai).
:
The
distinction
between
voy-,
voi-
is simply
graphic ortho-
cf
36.]
pre'-voir
So
also entre-voir,
(whose
f ut.-cond.,
-",
however,
is pr^ooirai, re-voir.
"
-s)
pour-voir
(but
only
f ut.-cond.
in the
pourvo/raif
past
and
pret.
pourvu^),
d^-
pourvoifj
inf. and
part.
Vouloir
voulant
Pr.
voulu
s.
veux
voulus
Ipf.
(160. D)
wish
F.
veux
s.
veuille
veuilles veuif/e
voulions vouliez
yeut
votdusse
voudrai
C.
voudrais
veuillent
veuille
Ipf.
I.
reunions
yeufllez
voulais
(cf note)
.
NoTB.
"
Usuallj,
the
iraperat.
form
*
is
veuillez 'please.'
'
[Lat.
=
volo
ou;
(through
I lost
d is
viflere =
velle)
wish
accented
eu,
unaccented
before
consonant
; oi of
-otr
lacking,
as
usual,
in
fut.-cond.,
where
intercalated.]
162-164.]
INDECLINABLE
WORDS.
105
IX.
INDECLINABLE
WOBDS.
limited
bene,
ou
[I62t
HISTORY. from
a
"
Of
the
Indeclinables
rather
number
are
direc
tres
derived
trans;
are
Latin
en
(e.g. bien
in;
et
from
et,
.
done
from
tunc,
from
from
ad, by
from
from
from
aut:
formed
encore
later
composition
(cf
enjin
sans
'
assez
from
Fr.
en
ad
and
or
magis,
avec
from aptid
hanc hoc,
a
oram,
from
que,
from
ante,
from
travers,
'
etc.);
*
by
derivation
from
en
other
parts
of speech
prep.,
(cf
'out
chez of
"
at
from
in
casa
in
"
the from
house/
Old
'out
Fr.
chez;
hors,
Uke
fors
'except'
/oris
of
doors/ durant,
An important constructions Latin,
pres.
part.,
'during':
is that
*
etc.).
adverbs
a
formation
like
this
of
in
in
manner
-ment.
'
Adverbial
were
bona
mente
mente
good
,
used
-ment,
was
in
and
later
(fr. mens)
adjective
about
as
abbreviated
one
to ; and
with
its preceding
are now
feminine
into
word
in
such
adverbial
in
compounds
formed
freely
as,
English,
adverbs
-ly
(= like),-]
1 63.
Indeclinables^
as
inyolving and
words.
no
change might
For
of
form,
are
all
found
directly
in
dictionaries, with
who few
therefore
the
properly
be
dismissed
here
convenience
of
or
students,
however, French
may
desire
at
once
to
save
time
common
in
reading
writing
by
learning
are
the below
most
of the inorder.
decliaables,
these
enumerated
in alphabetical
Adyebbs.
164. Bingle
ainsi
*
adverbs
thus,
so,'
(of
*
place,
then,'
'
time,
asstz
'
manner,
etc.).
"
ailleurs
pretty,'
au"5t
'elsewhere
aucune-
alors
enough,
aujoaravan^
quite,
'
mtnt
'by
no
'
means/
'
au/ourd'Aut to-day/
'
before/
formerly,'
'
'
'also,
as/ auBsitdt
otherwise
immediately,'
; beaucoup
'
autant
as
'
'
much,' well,
autrefois
autrement ;
'
much/
bien
much,'
bientdt
soon
cependant
106
SECOND
PART.
[164-167
'meanwhile/ 'more/
combien dedans
'
age
'as, davan'how'; comme like/ comment much/ 'to'within/ dehors 'outside/ d"ja 'already/ demain morr
*how
derriere devant
behind/
d^sormais
'
henceforth/
dessous
encore
'
under/
dessus
'over/
hort,
'henceforth*; ensuite
'then/
environ
purposely';
'erer,
fort
'very';
hier
'yesterday*;
tci 'here*;
jadis 'formerly/
'long
mteux
jamais
neyer/ jusque
main{enant
*
'till, until';
la 'there/ longtemps
meme
non
(time)/
'better/
*
ors
'then*;
*
'now/
n"anmoins
'
*
mal
'
'badlj'/
'
'even/
'
oins
less
'
;
'
ne
"
not/
nevertheless/
no/ nuLlement
'
by
no
eans
om
'not/
/?e"
par/ois
p/iw
at
times/
partout
everywhere/
pourtant
que
pas
'more/
puis
'
/j/wfdi 'rather/
'then*;
'however/
pres
'
'almost/
sometimes
quand
*
'when/
especially
(for
com6ten) how/
a
*
quelquefois
*
si
'
yes
(used
in reply
sw'
negative especially
'now
. . .
souoent
'
'often/
(tantSt
tout
so
much,'
tantdt
by
and
by,
recently
iantdt
quite,'
toujours'always/
too,
towi
'
'wholly,
very/
iro/)
too
'
much
; vite
quickly/
'
volontiers
willingly
'
; ^
there/
[166.]
Besides,
to
most
French
adjectives
form,
or
may
be
changed
to
adverbs
in
by
a
adding
"
-ment
their
feminine 'highly;
to
the
masculine
if ending
vowel.
Ex.
hautement
haughtily;
,
aloud'
(from
doucement
'softly'
76;
(Fr.
so
doux
soft') foUement
etc.);
their
etc.
nt
'foolishly'
haut
foUe
'foolish':
also
hellemeni,
pdiment
'politely'
etc. 'polite'),
NoTB
1.
"
few
adjectives
in
accent
final
before
-ment.
"
profond^ment,
NoTB
2.
"
pr^dsement,
expressSmentf
-nt
Adjectives
patient
:
change
to
before
-ment.
as
a-m
"
Ex.
:
constant
onstam-ment,
patiem-ment
(-emm
pronounced
19, note
2)
166.
As
or
in
English,
some
adjectives
without
*
are,
in
certain
sense,
used
as
:
dverbs
low,*
adverbial
*
predicates
any adv.
change
*
of
form.
'
Thus
bas
adv.
in
low
voice/ cher
'
dear/
'
dear/
droit
'
straight/ adv.
'
*
straightway
*
s/ exprhs
'
express,'
adv.
/bri
aux
false/
adv.
out
of
tune,'
haut
adv.
'suddenly/
vite
*quick(ly),
ast' 167.
Adverb-phrases
h
(of
*
place,
h h
time,
manner,
etc.).
"
a
'
ban
marchi
'oheap(ly)/
part
jamais
a
forever,'
la
fois
'at
once,'
Venvi
in
emulatioa/
'aside/
peine
'hardly,*
peu
prh
'nearly,
almoft,'
aprda^emain
167-169.]
day
reste
INDECLINABLE
WORDS.
107
'the
after
to-morrow/
*
h present
'the day
'at
present,
now/
au^motru
'at
least,'
au
'besides/ avant-hier
et
before
'
yesterday/
avant
'
pen
'before
long/
ga
la
here
and
there/
'at
ci-apres
hereafter,'
ci-indus
enclosed/
ct-
joifU 'annexed/
'
d*ahord
first/ d* accord
de
(/
ftoniM heure
in
good
time,
early,'
la
des
'
hence,'
likewise,'
"/6 plu$
'moreover/
'
(fe sutte
'in
succession/
'
lors 'since
'
then/
d*ici 'from
'
here/
d*ordinaire
'at
'
usually/ (/'ou
all/
en
whence,'
c^u mains
the
'
at
however/
'forward/
attendant
en
'in
meantime,
en
ne coeur
until/ en
haut
. .
.
avanf
below,
down-stairs/
'
yonder,'
'not
la-dessus
in
aloft, up-stairs,'
/a-6a5
non
/)a"
(etc., cf
169),
sans
plus
par
'by
heart,'
peut-itre
'perhaps
'as
to/ quelque
part
'somewhere/
'
doute
once,'
undoubtedly,'
soit peu
tout
fait
so
yes,
indeed,'
ou
a
sur-le-champ
on
the
spot,
tour
at
tant
little/ tdt
tout
tard Vheure
'sooner
'
or
later/
tout
tour
'
'in
turn/
h coup
suddenly/
'
presently/
de
suite
immediatel
tout
d'un
coup
in
one
stroke.'
168.
Comparison
and aid
of
Adverbs.
degree
moins
"
Adverbs
are
that
can
have
comparative by
the
superlative of plus
and
compared,
like
tives adjec
four
(e.g.fQfiilement
Only
the
^easily,'
phis
facUement^
from
Posit.
le plus
facilement).
viz.
:
"
following
deviate
this
rule,
bien
^^, peu
^well' ('badly'
'
(. poorly
'
'little'
'much'
beaueoup
169.
Negation.
"
With
verb,
the
simple
the
negation
of
two
'not'
is usually
ne,
(cf. 321-338)
placed
by
aid
of
words,
or
viz.
before
preceding So
also
the
form
or
the
verb
an
object-pronoun
after
'no
pas
(more
mean
pefnt plus
it.
"
jamais
plus
emphatically) 'never/ ne
.
.
longer'
/le
.
(but
guere
/?a
pas but
'not
"
more'),
Ex,
no
que
'only/
'hardly,
little.'
108
SECOND
PART.
[169-172.
I have
Jen*a%pas.
n^ai
ne
not.
not not
not
Je
pas
(orpoint) parU,
parU.
I have
I have
spoken.
spoken give
to
Je
lui ai pas
him.
Je
ne
ne
le lui donnerai
pas
(or point).
I shall
I
never
it to him.
Je
play.
not
Je
ne
I shall
play play
play
no
any
more
(=1
ne
shall
not
longer)
any
more
Je
jouerai pas
plus
que
shall than
Je
n'ai
que
trois
dollars.
I have
He
see
II n'Stait guere
arrivi. particulars,
*
had
hardly
arrived.
For
farther
Syntax.
[170.]
more
Without
'
verb,
not
is expressed
by
non
or
non
pas
(non point),
r,
seldom,
by
pcu,
as
described
in the
Syntax.
Prepositions.
171.
Single
prepoaitionB.
'with,*
'
"
apres house
*
aiter*
avant
'before*
(in
'time
or
place'), avec
'since,'
"
chez
*at
(the
dh
'
of),* contre
*
'against,'
dans
*iu,'
epuiB
derriere
en
'
'behind,*
from,
since,
'
devant
towards,'
'before
(a place),
'
urant
during,' except,'
*
in,' entre
'
between,'
envers
*
environ 'by
'
about,'
means
ormis
'
jus^ti^
in spite
of,' moyennant
f,' nonohstant
among,'
notwithstanding,'
'
besides,
sana
'
beyond,'
without,'
to,'
sur
par
*
by,'
parmi
pendant
to,'
sous
during,*
pour
for,'
sau/
'on,
save,'
selon
vers
according
'under,'
suivant
'according
upon,'
towards.'
172.
to,'
'
Prepoaition-pfaraBes.
a
"
cause
de de
a
'
on
*
account
ext
force
a
de
'
by
dint
of,' h
unknown
V"gard
to,*
with moins
regard
h, V exception
a
excepted,*
across
au
'
Vinsu
de
"
de
de
'
'
unless,*
travers
de
through, without,*
(without resistance),*u-dedans a
delh
de
*
within,*
au
au
dehors de
"
de
beyond,* de moyen
'
au-dessous
around,'
au
de
'
under,*
'
dessus
of,* de
'on
au
upon,*
u-devant
the
before,*
autour
au
lieu de
instead
milieu
by,'
side,'
de
au en
in
middle
of,*
de
'by
means
of,* aupres
'near,
ravers
de de
'
'through,
across
"p%t
in spite
de
* *
dega
*
de
this
for want
'
of,* hors
'
de
as
'
out
f,* le long
de
'
near,*
procke
de
near,*
quant
for,*
is-h-vis de
opposite
to.'
173-176.]
INDECLINABLE
WORDS.
109
Conjunctions.
173.
*
Single
lorsque
'
*
oonJunctionB.
*
"
car
for/ cependant
neither,
'
'
however/
*
done
then/
*
and/
pourtant
mats
'
but/ ni
nor/
au
since/ guanc?
when/
^rti"
'
""
174.
Conjnnction-phraBea.
a
'
"
afin
*
que
*m
that/
*
a{n"t
^^ue
'aa
well
*
as/
moin^
9ue
*
unless/
since,
que
'
avant
as soon
que
before,'
although/
*
depuis
que
since/
dh
que
as/ Jttsqu'ace
'
que
that,'
until/ parce
'
que
because,'
sans
pendant
'
while/
pour
tant
que
'
in
as
order
pourvu
que
que
*
provide
que
without,
unless,'
que
long
as,'
tandis
while.'
Intebjeotions.
175.
Ah
'ahI"afc"oh!'6aA*p8hawI'cAti"'hi8t!'"i*fle!'Aa*hal'A"f/aJ
'
(" pronounced
NoTB. good
indeed
:
'
"
sharp)
Many
'
alas
'
hola
brief
hallo
'
'
paix
are
silence used
*
'
"
and
so
on.
words
plague
and
take
phrases la bonne
interjectionally:
well
!
'
bon
peste
!
'
it !
'
heure of
!
'
very
.par
venir
'
exemple
are
etc.
Frequently
*
the
I why
imperatives
!
nonsense
oiler
*
and
!
thus
or
used
allons
hold
(done)
come
aJlez
come
now
Uteris
tenez
! there
! look
'
SYNTAX.
X.
UTTEODUOTOET.
176:
Syntax
their
treats
of
the
combination
and
agreement,
of
words
as
into
as
sentences
interdependence
well
their
relative
position.
The
:
1 77following
a.
leading
syntactical
principles
are
in
French
the
The
subjeot
verb
determines,
:
as
^
in
English,
'
the
aiment
number
'
and
person It also
e.g.
of the
il
aime
he
loves
and
; Us
they
love.'
:
determines
the
number
'
gender
bonnes
of
'
the
they
complement
are
il est hon
; elles sont
as
good.' of
b.
the
The
verb
in
English, being
the
in
construction French
object (an
for
case-relation
always, by
the aid
'
except
conjunctive personal
e.g. il aime
^
pronouns,
son
expressed
'
of
: prepositions)
p^re
he
'
loves
his
father
un
U pense
A
son c.
son
'
p^re
he
a
thinks book
of his
father
or
; il donne
^
livre
ph'e
he
gives
to his father,'
his father
sense
book.'
The
adjuncts of
direct
order its
above
words
modify
their
by various
constructions. d. The
the its of
arrangement
come
requires,
as
in
adjuncts to
the
e.g. Ce
first, then
complement
"
the
or
finally
predicate
hon p^re
object
"
with
adjuncts :
This
aime
tendrement
ses
JoUs en/ants
good
father
loves
dearly
his
pretty
children.'
177-181.]
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
Ill
e.
The
inverted
clauses
order
when
"
used
especially is
a
in
interrogative
and
optative
the the
subject
like, the
'
pronoun,
after e.g.
come
in
interjected
adverbs
"
phrases requires
you
mort
like
the
dit-il and
and verb:
may
certain
subject to
?
'
follow
venir
Vaimez-vous
'
9 ^do
love
'
her
puisse-t-il
he
; d
peine
fut-il
hardly
The
was
he
dead.'
of syntactical
1 78.
are
peculiarities
in detail
constructions chapters.
in French
described
in the
following
XI.
ARTIOLES
AND
The
not
PAETITIVE
for
SIGU.
of 17th
the various
[179.
observed
HISTORY.
in French
"
rules
the
in
use
articles
and
now
were
yet
fixed
was
the often
use
century,
still less
it is
now
in the
16th.
; and
not
The
the
definite
nice
article
then in the
omitted, the
where
required
were
distinctions
Hence,
of
independent
partitive
centuries,
assure
sign
observed. with
et
in
like
the the
literature
of
:
those
we
frequently liberty
meet
expressions
following
//
vous
et
vie
et
(insx^tidof
de la
la vie et la liberty,
tot
:
196):
Comeille.
"
J*ai De
tendresse
:
(inst. of
tendresse)pour
des yeux the
:
id.
"
Des And
grosses
so
(inst. of
grosses
45)
larmes
lui tomhent
S^vign^.
on.]
Article."
used either
meaning
180.
has
Use
already the
of
Definite
pointed
out
(or Generic)
As
been
'
(40),fe,
nouns
Za, les
are
"
like
English
the
'
"
before
thus
whose
general
or
and
most
made
no
definite,
occurs
else
"
where
nouns
in English,
part,
so
article
"
before
used
in their
given
generic
(and
far
definite)sense.
Special
rules
are
below.
181.
The
on
Definite
the
Article.
as
"
The
definite
article is used
some cases,
in French,
are
whole,
in
as
English.
Still, in while
nouns
in French
treats
treated
determinate,
the
English
or
language
them
differently
no
(using the
determinant
indefinite
at
article,
Thus:
the
possessive
or adjective,
all,
etc.).
112
SYNTAX,
[182-184.
7%e
Definite Article
Possessives.
possessive
"
with
Common
definite
common
Nouns:
182.
For
of the
The
article
nouns
can
is
used
instead
denoting
parts
as
of
who
cially (espeno
there
be
unders mis-
to
of the
object mentioned.
hands.
memory.
his
in
woir
arm.
"
Ex.
leva
a
Elle
Elle
les mains.
She
raised
has
her
perdu
la mSmoire. le bras.
aux
She
He
yeux.
is this
lost her
// s^est cass4
has had
broken
tears
after
mal de
Elle
avail
"
les lai^mes
She
her
eyes.
d, 'have
a
a
Note.
pain
in.'
"
Quite
Ex.
common
construction
mal
have
J*ai
aux
mal
la
tete
(or
./'m
un
tele) 'I
have
headache.'
J*ai mal
au
mal
bras
is
dents
have
a
(or
sore
J*ai
le mal
"
de
dents) *I
the
etc.
tooth-ache.'
preceded by
J^ai
an
*1
arm.'
Obs. mal
de
'headache'
tete
adjective
usually
expressed
by
(e.g. un
violent
mal
de
tete
etc.).
[183.]
also
The in
definite
article
is used
for
nouns
possessive
tive adjecby
*with^
in
a
descriptive
when
^
phrases
are
*
with English
'
connected
by
preposition,
in
sense
they
in
preceded
is
of
"
having,'
holding
(which
then
omitted
French).
H
parait livre II
vint^
a
Ex,
He
always
appears
with
his
(ora)
under
book
le
He
came
in his hand.
with
arm.
his umbrella
bras. Le
roi trdne,
his
4tait
assis sceptre
sur
son
The
king
was
seated his
on
his
in
le
d,
la
throne
his
with
sceptre
main.
hand. for
[184.]
The
definite
article
is commonly
used
nouns
possessive
some
adjective also
constituent
in descriptiye
or
phrases
of
an
an
with
denoting they
are
part and
quality
when object,
governed
by
then
avoir
determined
by
the
adjective or
"
participle
(which
regularly
follows
noun).
Ex.
184-187.]
la tMe le bras
a
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SfGN.
113
II
a
a
grosse.
He
has
arm
large
head.
cassS.
His
is broken.
a
Elle
r esprit p4nitrant.
soeur
She
petite,
has
penetrating
has
a
mind. mouth,
Voire
le
fa bouche
et
Your
sister
small
teint
beau
les
yeux
beautiful
eyes.
complexion,
and
blue
bleus.
lis out
r esprit
a
fatigu4,
lisse.
Their
The This
minds beech
are
tired.
a
a
Le
hMre
couteau
I'Scarce
a
has
smooth dull
bark.
edge.
Ce
le
tranchant
knife
has
4mouss4.
Note 1.
"
The
even
noun
denoting referring
number.
':
"
the
to
constituent several
part
or
quality
is put
in
the them
singular would
hare
2.
-^
when
objects,
betes
ont
provided
tete
each
*
of
require
that
Ex.
ex.
a une
Ges
la
longue
These
animals Note
long
heads
and
cf.
6 above.
grosse
tete
Constructions
the thing
like
il
etc.
are
also
allowable,
the
especially
thought.
when
itself rather
than
its quality
is the
object of
185.
The
definite
article
is used
'
before
'
nouns
or
*
considered
'
distributively
(where
in English
the
case
each/
before
every/
names
may
be and
used).
measure
This
; and
"
is especially
also
of weight
before
designations
of time,
unless
preceded
by par. La
Ex.
sous
viande livre.
coUte
vingt
la
The
meat
costs
twenty
sous
pound.
cinq dollars
Tai
H
H
pay4
six
me
le bariL
I have He
paid
five dollars
an
barrel. ell.
Thurs-
perd
vient
centimes
voir
Paune,
loses
comes
six centimes
to
see
le jeudi
(les
He
me
each
jeudis)
.
day
vient
or
on
[But
jour,
II
six
fois
par
He
comes
(every)
day.]
The
Ex.
1 86.
parts.
"
definite
article
is used
before
names
of
fractional
La moiti4
de Varmee
One
half
of
the
army.
114
SYNTAX.
[187-190.
before
noun
187,
The
definite
when
when Ex.
Ney
a
article
is used
a
names
of
titles and
direct
professions
followed preceded
by
proper
monsieur^
(except in
madame^
or
address),or
"
by
mademoiselle
Le marichal
pereur,
visUS
Vem-
Marshal emperor.
Ney
has
called
on
the
Monsieur
le
comte
n'est
pas
The
count
is not
at home.
cliez lui.
198.
cannot
The
definite
article
be
is used under
in various anj
idiomatic
rules.
!
"
expressions
"x.
that
conveniently
!
brought
definite welcome
you
not
one
Sotfez le bienvenu
Je
//
vous
[Be]
souhaite
pas
au
le
bonjour,
I bid
He
good-day.
a
n'a
le
sou.
has
On
crie
secours.
Some
He
cries
// demanda
Je
n'en
at
raumSne.
pas
au
asked
no
alms.
time
a
le temps. hasard.
I have I said
for
it.
Je Vai
dit
it at
venture.
77ie
Definite Article
in
nouns
with
Proper
Nouns:
1 89before
as seen
Except
direct
that
address,
are
the
definite by
an
article
is used
determined
cases
adjunct (even,
omits the
where
in
similar
English
article).
"
La
vie du
grand
du de
Corneille,
si^de.
The
Paris
life of the
of the
great
Corneille.
century.
Le
Le
Paris
quinzi^me
fifteenth
Cinna
Note.
"
Corneille.
names
Corneille's
preceded
and
Cinna.
the
Proper
by
saint
take
definite
"
article
only saint
when
*
denoting
it
was
saints'
days,
it is then
written
Saint-.
Ex.
C*^ait
Jean
Saint
John';
La
'mid-summer.'
[190.]
thus
a.
Exceptionally the
the
occurs
:
before
names
of persons
not
determined,
names
rules
follows
take
Personal
denoting
are
plurality
the
the
plural
of
only
the when
article, while
to
they
themselves
or
usually dynasties:
in
plural
illustrious
*
families
Bourbons.'
e.g.
Les
Duval
'The
DuvaU';
L$9 Bourbons
The
190-192.]
b.
AETICLBaS
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
115
Names
of
illustrious
:
individuals Montesquieu^
have
may
be
construed
ont
our
with
the
definite
article
*
in plural
e.g. Les
a
litt^ra-
ture
c.
A A
Montesquieu,
Bousseau
famous
few
names
of
Italians
of
celebrated article
well-known
e.g. Le
persons,
especially
actresses,
always La
way
as
take
definite
Tasse
'Tasso';
le Corr"ge
names
or,
'Corregio';
used
by
Patti;
of
La
Brinvilliers.
for
or
d. Personal real
owners,
comparison
other works
persons
than take
or
are
the
the
titles
noun
of
books
of
in
art,
definite
as
article,
case
and
being
construed
'
singular
plural
the
requires
e.g. Les
Alexandres
read
T.'
or
sont
rares
Alexanders
ou
rare';
sont
J*ai
lu Je T"l"maque
*
*I
have
Les
Raphaels
are
/es
Titiens
bien pr^cieux
(Paintings by)
article
Raphael
Titian
very
precious.*
191names
The of
definite
is generally
(cf. 192)
"
used
with
extended
geographical
or etc.)
features
islands, of
from
such
as
countries
seas,
(states,rovinces, p
and
large
names
mountains, small
rivers,
lakes
"
but
not
before
islands, chiefly
islands,
places.
French
then
names
differs
of
English and
the
article
before without
est grande. est
countries
"
and
before
mountains
exception.
Ex.
La
Rusde
Russia
au
is great. is bounded
the
on
La France
par
bomie
et
midi
France
the
the
south
Med-
/es Pyr^n^es
la M^di-
by
Pyrenees
and
terran4e.
Navarre
est
une
iterranean.
province,
tie.
La
Navarre Sicily
The
is is
a
province. island.
a
La
Sidle
est
est
une
grande
large is
a
Le Oange
VAsie, unfleuve de
une
Ganges
is
river
in Asia.
in Syria.
Le Liban
est
montagne
de
Lebanon
mountain
/a Syrie.
[192.]
article
Exception
1.
"
In
the
following
names
cases
the
definite
in
names
is omitted
before la
feminine
and
a
of less
no
countries
the of
singular
remote
a.
(save
Chine
few
common
countries),provided
Always
to
*
they
to'
have for
adjnncts:
d, before
after
en
4n,
in
a
(used
way
en
dans^
such
en
feminines France be
denote
general
the
^
where) :
to
e.g. itre
in France,'
passer
France
go
F.'
116
SYNTAX.
[192.
'
b.
After
F.' ;
or
de in
in
sense
of
of
^
from
'
e.g. venir
de
France
an
come
from
sense
of
when
it introduces
attributive
genitive
of
distinction
(=
by
an
quality),wMcli
may
be
rendered
de de
without king
ambiguity
of wine.'
is not
^the
F.'
(=
^the
France France
French
Usage
article
SL
quite de
J
settled
with
regard
however,
to
the
to
retention
or
omission rule
:
of de
the
after
f
.*
It is safe,
or
follow
this
Use
la in
possessive
partitive,
le midi
of
de la F.
title
:
la devastation
[as
le roi (Vambassadeur
apposition:
etc.)
F.;
de
F.
of origin
de
du
vin de
F. ; of
description
or
histoire de
le royaume
F.'].
Examples
demeure
en
to
192
a.
Allemagne.
He
lives
in Germany.
[But
II
demeure
dans
PAlle-
He
lives
in
Southern
Grer-
TMiLgne
va
mMdionale,
many.]
He
goes
to
II
en
AmMque,
va aux
America.
in (pi. French),
[But
II
Indes,
au
He
goes
to India
Br^sil,
aux
Eta^ts-Unis,
etc.
Brazil,
the
United
States,
etc.]
b.
est
venw
de France,
venu
He
Mexique
has
come
from from
France.
[But
or mon
II est
du
He
has
from
come
Mexico
or
de la France
retour
miridionale,
Southern
return
France.]
from Italy.
he
d'ltalie,
il
se
On
r^-
my
Chass4
d^Angleterre
en
Banished
to
from
England
fled
fugia
AmMque.
America.
from
[But
C?iass4 de
aux
la Ohin"
il
se
Driven
China
he
fled
to
refugia
royaume
roi de
Indes.
India.]
The
Le
d'Fspagne,
France.
kingdom
king
queen
of Spain.
Le
The
The The
of France.
La
reinede
la Gfrande-Bretagne. de Prusse.
est excellent,
of Great
Britain.
L'ambassadeur
ambassador
iron cloth.
of Prussia.
Le
fer de SuMe
drap
Swedish
is excellent.
Du
d^Angleterre,
English
192-195.]
Ua
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
117
mille
paix
d'Allemagne. de
Westphalie,
mile.
La Les
of Westphalia. confines.
limites
de la France,
farther
L^amhassadeur
de
France,
Un
marchand
frangais.
The
Le roi
French
ambassador. The
king
French
merchant.
de France.
Vempereur
emperor
de
la
Chine,
The
of France.
of China.
Lefer de JSuMe,
Swedish
in
iron
Le
fer de
la
Su^de.
The
iron
iron
found
L'histoire
de
France,
or
S.). (The)
The
all the
iron) of
la
Sweden.
The
UMstoire French
de
France,
French
history
of France.
his-
history from
Rare Fr.
(as
distin-
tory
guished
geography
etc.).
"
expression.
Varmie
of
La
d^Egypte,
Egypt
The
army
Varm^
de VEgypte,
The
army
to
(=
sent
into
E.).
The La
of Egypt
(=
belonging
E.).
The
r^uhlique de
Venetian
Venise.
r^publique franga/se.
French republic.
derived article.
republic.
2.
"
[193.]
of cities Hanovre,
Exception
as
a.
Seyeral
names
of countries
not
from
names
(such
Naples,
Bade
etc.)
have
do
take
the
Others
(like
Brandebourg
names
etc.) require
of places
it.
the definite origin
b. Certain
article
is
as
part
of that
Z^
name
itself
(often
because
its
appellative
still
felt).
'
E.g.
Havre
Haye
'.
'Havre*;
*
La
Rochelle
'
(*the Rock')
Caire
*
*Rochelle';
; La
La
*
; Le
to
Cairo
Mecque
Mecca being
[194.]
generally
Usage
the
with
with
regard
names
names
of rivers,
:
the
principle
of
countries
e.g.
Je
hois
*
de
I'eau
water
de
of
Seine
the
I drink
Seine
water.*
L*eau
vins du
de la Seine
Rhin
*
est
bourbeuse
The
Seine
is muddy.'
*
Les
river.'
(the)
Rhine
wines.'
Le
Jleuve du
Mississippi
the
M.
Exercise
(end
of the
book).
"
195.
The
Generic
requires in
^
Article
the
English,
all
nouns
generic
sense,
40, French, un(ef. like note). (= definite) article before i.e. in such understood
a
used
^all,'
generic
may
way
that
^in
general,'
every,'
be
with
them
(e.g
118
SYNTAX.
19a (;i95,
amour
ment
du
cceur
Love
est
"
i.e. love
'
in
"
"
comes man
from
the
heart.'
Lhomme
oiseaux
out
mortel
ailes
Man
"
is mortal.'
have In the
Les
des
Birds
"
i.e.
as
genus
wings').
singular^
are
abstract
apt
or
collective
thus
nonns
and with
nouns
of
material
especially in the
to be
construed
may
the
definite
"
article, while
plural
any
noun
be
so
construed.
Ex.
Vice
sont
maux.
is odious. and
vanity
evils.
are
Uorgueil
source
la
Men
vanM
des
la
Pride
the
source
de
of many
La
sodit^
est
un
vivra
toujours.
pricieux.
hien. f
belle saison.
d
Society Gold
Blue Do
will is
a
always
live. metal.
to
Uor
wAtaX
sied
precious
Le bleu
vous
is becoming
you
you.
Aimez-votis
le
caf^
une
like
is
a
coffee
?
season.
Le printemps
est
Spring
beautiful
Les
enfants
inches
ne
aiment donnent
jouer.
pas
tou-
Children
Rich give.
like to play.
people
do
not
Les
always
jours,
[196.]
Names
of
languages
article
after
require
en, or
(a)
when Ex.
le when
treated
as
as
nouns
; but
(b)no
ex. (cf.
treated
adverbs
SiiteT parler
under
b.
below).
a.
"
apprend
le fran^ais, le frangais f
bien
un
He
learns
you
French.
French
SaveZ'Vous
Do
He
know
? well.
II parle
le
peu
frangais.
le frangais.
speaks
French
a
Je parle
I speak
French
little.
b.
parle
fran"pxs.
He
speaks
manner
French of the
the
:
cf
Lat.
cela
en
latine
loquitur).
think
Dites
frangais.
en
Say
pour
that speak
in French.
faut
parler
penser
frangais
To
French
we
must
frangais.
Exercise
in French.
II.
197,198.]
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
119
Use
of
the
Indefinite
Article.
197-
The It
indefinite
is to
article
is used, however,
on
the
whole,
as
in
English.
be
observed,
an
that
before
abstract
nouns
determined in French
parti
mature
"
by
even
un
adjective, un
if omitted
mUr
examen
(une)
English Take
is generally
expres
in
'
Ne (e.g.
decision
prenez
voire
qu'apr^s
your
only
after
consideration
With
tout,
un
').
tout
un
*
Note.
About
follows:
monde
whole
world.'
the
omission
of the
indefinite
article
in French,
of. 203
etc.
Use
of
the
Partitive
Sign
(cf.43).
de
198.
The
and
Dependent
Partitive
Sign
is used
after in
44.
nouns
adverbs
by
'
of quantity
the
as (size etc.),
described the
It is followed
'
article
(du, de
no
la,
des) after
adverb
noun
bien
much,
many
after
(provided
in
adjective precedes
(laplupart,
when it.
"
the
limited) ;
superlative
and,
as
expressions
le plus
noun
grand
nombre^
; etc.)
also
English,
following
I have
the
limited
is determined
by
other
words
Ex.
J'ai
acJieti
une
quantity
de
bought
quantity
of
livres.
books.
curieux
Une
foule de
le
sui-
crowd
of
curious
people
followed
vaient
him.
un
Donnez-moi
pain,
morceau
de
Give
me
piece
of bread.
heaucoup
assez
de
livres,
I have
bought
not
many
books.
enough.
de fleurs,
a
I have
flowers
man
Ce
jeune
homme que
plus
de
This
young
has
than
more
ac
connaissances
d^amis.
liwes. gens. nombre
quaintances
I have
friends. books.
Tai
But
achetS
Bien
bien
des
bought
brave
many
de braves
un
Many
He
people.
a
II connalt
grand
great of Esop.
number
of
des
fables d^Esope,
120
SYNTAX.
[1^8,199.
of quantity
autant
are:
'as
assez
Note in
1.
"
The
most
common
adverbs
(never, as
as
English,
placed
after
its
noun)
'much,
'
'enough/
many'
much,
many,'
beaucoup 'how
trop
'
'much,
many/
moins
too
bien
(requiring
tant
'so
def.
art.), comhien
so
much?'
too
'less/ joeu
many/
much,
many,'
'
'
much,
trop peu
too
little, too
few,*
la
plupart
most
De
is
sort
of
pseudo-partitive
or
connecting
preceding
of
number,
a
quantity,
measure
(negatives
e.g.
'
and
indefinites
inclusive) with
tu"s
'
following
soldiers
predicative killed
'
determinant:
un
mille soldats
one
de
'
thousand
; pas
'
de
debarqu" bon
'
not
landed
'
quelque
chose
de
bon
'
something
?
*
good is there
rien
de
nothing
enough
'
good
?
am
'
; y a-t-il
personne
'not
so
d'assez
soon.'
imprudent So
any
like
one
:
unwise
pas
de
sitot
also in expressions
suis-je
'who
de trop?
is the
I too
many?'
or
de
C"sar
ou
de Napole'onf
greater
C.
N.?'
199.
Article by
nouns
noun a
:
The
Independent
"
Partitive
partitive
Sign sign,
(or
unless
or
Partitive
45).
nouns
The de
independent
excluded
preceding and
(46), is
of
used
in
before
the
abstract
and
collective
before
the any
material
when
an nouns
singular,
portion
in
the
plural,
by
undefined
of
entire
thing
designated partitive
the
these
as
is contemplated. described
This
a.
sign,
already
(45),is
a
de
alone;
when
partitive
a
noun
is determined
by
preceding
the
tive; adject.e.
and
noun
preceding
negation
or
affects of
partitive
noun,
rather
the
noun
verb
modifier unmodified
that
generally
when
is the
accusative
object
of
negative
de with
verb.
Examples
:
the
article
de alone
du
courage.
He
has
II
n'a
point
de
courage.
He
courage.
has
vin.
no^'courage.
J'ai
du
I have
(some)
de Peau
red
JTai
de
hon
vin,
I have
(some)
wine.
good
vin
wine.
belles
J^ai
du
rouge
I
et
T aide
jieursetd^excellents
have
fratche.
wine and
have
some
fruits,
flowers
(some)
de livres.
fine
fresh
yater.
and
n^ai
excellent
pas
fruit. No,
AveZ'Vous
you
some
des
livresf
Have
Non, ?
je
(or any)
books
I have
no'^books.
199.]
ARTICLES
AND
PARtlTIVB
SIGN.
121
Dans
cette
montagne
cuivre
et
il y
du
II
s'expose d
d, de
graves
erreurs^
en
fer^ du
There
de
Por.
and
d'^tranges
ainsi.
m4comptes^
He
is iron,
copper,
jugeant
to
is
liable
gold
in this
mountain.
make
serious
errors,
mistakes, in
strange
judging
thus.
Je
neferaipas
indiscr^tes
des
remarques
Je I
remarks
ne
ferai
pas
de
shall
remarques
Id-dessus.
Id'dessus.
I
on
make
?io'"
shall
not
make
on
heedless
remarks
the
subject.
the
subject
will
(though
be
some
remarks
made).
pas
Je
n^ai
des
sentiments
not
si
Cet
homme
n^a
gu^re
man
de
ments. senti-
bas.
I have
such
base
This
hardly
feelings.
donnez
has
any rtCa
du
feelings.
Ne
jamais des
conseils de suivre,
II
ne
jamais
tout.
donn4
He
de
conseils
quHl
soit dangereiLx
has
at
never
Never may
give
advice
which
it
given
me
any
advice
all.
be dangerous
n'ama^se
to follow.
L'avare
que
des
The
trSsors
miser for himself
Le
prodigue
n^accumvle
jamais
pour
lui.
treasures
de ricJiesses.
never
amasses
The
spendthrift
heaps
up
alone.
riches.
Ceci n^est
cuivre.
pas
de Por^
c'est
du
contredit ion.
sans
avoir
d'opinwithout
This
is^'not
gold,
He
contradicts
it is copper.
Note
1.
"
having
the partitive
in
*
any^opinion.
a
If
noun or
forms
with
preceding definite
adjective
article.
sons
*
"
compound,
a
whether He petits-Jils
form
has
idea,
'
it takes
the
Ex.
//
des
(but
de
petits
Jils
little
'). II
montr"
du
bon
sens
He
has
sense.'
De
la bonne
foi
honesty.'
Des
jeunes gens
In popular the
2. rather
"
'young
people.'
style,
noun
du,
de
la, des
bon
are
freely
used biere,
whenever
an
adjective
article
precedes Note
(e.g.du
vin, de la bonne
etc.).
de
a
In
an
negative-interrogative
appeal with
sentences,
with real
the
note de-
implied
affirmation
than
question,
which
122
SYNTAX.
[199-201.
de
?
is expressed
hy
de alone.
*
"
Ex. you
N^avez
not
*
vous
pas
la sant", What
1
*
des
more
amis do
que
vousfaut-il
need
?
de
plus ?
vous
Have
health,
friends
no
you
N^avez
3.
*
"
pas
an
d'argent f
use
Have
you
money sign,
Note
to
By
extended
of the
the
partitive
it sometimes
partitive
or an
serves
denote
the
character
of/ and
rendered
like ; and
an
the
whole
noun
sion expres"
is then
Ex.
often
best
by
abstract
adjective.
it became
tout
Quand
il
to
afallu
show
montrer
de /'hommef
they
Us
se
sont
sauv"s
est
'When
necessary
*
manliness,
fled.'
Ce
latin
du
Cic^ron
pur
This
is pure
Ciceronian
Latin/
sometimes
verge
on
Similar
constructions
being
pure
genitives
of
acteris char-
[200.]
construed
If in
as
partitive
expression it is used
be by
an
adjective
but
is used
as
noun,
it is
such.
as
If
alone,
noun
with
were
the
noun
understood, unless,
the indeed, is
it is construed
it would
if the
expressed,
case
a
that
noun
be
represented by
are
the
"
particle
en,
in which
adjective
riches
du
et et
always
preceded
*
de alone. rich
and
Ex.
poor
Dans
people
cette
ville il y
town.'
a
des
J*ai
vin,
des
pauvres
et
*
There 'I
in this
vin
Uanc
du
rouge
has good
have
wine,
et
white
wine
and
red.*
//
de
bon
d'adultM
en a
He
and
adulterated.'
Ces
Jleurs
sont
belles ; il y beautiful;
de
are
rougeSt
red,
some
de
jaunes
are
de
and
blanches
some
These
flowers
are
some
yellow
white.'
[201.]
de
It
has
already
been
are
noted
(46)
that by
the
a
partitive
and
the
following
with,
article by
both
excluded
preceding
de
of, from,
').
"
Ex.
Varaignie
viCde
mouches
The
spider
lives
on
flies.
(not ^de
Je
parle^de
bons
des'^mondhes).
bons
livres
eCde
I speak
of good
books
and
good
amis.
friends.
On
le combloTde
bienfaits.
He
was
overwhelmed
with
nesses. kind-
Aucun
mortel
n^est
exempt
de
No
mortal
is free
from
faults.
d4fants,
II
a a
besoiifCd^ argent.
He
is in need
of money.
II
soif^de
un
sang.
marbre.
Exercise
He
is blood-thirsty.
a
Voild
Palais'^ de
Behold,
III.
marble
palace.
202,203.]
ARTICLES
AND
PARTITIVE
SIGN.
123
Repetition
op
Articles
and
and
Partitive
must
Sign. be
202.
The each
every
articles
noun
the
partitive
sign
a
repeated
before
or
adjective
"
denoting
different
object^and
before
superlative.
Cf
Repeated:
Not
Repeated:
ou
Le
gargon
et
Phomme,
man.
The
La
Gatde
France
France.
Gaul
or
boy
and
the
et
(synonymous).
et
Les
grands
great
hs
and
petits
4tats.
Les
grands
great
puissants
itats.
states.
The
states.
Ex.
the
small
The
and
powerful
for superlatives,
under
229.
Omission
of
Articles.
203.
The
articles
(the
partitive
included)
are
omitted
in
numerous
phrases,
or
corresponding peculiar
to
to similarly
construed
phrases
in English,
This
wholly
occurs
French.
:
"
omission the
noun
especially
a
a.
in certain verb,
as
set expressions
in avoir
where
forms
phrase
with
the
faim
feel hungry
'
etc.)
with
a
be
reference
weather), or
A
preposition,'
etc.
"
in d cheval
when the
or
'on
horseback,'
dessein
'
on
purpose,'
what
a
b.
or
noun
explains what
predicatively
a
person
"
is
is made,
apposinouns,
tively
where
thing
no
or
person
is ;
c.
before
used.
suocessive
in English
article
would
be
(For
details
see
below,
204)
faim
"
Ex.
a.
J'ai
(soifyckaudyfroid), I
am
hungry
"
(thirsty,warm,
*
cold);
etc.
lit,
I have
hunger
'
i/'a* mal
d (a
tiie
(aux
yeux^
I have
sore
headache
"
(soreeyes,
lit, 'I
auhras).
arm);
in
'
have
pain
etc.
1 24
SYNTAX.
[203, 204.
It is fine weather
II
fait
beau
temps
(froid^
(cold,warm)
chaud) aujourd^hui.
attention.
to-day.
Pay
Faites
attention.
care
Prenez
garde
quHl
ne
tombe.
Take
He He
he
does
not
fall.
II est d cheval. II V
a
is
on
horseback. done
it
on
fait
d (tessein.
has
purpose.
b.
H n
est
Francais.
"
He
He
is
was
Frenchman.
made minister.
Nou^
Athalie^
tragedie
We
are
reading by
Athalie,
trade
Marine.
c.
gedy
Racine.
Csperancey
ce
courage
nous
dest tout
,
Hope, need. He
courage,
that
is all
we
quHl
faut
ni mire.
II
n^a
ni pdre
has mother.
neither
father
nor
Nothing
short with
of extensive practice
as
observation
of
can
make
the student
The
familiar
the
omitting
are,
articles.
however,
details
of the
Articles
many
rule,
are
stated
:
above,
given
chief below
[204.]
A. In
omitted
set
phrases abstract
*
and
nouns
brief
or
elliptical
by
*
ezpressions,
as
:
*
1. Before
'
certain avoir
governed soin
avoir
(avoirfaim
avoir
etc.
*
hungry mind,
etc.,
raison
so
*
be
right/ avoir
take *pay
care,'
envie
hare
desire,'
and
on),
fat're
(Jaire attention
etc.),prendre
'BC"Te/faire
prendre
piti^
*
arouse
pity,'
patience gr^es
'return
have
patience,*
etc.)
,
rendre
some
(rendre justice
other
verbs.
do
justice,
rendre
2.
thanks,*
or
etc.),and
qualifying
In
many
descriptive
OKec,
*
phrases
consisting
:
'
of
preposition
*on
(especially",
a
*
de,
en,
sans,
a
par)
de
year,
and
noun
e.g.
cheval
back,* horseavec
dessein
with
on
purpose,'
en
pretentions
cceur
"
(a man)
as a
sans
with
pretentions/
man,'
sans
plaisir
*
pleasure,'
an
homme
the
courageous
mot
peur
without
fear/ par
condensed
*by
year/
as
dire 'without
of
books,
word.*
3. In
phrases proverbial
generally,
expressions,
*
in
:
titles
addresses,
*
advertisements,
'
etc.
e.g.
chapitre
'
second
; Maison
'
second
a
chapter
*
Contes
'
d*un grand-pere
; //
*
Tales
*
of He
grand-father
lives
on
louer
House
for
rent
loge
rue
Richelieu
is better
R.
street
Contente-
ment
passe
richesse
Contentment
than
riches.'
204,205.]
B.
1.
NOUNS.
125
Often
Before
or
before
a
predicate
noun
or
appositioiial
in
a
noun,
viz. way
predicate
qualifying
what
general
personal
subject
object,
noun
designating
it is, becomes,
looks
like
c'e"^,
(i.e. after
ce
etre,
devenir;
the
paraitre^ by
other
'
etc.),
words.
are
but
"
never
after
sont,
*
or
when
Ex.
II
est
Am^rlcain
He
is
est
an
American.'
*
lis
brother of
sont
anglais
a
They
English(men).'
devint
d*konneur
died
But
are
a
Son
frere
*
m"decin
His
is
physician.'
David
homme
'He
"
roi
*
d^IsraSl
Darid him
vent
se
became
man
king
Israel.'
Je le r"p\Uais
mounU
I considered
of
honor.'
*
II
wishes
sont
chr^ien
soldier.'
Christian.'
un
//
*
faire soldat
des
to
He
to
turn
C^est
Am^ricain
It is
an
American.'
Ce
marchands
the
des
qui
Anglais
a
*They
Englishmen.' gentlemen
are
Ces
messieurs
sont
vont sont
la
foire
*
"
These
merchants
going
2.
fair'
an
(but
marchands
noun,
are
merchants.').
used simply
poete
to
Before
out
appositional
may
not
:
when
"
describe
*
or
a
point
what poet.'
or
*
be
known.
^
Ex. poete
Horace^
*
cdehre
H.,
celebrated
poet'
But
H.,
Horace
poet
le cdebre
H.,
brated cele-
the
(as distinguished
in
nif
a.'
from
painter).'
or
3.
Before
or or
nouns
enumerated by
aana,
'never
rapid
succession,
the
used
ically, antithetalso
tons
preceded
by
soit, when
"
article
is omitted
in
English,
"
jamais
Ex. nuit,
"
Soldats^
II
soit
est
citoyens, officiers,
argent.
le
ne
suivirent,
(Eil pour
et
sans
La
nature
fait ni
princes roi
ni seigneurs. aim^.
paresse,
il Jaiblesse,
n*apprend
rien.
"
Jamais
nefut plus
Exercise
IV.
XII.
iroTiErs.
HISTORY.
the
use
[205.
the
"
As
the
Latin
to denote
case-forms
gradually
disappeared
of the forms
that
noun
in
French,
of prepositions
became of
the
more
all individual
in
sentence
and
more
frequent,
It
may
an
important
use
part
French
Syntax.
be
noticed
here that
et
the
to
mer-
actual
of
the
prepositions
in several
:
instances
varies
from
adhered
even
in
17th
century
; Se
e.g.
La
foi du
(for aw)
une
Messie
douce
de
ses
veiUes
Je
me
(Bossuet)
laissais
a
laisser
a
esp^rance
; Et
(id.) ;
le peuple
siduire
(for par)
Ve'gard
aimable
tyrans
guide
(Racine)
in"gal
freedom
rendroit
of choice
des
(for a
des)
(Comeille).
Even
yet
some
is in this respect
allowed.]
126
SYNTAX.
[206-208.
As in
206.
noun c.
Nouns
has
no
without
Preposition.
when
"
the
preposition,
it is
direct
the
with Le
sometimes
it is used The
adverbially.
comes.
Ex.
a.
phre
mon
vient.
father
b.
C'est
Je
H
phre.
son
It is my
I
see
father.
c.
vois
phne,
ce
ce
his
father.
come
d.
viendra vendu
soir.
cheval cinq
He
He
will has
this this
evening. horse
to
me
Tl trCa
cents
sold
francs.
for 500
francs.
And
of. 184-5.
The predicate
or noun
207.
may
the of
refer
either
a.
to
the
subject
(subjectcomplement),
latter
occurs
b. to verbs
object (objectcomplement).
making,
The
after the
electing
or
declaring,
considering,
and
like.
It is my He
bons
a.
C'est
mon
p'bre.
II est n4 pohte.
is
Nous
noiLS
quittdmes
We
parted
amis.
b.
Onlejit genSra/.
Le
roi Va
m
He
was
made has
general.
nomm^i
mi nisi
re*
The
king
appointed
him
to
be
Le s4nat
de
minister.
declared enemy. him
le dSclara
ennemi
The
senate
him
his
la patrie,
mon
country's
Je
Note.
Vestime
"
ami.
of making,
word.
"
I consider
declaring,
Ex.
(tobe) my
or
comme
friend.
is often
*
After
the
verbs
predicate
etc., pour
used
before
him
as
lis le choisirent
pour
g"n"ral
*
They
chose
for
general.'
Jt
le consid^rais
(comme)
mon
ami
considered
him
friend
of mine.'
208.
Transitive these
are
verbs
admit
two
or
more
direct
objects
Indirect
can
never
when
coordinated. governed
Otherwise
by
'to'
*
only
one.
preposition,
in
which
"
sometimes
mon
English).
my
my
Ex. child
enseigne
la
enfant
mon
'
He
teaches
geography.'
Je donne
1$ livre d
ami
I give
friend
the
book.'
208,
209.]
1.
NOUNS.
127
Note
"
Faire
forms
a
with
following
personal
infinitive
causative is
no
verb-phrase
direct
an
requiring
direct
le
object, if
him lire le livre;
there
other
object {Je
i.e.
^
fais
lire
'
I make
read Je
^
');
otherwise
indirect,
d /'enfant
the
dat.
faiflire
make
the
le livre
make
"
read
laisser
the
book
'
child
read
book').
"
Also
Ex.
and
verbs
of
perception
may
be
so
construed.
Je le ferai venir.
ce
Je ferai venir
I shall make
him
come.
I shall
gargon,
ce ce
make
remade; remMe
this
boy him
come.
I shall make
take make
ferais
prendre
; I shall
child
et I'enfanf.
take
Faites
Faites-le
sa
r4pSter;
r4p4ter
Make boy
this
legon
ce
gargon.
ont
lesson. caused
most
Les
aux
FranQais
autre
fait
adopter
The
French
other of their
peuples
la plupart
people
customs.
to adopt
de
leurs
usages.
voir
mes
J'ai
I have
shown
my
books
to these
livres
enfants.
que
children.
verser
Les
larmes
fai
d
vu
The
tears
I have
seen
this
me.
girl
d cette
Jillem^on
dire
toucM.
shed
I
have heard he
touched
my
come.
J^ai
mon
entendu
(or par)
have that
brother
say
frhre quHl
2.
"
viendra.
in phrases
will
Note
the
Observe
position
of
both
object-pronouns
before
faire.
Exercise
V.
209a noun
Nouns
not
with
Preposition.
in
"
Since
all
relations
must
of
described
aid
the
preceding
the
(206-8)
right
use
be
is,
expressed
course,
by
the
of prepositions, A
of
these
of
of much
importance.
use
"
brief
account
of the
principal and
laws aid
for that
of
a
to
be
"
supplemented
is given
by
below.
observation
the
good
dictionary
128
SYNTAX.
[210, 211.
this is
noun
210.
De.
"
The
original
its later
meaning
uses.
of
It
preposition
with the
'from/
"
whence
a. an
all
forms
either:
attributive
another
noun,
phrase
or
(denoting possession,
portion),or
origin,
"
q^icdity,
hind,
name
of
b.
cause,
an
adverbial
phrase
(denoting place
corresponds
or
time
to
whence,
means,
etc.)
's
or
It generally
the
or
English
possessive
ending
the
preposition
action,
cf.
'by'
when
than
especially
par:
215)."
a.
Le
livre de
laJiUe,
ma
The
My
La
bont4
de
m^re,
kindness
(The
kindness
of my
Paris.
on
mother).
Une
table d^ acajou.
ville de
table
city
of mahogany.
La
Paris,
The The
of
Le
voyage
du
Bhin.
journey
dozen
the
Rhine
(Rhine journey).
douzaine
Une
d^oefs.
eggs.
b.
II vient
de
du
Paris.
quinzi^me
est
He si^cle.
bon.
comes
from from
iron died
the
Paris.
15th century.
Un
Le
livre
book
fer de SuMe
Swedish
He has
is good
(192, b).
It est mort II
est
de faim.
bien
aise
o/
glad
hunger.
de
votre
He
is very
o/your
by by
a
arrival
arriv4e.
II est respect^
de tons,
un
He chien.
is respected
was
everybody.
[But
II
fut trouv4par
He
found
dog.]
[211.]
*
De
*
is often
or
used
'
where
or no
English
requires
at
some
other
.
preposition it is
than
of/
from/
by/
preposition
those
all.
Thus
used
has
'
"
a.
Where,
account
in relations
*
similar
'
to
described
etc.
"
above,
a
English sign
for
(on
c.
about/
'
b. As
nam^s
partitive
(34-37).
kind.
"
To
express
by
how
much
before
of measure
of an^
211. T
NOUNS.
129
or
age
; and
before
the
name
of
musical
*in.'
"
instrument
e.
after
jouer
of
ou.
play.'
ison compar"
"
d.
After
that
superlatives
for
English
Often
are
before
terms
follow
servir,
an
interrogative
verb
"
and
connected
abuseTf
by
f. For
as
after
trailer ,
also
qualifier.
approcher
son
g.
After
proche
and
approcher
names
(or
s'approcher,
but
without
de, especially
before
of
(when
abstract
verbs
se
jouir,juger, redoubler omitted), 'use' (user 'wear/ without and noun), user (fe),
are
*
etc. is
decider,
reflexive
'
that
rendered
as
se
transitives
'
in
English
etc.
"
e.g.
s*apercevoir
perceive/
de
d^r
distrust/
douter
suspect/
Ex.
a.
Je le punis
safaute.
de lassitude.
I punish
him
/or
his fault.
more
Je
n'en
puis
plus
can
do
nothing
ybr (on
account
of)
II ^ait
arm^
weariness. armed
d^un de
fusil. hienfaits.
He
was
with
gun.
me
II
m*a
comU"
He
has
overwhelmed
with
nesses. kind-
foi.
vous
He That
acts
in good
on
faith.
you.
de
depends
(Lat.
J'ai
de-pendere
*ha.ng
from *).
I have
some
b. J'ai
du pain.
heaucoup
est
or
bread.
d^ argent.
haul
I have
much
money.
c.
Ce clocher
pieds
;
de
deux
cents
This
a
steeple
is two
hundred
feet high.
Ce
clocher
hauteur
deux de
cents
pieds
de
(or
plus
haut).
que
Vous
etes
grand
moi
de
Tou
are
two
inches
taller
than
I.
deux
pouces.
II est ag" Le
prix
de de
trots
ce
ans.
He
is three
years
livre
estde
cinq
The
price
of this book
dollars.
Ma
montre
avance
(retardedde
My
watch
is four
minutes
fast
(slow).
quatre
minutes.
tPai
un
dollar
de trop.
I have
one
dollar
too
as
much.
Iljoue
213,
d.
du
violon
(cf.au
belle
hillard
He
plays
violin.
(on,
if
*from')
the
a).
la plus
Elle
est
fillede
la
She
is the
city.
ville.
e.
grand
homme,
ou
Who
was
the
greatest
or
man,
der, Alexan?
de
C"sar
de
Caesar
Napoleon
Napd^on
130
SYNTAX.
[211-213.
He
f. //
me
servira
de guide,
shall
serve
me
as
as
guide. prince.
Je
I treated
I treated
him him
(called him)
a
[Je
// g.
prine.
like
the
prince.]
city.
de (^s')approcha
la ville
He
approached
(JI
II
a
approcha
la
ville),
He
change
d^ opinion. d^habits.
has
must
Ilfaut
Je II Je
changer
sa
We
I He
jouis de
redouhla
me
faveur.
efforts.
du
piege
que
enjoy
(her)
d^
redoubled
his efforts.
auis
apergu
perceived
for
me.
the
snare
they
had
laid
Von
Je
me
m'avait
tendu.
doutais
de
sa
trahison.
suspectefl his
treason.
212.
^
Jl.
"
The
principal
its other
meaning
uses.
of
It
the forms
preposition
with
d, is
noun
to/
or
:
'
at/
"
whence the
the
either
b.
an
a.
indirect
(personal or
(denoting
personified)object or
position,
to
'
"
adverbial
phrase
direction,
aim,
pose^ pur-
addition^'^tQ,).
'
Generally
'
it corresponds
to
'
the
English
fo/
till,^' at,'
names
or
'
in
when
equivalent
etc.
at
(i.e. generally
before
of cities, towns,
"
Ex.
a.
Je
donnerai
soeur.
ce
livre
ma
shall
sister.
give
this
book
to
my
II
promts de
sa
m^re
de
He
has
to
promised his
mother
changer
II est enclin
conduite,
change
it Vivrognerie,
He
is inclined
to drunkenness.
b.
II ira demain
II est
a
a
Pans.
la
au
He He
is going
to Paris
to-morrow.
Paris
(a
maison).
pouvoir,
a
is in Paris
man
(at home).
to power.
Get homme
II
sait
aspire
This
la
aspires
how
wiOi
oilier
la
douceur
He
knows gentleness
to
combine
gravitS.
dignity.
[213.]
'
A
*
is often
or
used
where
at
English
requires
other
prepositions
than
to/
'
at/
in/
no
preposition
all.
Thus
"
a.
In
descriptive
phrae^n
213,
214.]
manner
or
NOUNS.
131
denoting
instrument, 'pain/
"
purpose
c.
or
(with le)
etre
a
*
ingredient,
to.'
"
etc.
"
b. After
ma/
a
denoting
noun
In
the
phrase after
belong
verbs
d. To
if be
form
with
the
a
indirect
object
noon
or
certain
which,
resolved followed
*
into
verb
to,' or
*
=
and
which
adjective,
usually take
;
a
would
dative
*
naturally
by
in Latin
object (e.g.
harm
; or
' =
conseiller harm,'
meaning
advise
give
advice,'
renoncer
promettrey
,
r"pondre
nuire
do
ressemhler
tlie
whose'
separation
of
something
indirect
object
^chopper of
(acheter,arracher,
"
^outirer,emprunter^
in
certain
uses,
demander^
de
instead
all except
e.
demander
note
allowing,
a).
"
Cf. 186,
a
1.
Ex.
a.
II
vient
cheval.
voix,
He
He He
comes
on
horseback.
a "
II parle
II peche II
h haute
speaks
in with
loud Une
voice.
d la ligne.
au
fishes plays
(angles).
joue
211,
hiliard
(cf
.
du
violon
He
billiards.
//
c). Vafait h
homme
chambre
dessein.
He
has
man
done
with
it
on
purpose. hair.
Un Une
h cheveux
a
hlancs.
A
A A
white
coucher.
bedroom. steam-engine.
soup.
the
line machine De
b. J*ai
h vapeur.
au
la soupe
mal mal
lait.
tete.
Milk
I have He This
I
am
h la
aux
headache.
II
d.
e.
dents.
moi,
mere.
has
toothache. belongs
to
me.
Ce livre
Je pense
J*oh"irai
est a
a
book
ma
thinking
obey
of my
your
mother.
vos
conseils.
son
I shall
He
has
advice.
II
promis
pere
de changer
promised
his father
to
change
de condmte.
J*ai
his conduct.
achetif
ce
livre d
mon
frere.
have
brother.
bought
this
book
of
my
N*arrachez
mere.
pas
cet
en/ant
francs
a
sa
Do
not
tear
this child
from
its mother.
J*ai
emprunt"
mille
mon
I have
borrowed
1000
francs
/row
my
ami.
friend.
214by
or
Dans^
en
noun
^in,
into/
noun
etc.
"
Dans,
being by
an
always
followed
defined
a (i.e.
preceded
more
noun,
article, pronoun,
than
often
en,
numeral)
denotes
by
a
location defined
definitely
and
whicb
is
rarely followed
which
introduces
132
SYNTAX.
[214.
form,
an
adverbial
phrase
of
of
manner,
means,
etc.
"
'In
the
year
(or month)
Is
is usually
expressed
Le
by
en,
Ex.
II est dans He is in
hU wheat
est
en
magoMn.
The
is stored. de guerre.
Dans
the
la
demise
war.
"/i temps
war.
In
time
of
last
Lea
mer.
poissons
vivent
dans
in
la
the
Les
vaisseaux
sont
are
en
pleine
sea.
mer.
Fishes
live
The
ships
in open
ocean.
II demeure
dans
rAllemagrie
He
demeure
en
Allemagne.
He
mMdionale.
lives
in
lives
in Germany.
Southern Phiver
Germany
de 1880.
192). (cf.
In
Dans
the
En
4t4;
en
juin.
In
summer;
winter
of 1880.
in June.
au
(But, by
^
exception,
printemps
en
In
spring.')
il agit
en
est
dans
una
situation
dangeous danger-
n'agit pas
Jionn^te
act
secret^
reuse.
He
is in
homme.
secret,
man.
He he
acts
does
not
an
situation.
in
like
honest
Dans
this
(or en)
moment.
ce
moment.
At
En
mil
huit
cent
quinze.
In
1815.
Note
*
1.
a
"
With
'
reference
to
to
location,
'
cfans
en
in
'
points
directly
situation
to
or
the
inside,
"
in, at
simply
the
wherCf
*
and
he
to
general
'
condition
Cf.
; il
est
il est dans
au
le magasin
*
is in
the
or
*
store at
inside (i.e.
it
*
some-
where)
the
the
'
magasin
en
he
is in the
*
store/
la
the
store/
Dans
;
en
or
near
'
'
store
a
; le bU
est
magasin
town
'
the
wheat
to
a
is stored.'
la
ville
in
city/
=
la
ville 'in
.
(as
opposed
campagne)
means
*
gone
out)
2.
'
"
Note
en
With
in the
reference
'
to
time, they
dans
are
in
by
the without
end
of,'
and
in
course
of
; but
sometioies
used
much
distinction.
"
Ex.
Je pars
dans
le
deux
I leave
I haye A week
in two crossed
hours
over
(from now).
in two
Tax
fait
trajeten
hours.
D*aujourd*huien
huit
(en quinze).
(A fortnight)hence.
215.
or
Par
units
passive
an
'through, of
time
;
by,
or,
per.'
"
This
preposition
with
refers
de^ to
to
motion,
or
tion, duramotive.
interchangeably
manner
After
verbs,
it is used,
or
instead
of
"
de,
Ex.
especially
when
the
verb
expresses
external la ville.
physical
action.
He
//
pass^par
id
has
passed
through
the
city.
Venezpar
a
(par la).
semaine.
Come She
He
ou
this
gets has
way
(that way).
dollars
it for
a
EUe
trois
dollars par
crainte.
three
week.
//
I'afaitpar
a
done
fear.
that
//
obtenu
cela par
force
par
He
has skill.
obtained
by
force
or
adresse,
maltrait"
est
Ilfut
par
les scldats.
He
was
maltreated
is
by
by
the the
soldiers.
waters
L*"gypte
Nil,
haign"e
par
les
eaux
du
Egypt
watered
of
the
Nile.
was
L*Am"iquefut
tophe
difcouverte par
Chris-
America
discovered
by
Chris-
Cdomb.
topher
Columbus.
216.
With
here
:
regard
to
the
remaining
prepositions
it will be
sufficient to
notice
a.
Of
those
which
to
denote
time
or
position place,
and
avant
refers
others
almost
exclusively
to
time
alone,
aprhs
the
place
b.
c.
with
among,
in company
at
*
with.*
'
with,
the
our
house
house
of
'
often
or
*
refers
'
to
;
one's
home
or
country
(e.g. chez
the
nous
at
with
us
chez
les Bomains
'among d.
Romans,' usually
to
etc.).
refers
several
to
Entre
two
objects (or
to
several
when
mutuality
is
expressed), parmi
e.
objects.
without Implied
tracers
denotes
'through'
implied
resistance.
resistance,
but
au
tracers
de,
'through'
with
an
This
distinction
is
obsolescent. f. Vers
expresses
physical,
but
envers
moral
direction
or
relation.
217.
Repetition
before
; but
as
of
Prepositions."/?",
noun
a,
and
en
must
be
repeated determine
each
whose
relation
in
the
sentence
they
the
other
"
prepositions
Ex.
may
be
repeated
or
omitted
mountt
much
convert
in English.
de
gloire
et
He
died
wounds.
covered
with
glory
and
de blessures,
134
SYNTAX.
[217-219.
owed
and conqueror.
n
a
dtU la
la
vie
la cUmence
du
et
He
his
life to
the
magnaiiimM
vain-
magnanimity
queur.
C^est
en
un
excellent
en
travailleur
et en et
or.
He
is
an
worker
gold.
in
cuivre,
argent
les
ruses
copper,
He
was
II
p6ri
par
les
by
the
strategy
de artifices
ses
ennemis,
and
de
ses
enemies.
the
11
p4ri
par
la haine
He of
perished his
hatred
ennemis
ses
et par
la IdcheU
de
enemies
of his
the
cowardice
amis.
Exercise
VI.
friends.
XIII.
ADJE0TIVE8.
[218.
not
HISTORY.
altogether
"
The
same
construction
two
of
adjectives, like
ago that
that
of
Thus,
nouns,
was
the
centuries
it is
now.
they
nouns
were
then
generally
nu
made
agreed
to
agree
with
the
last
only
of
several
note
feu
and
always
with
the
took
noun a
(cf.219
2);
the the
the
one
complement
of
an
adjective
position
now
:
often
preposition
from
to
now
required;
much
the
than
of
and
the
so
adjective
reference
noun
was
freer
on.]
of
Agreement
Adjectives.
one
219.
Adjectives
and
qualifying
word
agree
with
it
in
gender
number.
The The
et
Le
bon
garqon.
good
boy.
girls.
Les
bonnes
garQon
fides,
est
good boy
also
Le
bon
les
files
The
are
is good, good.
and
the
girls
sant
aussi
bonnes,
Je
suis
bon
to
(or bonne
gender
ing accord-
am
good.
the
oije).
or
Vous
ites
bon
(or bonne,
:
You
are
good.
bons,
bonnes
100,
note
2).
219,
220.]
bas
ADJECTIVES.
lS5
Des
de so/e
de
soie
blanche.
Stockings
of
white
silk.
Des
bas
blancs
White
silk-s tockings.
220.
word they
are
Adjectives
treated
or
qualifying
in
English
by
more
as
than
in
one
somewhat
differently
words.
according
French
precede
follow
those
1. If they before
precede
agreeing
et la
the
with
words
they
qualify,
and
they
are
repeated
Ex.
each,
it in gender
number.
"
Le
bon gargoii
2.
bonne
file.
the
The
good
boy
and
as
girl.
If
they
follow
are
nouns
(whether
the
attributes
:
or
subject
denoting
in
to
following
rules
qualifying
nouns
connected
by
ei
(or by
with
ow,
if
et)and
being
distinct plural.
differ,
noun
agree objects,
them
all collectively,
nouns
the these
masc.
Their
the
gender
is that is
in
of the
the
qualified.
If
adjective
is placed
feminine of the
masculine its
(and
then
the
usually distinct
nearest
latter
has
form).
preceding
logically
by
one
ou
*
only
or,'
or
one
words
or
(thesebeing
emphasis,
in gender
to.
:
"
separated
being
placed
synonymous),
in
gradation, words of the
by
the
last
of
nouns
agree
and
number
with
the
nearest
one
referred Examples
a.
Lep^re
et la m^re
sont
bans.
The
father
and
the
mother
are
good.
la langue
et la litt^ra-
J'^tudie
ture
study
the
French
language
franfa/ses.
et
un
and
courage
et
une
literature.
prudence
Une
prudence
An
astonishing
courage.
and
than (better
Un
c.
p.)
ou
Stonnanis.
Us
86
nourissent
de
chair
They
live
on
raw
flesh
ou
="
or
fish
de
poisson
crua.
on (i.e.
both,
et).
136
SYNTAX.
[^26.
b.
Un
courage
etonnante
.
ou
une
pTvdence
An
astonishing
courage.
prudence
or
On
un
ne
sait
pas
ou
encore
une
si
c'est
It
is not
man or
yet
woman
known
if it is
homme
femme
drowned.
noyee.
vie
une
Sa
n^est
qu!un
travail
et
;
His
life is but
continual
labor,
occupation
continuelle
continual
occupation.
etc.]
The
sword,
fer^
le bandeau^
la
flamme
.
the bandage,
the
fire
est tovie
Note 1.
pr^te
"
(poetic)
like
*
is all ready.
The
Expressions
by
French
et
and
German
or
languages La langue
'
may
be
rendered
either
Les
lanffues
frangaise
allemande,
fran^aist
et
la langue
Note
2.
allemande.
"
Ci-inclua
followed preceded
trouverez
'inclosed,'
by by the the
'
ci-jofnt
definite
article.
"
annexed feu
are
*
invariable, late,'
except
when
when
vous
article ; also
Ex.
defunct,
except
definite
Ci'inclua
contrat.
la copie
du
Inclosed
contract.
you
will
find
copy
of
the
Vous
trouverez
ci-inclus
copie
du
You
will
contract.
find
inclosed
copy
of
the
contrat.
vous
Je
envoie
ci-incluse
la copie
du
I send
'
you
inclosed
the
copy
of
the
contrat.
contract.
Feu
la reine
Note 3.
'
"
(or
An
La
feue
retne).
following
or
The
late
queen.
(like)
agrees
to
with
avoir the
Vair
'have
the
aspect,
look
as
with
"
noun-subject,
according
it
is applicable
the
the
other.
Ex.
This This
Cette peinture
Cette soupe
a
a
Vair gai.
painting
soup looks
looks
as
cheerful.
if it
were
Vair
content
bonne.
good.
Elle
Vair
(or
contente
She
looks
satisfied.
d'etre Note
contente^.
4.
"
Demi
'half/
*
nu
'bare,'
and
the
participial
adjectives
attendu
yu
noun.
'considering,'
seen,'
excepts
'excepted,'
'
passe
inflected
'past,' only
to
suppose'
'supposed,'
their
'
/ compris
the
are noun
inclusive
and
are
nu
when
a
following hyphen
Before
demi
as
are
joined
"
it with
:
(63. B),
the
others
treated
if prepositions.
Compare
220,
221.]
ADJECTIVES.
13?
Uninflectbd
Inflected
Une
demi-Uvre.
et
Une Tete
and
half.
Hu-tHe
nu-pieds.
et
pieds
nua.
Bare
head
and
barefoot.
bare
feet.
Excepte
ladies.
les
dames.
Except
the
Les
dames excepted.
exceptSea.
The
ladies
Aftendu
the
les "v"nemenis.
eyents.
Considering
Des
e'v^ements
attendua.
Expected
events.
Note
"
6.
"
Adjectives
used
as
adverbial 'How
sweet
predicates
these
(166)
flowers
are
invariable.
'
Ex.
Que cesjieurssentent
bon!
smell!
Exercise
VII.
Place
op
Attributive
the
Adjectives.
221.
its
noun,
:
The
place
of
attributive optional,
adjective before or
is yet in the main
more
after
mined deteror
though
a.
largely
by
the
emphasis
of the
adjective;
Thus when which
:
b. by
less
fixed nsage
a.
for certain
adjectives.
the
a noun
The
adjective precedes
by that
noun
or
it attributes
we
to
the
object
it, and white
denoted
quality
naturally
(by
with 'the
'
necessity,
compliment,
as
'
general
understanding) associate
:
which
snow
such
is unemphatic
have
no
e.g. la blanche
; color)
noun
neige
tyran
(itcould
But
other
le cruel
the
cruel
to
tyrant.'
it is placed
after its
noun a
when
it attributes
the
object denoted
to
rose
by
matter
that
of
quality
is
which,
as
not
belonging
e.g.
un
it
as
course, rose'
(so far)
be
emphatic:
red
la homme
blanche
cruel
'a
'the
cruel
white
man.'
(it might
etc.)
a
b.
Some
adjectives by
either before
noun
:
fixed
after
usage
ordinarily
noun,
have
fixed
position,
or
their
viz.
before
their
1. beau^
joli; bon,
gros;
sot;
meiUeur;
"
mauvaiSf
pire; in
a
jeune,
certain
vieux
sense,
(may
as
noun
follow);
2.
some
others
described
122,
list.
after
their
in (chiefly
virtue
of
the
main
rule) :
1. ad-
1S8
SITKTAX.
C221
jectives denoting
title,
catholiquey
or
shape
or
color
those
"
derived
2. past
(may precede), nationality, religi from names f (e.g.rangais^ proper (aim4, etc.);
"
etc.);
participles
"
3.
nouns
used
as
4.
cf. 122,
:
list.
221
The
The
Adjective
before
Adjective
un
after:
Le
vertueux
CcUon,
The
tuous vir-
VoiUi
There
man.
homme
ventueux.
a
Cato.
you
have
virtuous
Un
doux
perfume.
parfum.
sweet
Une
odeur
douce.
sweet
odor.
main
La
puissante
cule.
d'Her-
Une
mmn
puissante.
ful power-
The
mighty
hand
of
hand.
Hercules.
Lea
fameuses
pyramides
C^itait
was
une
place
fameuse
place.
That
.
d'Egypte, pyramids Le
The of E.
famous
famous
matheureux
The of
homme
man
p6rit.
C^est
He
un
homme
an
ma/heureux.
man.
unhappy
(spoken
is
unhappy
before) perished.
fr^e
est
un
Mon
My
ban
a
gargon.
J'ai
ac?iet4
une a
table
ronde.
table.
cloth.
brother
drap.
une
is
good
boy. Du
I
have
drap
bought
round Blue
De
beau
connais
Fine
cloth.
bleu.
un
Je
jeune
girl.
JUle,
Je connais
I know
marchand
anglais.
merchant.
I
know Je
a
un
young
an
English
v(H8
see a un
petit
ruisseau,
J'^udie
study
la langue
fran^aise.
language.
little brook.
the
French
(Test
is
vieux
domestique.
It
O'est
an
un
dome^ique
servant.
agi.
It is
an
mon
old servant.
aged
une a
II est
meilleur
best
1.
"
ami.
He
C^est
is
noMon
chritienne.
nation.
of euphony
or
It
is my
Note
long
friend.
Rule
a.
Christian
the
is often
contravened
by after
requirements
nouns,
adjectives being
educated
taste
preferably
can
placed
short
case.
short
before
The
alone
decide
in each
221,
222.]
2.
ADJECTIVES.
139
"
In
the
speaker's
mind,
I
an
adjective
to
used
in
address
or
(mon honore
a
confrere
naturally
Quel charmant
belongs it.
en/ant!)
Hence
attributes
to
quality
which
noun.
such
adjectives
than the and
usually
Note
precede
their
3.
"
If
the
monosyllabic superlat.
adverbs
tres,
is
determined
by
:
other
i.e. the the
words
(or
le plus
comparat.
"
signs),
Bavant
man.
they
always
follow
noun.
Compare
This
truly
Ce tr^8
homme.
This
very
Cet homme
good
man.
vraiment
bon.
learned
Le plus
beau
fate
seen.
vu.
The
Ce
sont
des
are
personnes trustworthy
dignee
de
foi.
finest book
They gar^on
s/
persons.
or
une
Un
$1
ton So
gargon, good
Un
Une
tres
jeune A
filUy
fiUe
trbs
bon.
boy.
jeune.
that
can
very
young
girl.
"
[222.] Adjectives
sense,
be
used
in
the
literal
as
well
as
metaphorical
because
generally
precede
noun
in the
to
:
latter,
noun
a
in
the
speaker's
mind
it attributes
of it.
that
quality
naturally
Before
characteristic
:
Thus
After
Un Un
noir chagrin
A dark
.
grief.
Un
habit
homme
man.
noir,
black
A
coat.
aweugfe
love.
amour,
blind
Un
aveugle.
blind
Une
Hroite
amitU,
close
Un
chemin
etroit.
narrow
friendship.
In many
as
road.
virtue,
chiefly, have
or
of
a
this
more
principle
or
"
disturbed
in
part
"
adjectives
precede
of
less
noun.
varied
Among
the
sense,
according whose
may
they
follow
their
those
difference
be mentioned
meaning
here
:
is not
self-evident,
following
Before
ancien
After
old
former
(cf.note)
brave
certain
honest
certain
brave
sure
cher dernier
beloved last
expensive
.
(cf note)
just
past
diff"ent\
divert
various
unlike
140
SYNTAX.
[222,223.
Note.
"
Even
or
some
of these the
noun
adjectives
according belongs de
ces
may
as
in
they
or
one
of their
to
un
meanings
be
placed
before
by
after
attribute
:
it
quality guerrier
which
general warrior';
to
it
not
e.g.
brave
pity
*a
brave
pauvres
femmes
'have
on
these
poor
indigent)
Two
223.
or
more
adjectives qualifyixig
the
as
one
noun
are
arranged
according only
that
one
to
preceding
may
rules.
It
is
et
to
be
serve obthe
such of
be
connected
have that
by
follow
; and
noun,
if any
them
should
more
position
"
that
of three
adjectives rarely
than
A
one
precedes.
little girl.
Ex.
Une
Uh
joliepetite file.
grand
grande
action
g4n4ral
et
anglais,
A A A A
English
general.
Une Uhe
Une
et
belle maison.
(and)
beautiful
house.
belle et courageuse.
maison
action.
grande delabrSe*
antique
old
and
dilapidated
house.
Exercise VIII.
(In
'
nouvel
habit
habit
*
another
coat
coat';
un
habit
nouveau
*a
new-fashioned
coat
tin
neuf
fresh
from
the
tailor/
224-227.]
ADJECTIVES.
141
Comparison.
224.
rendered
The
by
'
Positive. aussi
"
'As
(so)
...
as'
is
in
.
.
French
.
(in
negative
by
no
clauses
usually
si)
que,
by
but
'
as
alone,
"
preceded
other
comparative
particle,
com
me,
Ex.
riche
n H
est
aussi
pas moi.
que
moi.
He riche He
is
as
rich
so
as
I.
as
n'est
si
{aussi)
is not
rich
I.
que
II est riche
comme
un
Crhus,
He
is rich
as
Croesus.
226.
que
The
Comparative.
there only
a
"
The
English
'than'
is rendered
by
whenever
when
"
is
real
comparison
or
(but
number
by
de
before
to
numerals
greater
smaller
is
be
denoted).
EUe
est plus
She A
is prettier
eats
than
more
her
than
sister.
three
Un
glouton
mange
plus
que
glutton
men.
trois hommes.
II
mang4
plus
de
trois
He
has apples.
eaten
more
than
three
pommes,
[226.]
The
English
by
the
more
(or less)
.
the
more
(or less)
at
'
is in
French
rendered
plus
(motns)
while
p/us
(moins) placed
follows
et plus
"
the
verb.
head
of
each
correlated
the
proposition,
the
adjective
bj
one
the
times Some-
concluding
proposition
contains
is introduced
more
(motns),especially
Ex.
one
if the
prior
on
proposition
content
t
than
clause.
Plus
est
plus
on
est
The
more
contented
one
is, the
hap-
heureux.
V^criture
est
pier
Plus
noire,
plus
elle est
The
blacker
lisihle.
tu
es
legible
it is.
Moins
sauras,
diligent,
moins
tu
The
you
less
diligent
you
are,
the
less
will know.
higher
we
lus
on
s*"leve,
et
plus
on
Vhorizon s'apergoit
The
rise,
the
the
more
more
our
s*agrandit, de
son
plus
horizon perceive
widens,
our
do
we
n"ant,
insignificance.
a
[227.]
For
the
expletive
use
of
tie
in the second
propositiop
of
comparat
sentence,
cf. negations,
142
SYNTAX.
[228-230.
instead
not
[228.]
a
Davantage
or
'
more
a
is used,
noun
optionally
of plusy at
directly
must
the
end
of
sentence,
before
peu,
or
which
it does
determine.
be used.
After
Ex.
/", beaucoup,
on
ne
peut, however,
ptus
always
Cela
me
plait
bien
dwfantage
That
pleases
me
very
much
more.
plait
beaucoup
plus
(but
il Pest
That
pleases
me
much
more.
davantage).
content
II
est
de Vencre,
mats
He
is satisfied
much
more
with
so
the
ink,
the
but
he
is
bien davQ/itage
(orplus)
du papier.
with
paper.
229.
noun
The
they
Superlative.
are
"
If
several
superlatives
or
qualify
one
repeated
with before
it. He
"
article
their
Ex.
posseBsive
but
(as the
with
case
may
be)
when
placed
they
et
noun,
the
article alone
II
est
when
follow
le plus
cher
que
le plus
and
most
f aith-
fidlble ami
II
est
mon
je
poss^de,
et
mon
I have.
plus
cher
He
is
my
and
most
plus
faithful actif et
monde,
CPest VJiomms
le plus
He
is tlie most
ageous
man
and world.
cour-
courageux
serviteur
C^est
mon
le actif.
plus
He
is
my
faithful
and
fiddle et le plus
Note
no
active
ce
servant.
.
1.
"
After
the
"
expression
qui
vu
(que)
de
(/e, the
superlative
ce
has
definite
article. I have
Ex.
seen
Ce
que
fai
plus
beau,
c*est
paysage
The
finest thing
2.
"
is this landscape.'
NoTB
The
an
absolute adverb
superlative
is in French
for
of
the
most
part
expressed
by
"
etc.),
A
most
instead
le plus etc.
country.'
(but
cf.
230).
Ex.
Unfort (tres)beau
predicate
le moins
pays
beautiful
[230.]
When
and
superlatives
are
qualify
adverbs,
noun
as
compared
such
est
with
itself, le plus
:
in Erench comparison,
'
and
Invariable.
la
Compare
This
a.
Superlative
is the
of
Ceite
montagne
plus
it is
haute
com-
"
mountain
"
highest
(of
the
mountains
with
which
est
pared
haute
':
b.
Superlative
mountain
absolute, is highest'
Cest
id que
la montagne
in the
utmost
le plus degree
'It is here
the
que
*high [i.e.
*
cf.
C*est
the
id
la ville est
le
mieux
fortifi"eIt is here
the
city is best
(adv. =;
"t
best)
fortified
'].
231-234.]
NUMERALS.
143
231.
used
as
Adjectives
nouns
used
as
Nouns.
persons
"
As
or
in
English,
adjectires
They
are
are
often
always
to
designate
things.
other
an
then
"
accompanied
by
the
se
definite
un
article
or
some
determinant.
Ex.
thinks he
MaifU
ignorant
croit
g"nie.
Many
is
a
ignorant
person
genius. should
Les
riches
et
doivent
aider
fes pauvres
The
rich
aid
the
poor
and
the
les mallieureux.
unfortunate. Prefer
The the
useful
to
rose.
the
agreeable.
yiei/fe
Note.
"
se
leva.
As
old
woman
neuter
nouns
are
used
(instead
and
of
adjectiyes)
'
the
adverbs
le mains and
can
and
"
le plus,
Ex.
and
also
mieux
que que
vous
pis^ interchangeably
with
is the
better
meilleur
least
you
pire. do.'
on
C'est le mains
a
puissiez
*
faire
*
That
II iCy
n'a
rien de mieux
a
cela
est
There
se
is nothing
than
that.'
to
Quand
say,
rien
dire, le mieux
is to
be
de
taire
When
one
has
nothing
the
best
thing
silent.'
Exercise
IX.
XIV.
inTMEBALS.
[232.
HISTORY.
added
parts et
"
In of
a
the
ancient
language numerical
et was
generally
e.g.
used
to
combine
et
complex
use
expression:
l*an trois
cents
vingt
neuf.
The
of
into
cardinals
the being
'
instead
of
ordinals the
(90)
is
solecism,
gradually
usage,
introduced brevity
language
the
'
since obvious
17th
century
by
popular
of
'
form
10
motive.
Compare
English
expressions
like
March
for
March
10th,'
etc.]
233.
The
use
of
cardinals
instead
of
ordinals
(from
names
^two'
to inclusiye)
designate
the
day
of the
month, chapters^
after
of been
sovereigns,
and
in (optionally)
quoting
etc.^ has
already
234. of
months
*
noticed
Fractions they year and
under
a
90.
of
year
are
usually
designated
mois
by
a
naming
the
number
et
contain.
a
Thus:
Six
*half
year.'
Un
an
trois
mois
quarter.'
144
SYNTAX.
[235-23a
by
235.
'
'A
fortnight'
'
is generally
expressed
the
quinze before
Jours
the
'fifteen
days
(as
'
week
by
hutt
jours),because
day
is included.
236-
The
time
:
*
of day
is expressed
as
the
following
examples
will illustrate
deux
un
heures
^
two
o'clock/
'
deiix
heures
devx
et quart
(or et
un
quart,
em., (f
or
quart)
with
heures
minutes
quarter
past
two/'
heures heures
to
et demie
agreeing
trois
heure)
moins
'
half
un
past
two/
a
deu^x
et trois
quarts
or
quart
quarter
three/
trots
cfeua; heures
moins
'
et vingt
twenty
minutes
past
two/
three.'
heures
midi
douze
'
minutes
'
twelve
*
minutes
before
But
twelve,
noon
and
Observe
minuit
also
vers
midnight.'
Us
deux
heures
une
towards
*
two
o'clock,*
one
and,
by
analogy,
vers
les
unes
heure
(better vers
also the
heure)
following
towards
o'clock.'
:
237.
Observe
idioms
Quel jour
or
du
mois
avons-nous
(or
the
il
sommes-nous,
est-ce)
'
9
nous
What
sommes,
day
of
or
month
is it
? (to-day)
Nous
(or
9
'
Quelle
avez-vous
heure
^
est-il 9
What
are
is
'
the
13th.'
dge
et
Quel
How
twelve
old
you
J^ai
douze
ans a
demi)
Note.
'
am
years
(twelve years
as
*
and
*
"
One
'
in such
expressions The
an
other pronoun
one,*
*
that
'
'
one/
on
good
one
is not
rendered
in French.
indef.
one
is
(112).
Exercise
X.
XV.
PEONOUNS.
[238.
the
HISTORY.
"
Various
now
rules
had
for
not
the
yet
use
and
construction in the
of
pronouns centuries.
observed
been
16th
and
17th
as
Thus
we
find
in the
classical
peculiar^
ities
the
following:
238-240.]
The
PBONOUNS.
145
personal
subject
tirant
and
Latin
(e.g.Et
le bracelet,
popular second
were
often omitted object-pronoun were lui jeta,for /'/ fe lui jeta : Amyot),
as
a
ne
in
usage
still suryiying
pas
in the
idiom
(e.g.Faut
pas
/aire
me
cela, for
and
-mot,
//
faut
etc.).
"
With
verb,
affirmative
used
instead
imperative,
of
a
tu,
placed
-tot,
even
before
in the
the
suffixed
et
18th
sutvez
century
(e.g.Quittezcette
et me
chimere
:
m'cUmez:
"
Comeille.
Solof
the
dats,
an
leurs pas
r"pondez
was
d'eux
Voltaire).
by
f
a
The
subject-noun
put
interrogative
A (e.g.
"
clause
not
represented
pronoun
after
yerb
quel propos
and
le soleil ckasse
freely used
la
for
nutt
herbe).
now
"n
were
persons,
a
sot
was
used
where
-"
lui is required
personal pronoun
etes
(e.g.Idom^^e,
referring
to
an
ne
revenant
sot,
effe:
Malherbe).
agree
gender
(yous
qui,
et satisfaite, Je
with
it in
"
The be
ative interrogused
f
and
to
the things,
relative
contrary
qui
to
after
prepositions,
could
with
c*est
was
reference
plumage: placed
272, 276, b
a
Poiseau
"
le
La
Fontaine; before
And
Un
or
prix
after
qui
its
tout
Racine).
que
Meme vieillard
indifferently
vertu
noun
Sais-tu (e.g.
ce
fut
la
meme
f).
"
so
on.]
indicated
by
239.
generally verbs,
'
the
pronouns
nouns,
"
as
the
to
ne
name
"
they
"
sometimes
Elle
11
ne
refer
adjectives
le suis
comme
or
sentences.
Ex.
est
beUe^je
pas
was
pas
She
is pretty,
am
(it) not.^
does
pas
*
travaiUe
as
il fe
not
work
he
wont.'
II
est
je
ne
le savais
He
is rich, I did
not
know
it.'
C^est
4tonnant
^That
is astonishing.'
verbs is expletive.
// in impersonal
Pebsonal
Pronouns.
(Review
240.
Pronouns.
difference form,
carefully
100-5.)
Disjunctive
noticed that,
Use
"
of
Conjunctive
It has
or
Personal
owing have
a
been
already
the
personal
are
to
of accent-stress,
pronouns
ent differ-
according
as
they
or oonjunctive(proclitic),
dis*
jonotiye (independent).
146
SYNTAX.
[241,242.
[241.] The
a.
oonjunctive
when
the
form
is used
Ordinarily
the
pronoun
is in
immediate
parle;
connection
with
verb
(forexceptions
it is separated
or
ne
cf. 242,
a) : e.g,je
verb only
le dira,
parle4-i/f
con-
b. When
from
e.g.
on
the
me
by
ne
another
parle
pas;
junc
pronoun
le dit pas.
il
il
ne
[242.]
a.
The
disjunctiveform
connection
is used
In
immediate
with
to
the
a
verb
person
'
only
when
the
pronoun
is in
predicate
referring
when
it is in apposition
with
et
a
je (e.g.
parle,
moi
a
is connected
preceding
word
by
moif
etc.
(e.g.elle
an
lui sont
ici) ;
and
ou^
te)
with
;
affirmative
imperative,
except
before
^coiUez(e.g.
moi
dis-moi;
the than
son
donnez-m'en).
pronoun
a
b. When
word
is separated
from
or
the
ne
verb
by
pense
any
A
other
foi;
lui et
je (e.g.
the
verb
is understood
Qui (e.g.
parle
etc.).
Compare
(241-242)
a.
Conjunctive
est
venu.
Disjunctivb
//
He
has
come.
C^est
eux.
lui.
It
is he.
Ce
sont
It is they.
Est'il
me
venu
Has
mats
he
on
come ne
me,
II le fera, lui.
He
will do
He
it.
and
On
voit,
la
but
EUe she
et
lui sont
partis.
voitpas.
They
not
see
see
have
departed
(gone).
they
do
her.
AimeZ'le.
Love
him.
Tell
Aimez-moi.
me.
Love Tell
.
me.
DiteS'le-moi.
it to
Dites-le-moi
b.
it to
me.
//
ne
viendra
come.
pas.
He
will
Lui
et
son
fr^re
viendront.
He
not
and
his brother
et
will
come.
la vois,
see
her.
Moi
and
lui,
he
see
nous
la voyons.
her.
242,
243.]
le lui
donnerai.
PRONOUNS.
147
Je
shall
Je
le donnerat
d lui et d, elle.
give
it to him.
pas.
shall give He
it to him
nous.
and
to her.
court
//
ne
fe la montrera
not
On
parte
eux
de
On
They
to
d,
will
you.
show
her
(it) to
I
(d,eJles).
us.
speak them.
They
of
en
They
seront
run
Je
lui
speak
parlerai,
shall
Eux
seula
exempts.
to
him
about
it.
alone
will
be
exempt.
Quivientf
He.
Lui,
Who
is coming?
NoTB.
its
"
When
subject-pronoun
as
an
is emphasized,
it is often the
repeated
"
in
disjunctive form,
Je
appositive,
*
before
do it.'
etc.,
or
after
verb.
Ex.
Mo/
je le/eraior
Sometimes,
3d Ex.
person
le/erai, moi
as
I shall
in
antithetical
by way
clauses,
the
disjunctiye
of the
think
form
of
the
"
is used pensez
alone,
of emphasis,
autrement
was
instead
*
conjunctiye.
but
Vous
ainsi,
mats
lui pense
*
You
so,
he thinks
differently.*
He
not
there.'
[243.]
d with
The
Dative
by
the
(Ho'-)
Relation.
form
toi,
"
The
dative
te,
is expressed the
(me,
or etc.),
etc.). French
use
English,
or
though
often form,
accordant
in the
of
the
the
'
prepositional
d Im
*
frequently
to
differ
:
(cf.lui
'
dire
hiTTi
; courir
hasten
*
him
'
but
lui parler
speak
him' The
; lui appartenir
belong
to him
').
special
cases
general is in
principle
French
to
(modified in
use
by
only
usage)
the
the
to, as
prepositional
form
a
prepositional
value
d,
'
of
expressing
when
d
direction, dative-pronoun
'
felt
(e.g.courir
to h6r ; ' but
hasten
le donne
to
or '),
the
elle
emphasized
not
je (e.g. je
lui, pas
'
I give
no
it to him
le lui donne
I give
it to him,'
distinction
being
involved).
the following
Hence
The
a.
special
rules
:
prepositional
dative-form of motion
and
a
is used
After
verbs
few
others
(as penser,
songer;
accotOumer,
148
SYNTAX.
[243.
hastened
to
renoncer,
etc.):
*
e.g. // counU
moi
He
me.'
Jl pense
{songe)
die
He
thinks
(dreams)
belong
the
*
Note
etc.,
a
1.
"
Here
phrases
recours,
/aire
one
attention,
:
in which
a
verb has
its complement
to
me.'
"
into
idea
e.g.
a
//
recours
moi
He
also the
idiom
etre
belong
to.*
NoTB
form In
2.
:
"
Venir when
e.g. //
cases
a
not
une
strictly id"e
*
yerb idea
of
occurs
motion
to
takes
me.'
the
conjunc-
tiye
me
vient
An
b.
all
of
emphatic
distinction
*
(even
this book
when
only
not
implied)
to him
'
e.g.
J*offrece
lui
c.
livre
elle (^pas a
'
lui)
offer
to her,
; but
Je
ce ojffre
livre
the
I offer him
(her)
is
me,
this book.'
te,
a
When
or
direct
:
*
object
vous
se,
nous,
*
or
vous,
whether
you
*
used
her
on
'
re-
flexively
not
e.g. Je
pr"sente him
to
elle
I introduce
to
(but
her.'
by
a
Je
le lui prifsente
d.
I introduce of
:
her
').
when
a
Je
me
fie a
elle
I rely
As
matter
occur
course
(242, a)
a
two
*
datives
to
conjunction
e.g. Je park
lui et
elle
I speak
her.'
Compare
Conjunct.
Dative
:
Disjunct.
Dative:
II
lui
sends
"Ous
envoie
les
livres.
He
court
droit
d lui
him
(her) the
books. I shall
hastens
straight
recours recourse
a
Je
le donnerai, it to you.
J^aurai
have
"Ous,
give
to
you.
Je
lui parte.
I speak
to
him
Je pense
of him
(her).
leur
them
lui
I think
Je
offreun
a
livre.
I offer
Je
songe
eux
(d elles).
lui
book.
This
think
of
est
them.
a
Ce
livre
(a, note
to
1).
him.
viendra.
This
book
belongs
a
him.
On
lui
They
coming.
qu'elle
On
is
fait
They
attention
elle
(A lui).
tell
her
(him)
she
notice
her
(him).
Sa
fortune lui
phre.
venait
de
got
son
II
vint
came
droit
lui
He
(she)
from
his
straight
(her)fortune
father.
his
(her)
her).
243,
244.]
donne
me
PRONOUNS.
149
Jl
me
de
V argent.
He
II donne
d
me
de
V argent
He
to
i moi
money
(pas
to
gives
money.
toi). (not
d
me
gives
you).
et
m'ob4iU,
He
obeys
me.
II
ob4it obeys
moi
and
"0U8.
He
you,
d, vous.
to
Je
"Ous
la prisenteraL
I shall
Je
me
prisenterai
myself
I shall
you.
introduce
11 le lui has
a
her
to you.
introduce
He
II
nous a
recommand^. him
recommand4
it lui.
us
He
recommended
to
has
recommended
to
him.
him
(her).
I
Je
le lui prhentai,
duced intro-
II
se
pr4senta
elle.
He
duced intro-
him
to
himself
to her.
eux
Je
leur
shall
offriraice
present
Ce
liv7'e
sera
offerta
book
and
(pas
be
them
elle).
etc.
This
will
not
sente pre-
this book.
to them
to her.
244for that
The
use
Use
of the
of
en,
/,
"
In
applying it must
are
one are
above
rules
the
the
personal
of
pronouns,
be
remembered
especially
indirect
cases
the
3d
persons
often,
of
as
when
en
referring
to
things, by
an
supplanted
The
are
by
the
particles
:
and/
a.
(101),or
adverb.
rules
follows
used
for
The
preferably
for animals
sons per-
also
and
plants.
e.g. J'ai
In
other
they
are
regularly
^1
replaced have
the
by
le livre,
feuille y
it.'
appartient
book,
the
leaf
belongs b. The
difljimctiyes with
lui
de
or
can
refer
only
to
persons
(or
en
personified
de
(=
replaced
d
lui
in
other
relations
no
by
etc.).
Where
ambiguity
for persons, avoid
pens,
^
would
arise,
en
rarely
y may
be used
sense,
also
or
especially
"
plurals
Ex.
of
an
indeterminate
prenez-en
voire
to
are
repetition
take
VoUd,
of
des plumes,
'There
some
take Qit.
word, 'How
them).'
on
J^ai
parole,
avez-vom
your
I rely
it.'
Combien
have
je my fie I de frh^esf
three.'
have
J^en
ai trois
many
brothers
you?
I have
150
SYNTAX.
[244.
than
de
c.
The
disjimctiyeswith
allowed
to
other
any
prepositions
are
and
d,,
though
refer
to
noun,
preferably
used in
only
for
persons
by
(or
some
personified
things),
or \_soiis sur
being
lui
so
some
'
replaced by
other
or
relations
adverb
lui by
(la')dessous
by
a
(/a')dessus; apr^s
of
derribre,
to,
or
and by
on], or
other
tion repetie.g.
the
noun
referred
mets
device:
Voild, la tabhy
book
on
le livre
Idr-dessus
There
is the
table, put
the
it.'
Compare
Refersing
to
Persons:
a. a.
Referring
to
Things:
Jl
4crit, et
je lui r^onds.
and
I
Tai I
regu
sa
lettre^
^^fy
his
r^ponds,
He
answer
has
written, him.
have
received
answer
letter,
and
it. donnez-/
eosamiyiez-
Vofld, les
vos
enfants^ donnez-leur
There give
are
Voildf
votre
les
documents,
soins.
the
your
attention
(or
children,
care.
them
les)
.
There
are
the documents,
attention.
s^ches,
donnez-
give
Les
them
your
sont
Les
plantes
de
leur
The
water
(or donnez-f)
plants
are
de
Veau. them
thirsty,
them
water.
dry, give
(also,arrosez4es).
ne
b.
Cet
homme
pas
ne
vaut
rien^
ne
Ce
cheval
vaut
rien,
n*en
parlez
man
de
lui. for
This
parlez
pas. do
This
not
horse
is of
is
not
good
nothing,
worthless, it.
II
speak
do
speak
de
sa a
of him.
m^re,
et il pense
II parle
parle
pense
de
sa
maison,
et
il y
toujours
pense
elle
et (rarely
il/
toujours.
and
He
he
speaks
is always
toujours). He
mother,
speaks
of his house,
of
his
and
he
always
thinking
of it.
thinks Laissez
besoin
oiler
of her.
les
garqons^fai
Let the
Laissez Leave
them.
j^en
ai besoin.
d'eux.
boys
books,
need
go, I need
them.
244-247.]
// aime les
PRONOUNS.
161
enfants,
et U en
est
II
aime
les
tableaux,
et
en
aim4
(or il est
loves
airnA
d'eux).
(or
the
achate
toujours.
and he
He
loves
He
children he
pictures,
some
always
buys
children),and
by
Plus plus
is loved
(lit of them).
je m'/
I rely
them.
on
on
connatt
son
monde,
C'est
It
sa
parole,
et
fie.
on
s^y
know
entend.
The
the
is his
word,
and
better better
to treat
we we
people,
it.
understand
them.
how
c.
tomba^ He
etje tombai
I
sous
lui.
under
La
table tomba,
sous.
etje
table
tombai
desI
fell, and
fell
The
fell, and
him.
fell under
mon
it.
avec
C^est
ami,
et
"est
avec
J'ai
un
lui que
my
je
suis
venu.
It is
canif
coupL
and
ce
je Vai
friend,
I have
and
come.
it is with
have
penknife,
him
it is with
cut
this
penknife
I have
it.
Further
remarks
about
the
use
of the
personal
Je
pronouns
245.
Je
...
is used
for
moi
in
the
old-style
expression
soussigni
(sous
sign"e)
246.
'I, the
undersigned.'
Nous
is often
for
je
in
official documents,
as
and
when
bj
authors
to
speaking
of themselves.
put in
.
verb but
avons
is then,
after words
vous
referring
"
one
person,
the
.
.
modifying
in the
. .
singular.
.
Ex.
Nous
content
soussign^{e) (e).
Tu
nous
ordonntf
et
ordonnons
Nous
sommes
247.
(toi) and
by
vous
"Ous.
"
A
as
stranger
or
'
an
acquaintance
is
Tu
addressed in
in French,
an
by
you
or
in
near
English.
relation;
or
is
and
used
addressing
especially
intimate
by
friend
and
also often,
Protestants
in
poetry
exalted
prose,
in addressing
the
Almighty.
15^
[248.]
anger.
StTNTAX.
[24^260.
express
to
Tu
is
sometimes
used tutoyer
to
superioritj,
the
or
contempt,
'
or'
Observe
a
the
verb
equivalent
old
English
to
thou/
i.e. to call
person
thou, whether
in familiarity
contempt.
[249.]
But
on
Vous
always
as
requires
as
the gender
verb
to
be
in
the
plural
depends bon
the
number
well
the
of its modifiers
"
its implied
"
number
or
and
^
gender.
are
Ex.
Vous
ites
(or
bonne;
bons
bonnes)
Persons
3d
person
You
good.'
260.
pronouns
a. nouns
The
3d
(iljlle, etc.). e
"
For
the be
use
of the
:
of the
the
following
should
only
observed determinate
they
The
declinable
forms
as
can
represent with
nouns),
Voyez-vovs
f
to
which
agree
in
number
e.g.
le gargon
arbres) f
Note.
"
Oui, je le
A
{la^les) vols
peculiar
construction
la, lessis
nouns
:
French
is the
use
of
^tre
the
to
object-forms le,
represent
^
conjunctiye
e.g.
am
predicates
sa
after
definite his
m^re
Je
la
suis
Are
you
mother?
the
or
his
mother,
as
that
person)
If, however,
a
or
noun
is referred than
:
to rather
a
connoting
person
certain
condition
as
naming
definite
thing,
'Are
invariable
a
le is used
I
am
e.g. Etes-vous
=
rn^re 9 Je
le
suis
mother?
(litit
mother).'
to
b.
an
The
invariable
*
/e,^ often
equivalent
English
:
'so'
or
expletive
it,' represents
participles,
:
verb-phrases
est
note
above),
he
etc.),and
is good,
come,
sentences
e.g. Elle
.'
bonne, sHl
aussi
^
She
will
also
(is good)
me
II viendra^
le dit
He
if he
tells
so.'
c.
"/f, /
owing
are
to
be
rendered
in
various
use
ways
to
according
connect two
to
the
context,
and,
are
to
to
their
frequent
expletive
thoughts,
at
they
often
be
left untranslated
e.g.
en
(the reference
*have
*
being
also
times
on
dimmed it';
s'en
a
and
alter
"have
avoir
e/i
some';
a
s*/
*be
Jier
'depend
off
';
etre
be
at
point/
reduced
(to)'; en
vouloir
grudge
against';
/ etre
'comprehend';
il y
va
de *it concerns';
etc.
2500
^ROl^OUNS.
163
Compare
la, Us) (le,
:
Connaissez^ous
/a connais.
this
A
cette
JUle f
Je
Do I know
la
you
know
her.
de
ce
le).
Is she
good?
She
is.
girl ?
EteS'VOus
peuple f
reine
Etes-vous suisf
reine
Oui,
a
je
queen?
le
Je
queen
am.
la suis.
of this
Are
Are I
am
you
you ?
the
I
ple peo-
Yes,
(i.e.I
implied by
have
the
word
qualities
the
qv"en),
Id, vos
8ont.
Sont-ce
livres f
Oui,
ce
Sont-Us
sont
mcUadesf
Are
are
Oui,
sick?
ils le
lea
books
vous
Are Yes,
those
your
they
Yes,
they
are.
they
quoi"
(so).
la plume,
quoique
pas,
Je
donne
vous
ne
la plume,
me
Je
vous
vous
donne
ne
que pas,
la demandiez
you the
not
le demandiez
the
give
pen,
give
you
you
pen,
me
although
to
although
me
you
it.
m'a
do
ask
do
not
ask
do
so.
for
L'enfant
demand^
et
ces)
asked
livres,
demand^
en
des livres,
ai
donnL
me
The
donnas.
me
The for
child
has
has
I
asked
for books,
some
the
and
(his,
I
have
given
to
these)
given
vous
books,
to
aurez
have
them
him.
des
Qaand
les,
nouvelsavoir.
news,
II est plus
fort
que
je
than
ne
le suis.
I
am.
faiteS'les-mxyi
you
me
He
is stronger
When
let
a
know
une
trouv^
femme
commie
trouv4
une
femme
the He
comme
it
la
(referring to femme)
He kind
seen
le
to (referring
preceding
has
disirait.
found
he
man wo-
d4sirait. clause)
a woman, as
found
of the
Note.
"
desired.
the
he
the
desired
3d
(todo).
is
As
above, whether
objective
English
form
of
person
'so,'
in
are
French
or
expressed,
not.
the
equivalents
('it/
etc.)
used
164
SYNTAX.
[251,252.
As way
in English,
[261.] //
with
as
impersonal
verbs
impersonal
"
a.
b. By
pation of anticiallow
une
(as
logical
'There
in English
to
the
expletive
there,
it'),to
me
the idAe
subject
occurs
follow
me
an
the
verb
II
aura
(e.g.H
se
vient
vienne
to
idea.'
II y
pent
un
quHl hal
'
*It
is
a
possible
that
c.
he
may
Hre
come.'
There
will be
ball).'
"
With
cf
252.
.
262.
both used
// OR
ce
WITH
6ire,
with
"
// 4t'
Both
and may
ce
Hhat, then
it'
are
impersonally
Hre.
refer
to
following
subject
from it
or
separated pronoun
by
est
when
not),
study.'
or
[e.g.//
qui *It is
d^^tudier
is the
man
'It
is
good
to
C^est Vhomme
parle
parle
who
"
speaks.'
ce
or
C^est
refer
lui qui
a
to
preceding
le
he
who
Only
can
[e.g.EUe
fait,
c'est
C'est
or
bon
'that
is
something
already
spoken
of
had
in
mind].
Compare
il :
:
ce
// est bon
It
de
savoir
to
se
taire.
II
sait
se
taire,
c'est
bon.
He
is good
be
able
to
be
knows is good.
how
to
be
silent, that
silent.
sera
//
agr4able
vacanes
de
ici.
to
passer
C'est
pas
magnifquey
la guerre.
mats
ce
n'est
les
It will
our
It is magnifiwar
be
pleasant
spend
cent,
but
is not
some(viz.
holidays
here.
de bien
thing
already
referred
to).
It
// est
d' importance
C est
is
une
an
affaireimportance.
important
parler.
It is of importance
to speak
business.
important)
d^un bon
ses
well.
bien
// est
p^re
de
(Test
ces
mon
bon
p^re
qui
4lev4 good
Clever
enfants.
a
It
to
enfants.
who
It is my
belongs
bring
up
to
good
father
father
has
educated
these
his
children
well.
children.
252,
268.]
PRONOUNS.
166
// est d iU"irer
It
is
qu'il
vienne.
ffest
he
un
pesant
un
fardeau
grand
{que)
to have
desirable
come.
that
d^ avoir
mirite.
should
It is
a
heavy
burden
great
distinction.
// est Apropos
cette
qu'elle
fasse
It is
fera
cette
com'
commission.
It is she
that
will
proper
that
she
should
dp
do
this
errand.
this
errand.
if est tard.
o'clock, it
is
II
est
huit
heureSy
c'est
trop
is
eight
tard.
It
is
eight
o'clock;
late.
late.
that
de
(=8
o'cl.)
qui
is too
1/ 4tait temps
was
partir.
It
C^est dix
de
heures
viennent
time
for
departing.
sonner.
It is ten
o'clock
that
NoTB
1.
ce
"
has
"t"f
just struck.
c'eut
Usage
n'est.
more
requires
il est hesoin ;
both
c*a
"t"f
sera-ce,
occur
fut-ce,
Jut-ce,81
latter
Parenthetically
// est
vrai
and
"est vrai
(the
being
2.
"
emphatic).
popular
; and
NoTB
In
usage
even
c^est
occurs
freely
style
c^est
before
is used
adjectiyes, where
before
ne
should
be
used
in
literary
: etc.)
words
of
que
emotion
voir
le del
chinois.
Veau.
Otait
craindre
que
la
Californie
ne
devint
pays
263.
as
The
Reflexives
and
except
se
and
soi.
gender and
"
Se is used
or
reflexively
"
accusative used
or
dative,
any
Soi
is
rarely
in
the of
or.
singular in
an
with
or
to persons
things
spoken
indefinite
m^me,
way,
lui
(elle)eux
(eUes),with
other
without
being
"
usually
Ex.
tuted substi-
for it when
n
se
objects are
He
intended.
se
strikes promises
himself.
it to himself.
He
parler
de
On
One
should
rarely
speak
of
soi.
himself.
pense
Chacun
Le
vice
d soi. de soi.
Every
one
thinks
of himself.
est odieux
Vice
is odious
in itself.
156
SYNTAX.
[253-256.
kindness brings
it. has
its
Uh
bienfait parte
en
sa
ricom-
own
re-
penae
so/.
a
ward
sur
with
Mbnfr^e
Tes
de V argent
ne
lui.
de
My
Your
brother
money. do
not
fr^res
font
eux
point
brothers
reflect
reflexionssur
Les
chases
ne
(-m"me").
en
about
Things igipure
themselves.
are
sant
elles-
neither in
pure
nor
memes
ni pures
ni impures,
of the
themselves.
264.
chief
Position
for
Conjunctive
of the
Pronouns.
"
The
where
rules
the
to
position
conjunctive pronouns,
given already under
it is peculiar 102,
to which
French,
learner
are
have
been
rule
the
is referred.
Farther
details The
same
given
of
below.
the
256.
part except
a.
position
as
subject-prononn
:
is for verb
the
most
the
in English
cases
; i.e. it precedes
the
(Jl parle)
by
est-ce
in the
In
following
interrogative
or
sentences,
unless
f
introduced
que:
e.g. Farle-t-ilf
Est-ce
b. In by
interjected phrases
all
or
and
:
the
e.g.
"
like, Je
if
preceded
part
of
the
quoted
viendrai/^
introduced
dit-il,
c.
After
:
an
immediate
subjunctive of
when
the
desire
not
by
que
d. More
less
optionally
or
sentence
is introduced
by
certain
se
adverbs
adverbial
pareil.
phrases
A peine
vous
(cf.416,
fut-il entr4.
^tre utile.
b) :
En
e.g.
/lussi
regardait'il
sans
"a/n
Va-t-il essayS,
Peut-etre
pourrai-je
must
266.
other
The
verb
object-pronoun
than
the
one on v.
not
be
placed
before
any
which
it depends.
est
Hence
Je viens
U
la demander
savair
en
(not Je
proffter
II lui faut
la
d.).
en
^
L' occasion
nor
favorable^
en
^
faut
And
(not ');
but
il
fauij
must
il
faut
' '
s.
p.).
compare
for him
parler B
He
speak
Qit. It
It
is necessary
to
to
to
speak
is necessary
speak
him.'
256-258.]
Note
PRONOUNS.
157
1.
"
Usually
successive
verbs
first of
two
it is transitive
e.g. Je
(esp'lyfaire^
le
*"
entendre^
ouXr,
voir^
: aentir)
ferai
venir
I shall him
make
him
see
come.'
I have
allowed
the
(her) to
of when
them.'
aflirmative
venir
imperative,
for
pronoun,
course,
follows: second
:
Faitea-le is
se
a
"'send
each him
him.'
Only by
the
verb
reflexive,
*
verb rise.'
2.
"
is preceded
pronoun
Je
le vois
lever
see
Note verj
common
Forms
likeje earlier
/e viens demander
language.
(ioBtead of
je viens
le
are rf.)
in the
Exercise
XI.
POSSESSIVES.
(Review
257.
The Possessives
carefully
106.)
and
number with
agree
in gender
the
object possessed.
H
aime
et son'^fils sa^JUle, fitset le slen^ maJiUe
He
et
loves his
son
son
and his
his daughter.
Mon
My
and
(hers), my
la sienne.
L'arbre
Note.
article Fermez
a
daughter
ses
and
has
be
his
(hers).
perdu
That
no
feuillea.
possessive
The
tree
"
the
adjective may
can
the
definite
where
misunderstanding
arise
(as in
:
Elle
perdu
la metnolre}
la bouche,
etc.)has
of
already
been
noticed
182-4.
268.
Use
is often
lui etc.
by
for
an
son
etc.
"
The
possessive
adjec
replaced
indirect
object-pronoimput
of the
my
before
the
verb,
me
especially
coupi
in speaking
of parts
body.
"
Ex.
Je
n
suis
le doigt.
I have
He
cut
finger.
his of the
arm.
s^est
ccLssi le bras.
des
has
broken
VMat
toum6
grandeurs
leur
The
splendor
turned
grand
things
la tite,
their
head.
168
SYNTAX.
[259-261.
f/i 'thereof
a
'
=
269.
Use
of
en
for
son^
son^leur. leur
"
4ts, their'
is ordinarily
used
a
for
with
direct
reference
also with
noun
of
En
preceding
placed
clause
thing and
or,
rarely,
noun
being.
the
is
then
before would
verb,
its
has
were
definite
article
(as it
in English
if 'thereof
used).
Compare
en:
:
son
(leur)!
Qitand
il
on
est
en
we
dans suivre
un
pays^
Cette
mire
terre
faut
V usage.
a
la
When
we
are
in
country,
This
land the
is magnificent, fertility
I admire
must
follow
its customs.
of
its soil.
vUle
admir?
J^aime
Vodeur
rappelez-vous promenades
cette
sont
est
tr^s bonne,
Ses
its
(their)
ables.
Do
Its
you
remember
walks
that
are
is very
good.
city?
public
admirable.
ses
der-
Ma
vie
est
rude,
et
ses
asp4-
ann^es
mais
parmi
sans
les
em-
ritSs
(not subj.
My
of
^e)
me.
me
en
blessent.
and
la
vie.
Charles
among
its bitterness
passed
the monks,
without mode
embracing
their
of life.
260.
used
After
ckacun
referring though
"
to
word
in
common
the
plural,
with
a
son
and
leiir may
be
indifferently,
a
leur is
more
direct
object
lis
and
son
after
preposition.
son
Ex.
lis gagnhrent
chacun
leur
place.
parlerent
chacun
de
mcdheur.
261.
The
possessive
adjectives are
each
noun
or
repeated
(likethe
denoting
definite
a
article:
202)
before
adjective
different
object, and
Ex,
always
before
superlatives
(cf
229)."
261-265.]
PRONOUNS.
169
Taime
mon
p^re
et ma
mdre,
love mother.
my
father
and
(my)
Mas
chers
Mon
it bons
parents.
is
My
dear
good
parents.
in
262.
(maf
names
mes)
of
near
in
French
:
commonly e.g.
used
mon
address,
especially
before
relatives also
the
Bonjour,
monsieur
pere
(jnes en/ants).
do
Out,
mon
general.
Hence
(^monsieur), madame
defined,
est
(ma-(/.), mademoiselle
definite article
(ma-d.), which,
est
farther
not
take
the
(e.g.Monsieur
le
Madame
mcUade),
263.
But
a
Le
in
mien^
phrases
are
tien,
like
'
etc.
are
used meaning
for
*
'mine/
belongs
Ex.
^
'thine/
to
etc.
a
is
mine/
used
me/
mof,
toi, etc.
'His book
commonly mine.'
instead.
est
ce
"
Son
livre et
vous
le mien
and
'
qui
livre
est-il d, ?
Oui^
mine.'
Note
il est d, moi
Whose
is this
book,
is it yours
Yes,
it is
1.
"
The
;
"
English
un
phrase
mes
friend
'
of mine
has
no
literal rendering
in French Note
2.
use
de
amis
(or
cf. note
used
est
2).
in
a
Mien
etc.
are
exceptionally
but usually mien
predicate
or
un as
without
an
mes
the
article
(e.g. Ce
familiar
livre est
or
mien:
style
moi)
attribute amis, cf
.
(e.g.in
note
jocose
Un
ami
usually
de
1).
Demonstratives.
(Review
264used The
a
carefully
107.)
the
one
adjective form
noun,
ce
(cette^ is ces)
or
generally
before
"
to
which
-ci
-Id, may
be
affixed, according
to 107.
Ex.
Ce gargon
n^est
pas
de
ce
diligent. gar^n-ct,
This
boy
is not
speak girl.
diligent. of thi
s
Je neparlepas
mats de
cetfe
I do not
boy,
but
JUle-Iit.
of that
266something
The
pronominal
explained by
form
ce,
referring
or or
impersonally
already
to
what
follows
stated,
is que
used:
"
a.
With
relative
pronoun
the
conjunction
160
SYNTAX.
[265,266.
dont
(oe qui,
which';
tenses,
que
ce
*tliat
que
which/
fact
'what/
"
ce
'that
of
or
about
'the
unless
U be
b.
With
Ex.
Ce qvi
est vrai
est beau.
That
which
(what)
is true
is
beautiful.
VoUd
ce
qui
m^konne.
dites est vrai. la
ce
That
is what you
was
we
me.
Ce
que
vous
What
nous
say
C^itait
bien
dont
That
the
about
kions
Cela
convenus.
which
ce
were
vient
de
trop.
que
vous
That
too
comes
from
working
travaillez
much.
C^est
une
affaireimportante.
Etc., cf
.
It is
ex.
an
important
262.
business.
under
sent,
Note.
"
About
the
use
of
ce
[266.]
pronoun
a.
Ce
is in
French
often
used
with
Mre
when
there
is
no
viz.
the
When
logical
after
^tre
an
expletive
une
que)
is placed
by
C*est
Paris
Paris
is
beautiful
city.
for (Gallicism,
Paris
une
the
une
est
ville),
A
woman
C^est
charmante
chose
is
charming
thing.
qi/une
b. When
femme.
the
or
predicate
complement
to
precedes
a
and
the
"
subject
Ex.
follows La
^tre ;
simply
d^un
repeat
preceding
subject.
of
a
premiere
arque
qualiU
la
mon-
The
first quality
monarch
"est
importe
fermetL
c'est
is firmness.
What
Oe
qui
de
d Vhomme
ses
is of consequence
to
man
remplir
devoirs.
266-269.]
Ce
PBONOUNS.
161
qui
lui
en
Vafflige^ c^est
voulez,
c'est
que
vous
What
grieves
with
Mm him.
is your
being
angry
de
Le
temps,
Vargent, Etc.,
cf.
ex.
Time
under
the
is money. 252.
que
Note. when
c^est
"
In
elliptical
omitted
expressions
:
expletive homme
of
ce
a.
is used
*
even
(etc.)is
!
'
e.g.
Un
singulier
que
roi
singular
man,
this king
[267.]
Exceptionally,
by
etre,
ce
is used
with
sembler after
a
(in
ce
me
semble),
"
devoir
or
pouvoir
me
followed
dire, venire
lui.
and
preposition.
etre
Ex.
ce,
G*est lui,
suis
voire
ce
semble,
Ce
doit etre
Ce pourrait
bien
lui.
Sur
je
serviteur.
[268.] Ceci
pointed
question,
est
and
to
cefa
by
used
or
with
a
reference
or
to
something
speaker,
are
to
sentence
-ce
idea.
Id,.
"
In
Ex.
with
Mre^
they
divided This
me.
into
is
ci and
-ce
Ceci
pour
pour
moi.
me
v(ms;
cela
est
for
you;
that
is
for
Ce/a
ne
plait pas.
impossible.
That
That
does
not
please
to
me. me.
Ce/a
m*est
a
is impossible
Qui
dit cela
f
opinion
Who
?
has
said
that
Est-ce
Ih votre
ci
vos
Is that
your
opinion books
?
?
Sont-ce
livres 9
Are
these
your
269.
the
Ce/ui
c (celle^euxj
celles)^that
necessarily
one^
(often
^he')
by
an
is
dependent
pronoun, following
determined
clause
"
immediately
(a)
relative
or
(b)
tional preposi-
a (especially possessive)phrase.
a
Ex.
Celui qui
qui
est content
He
who
is content
who
is happy.
see.
Ceux
vivront
nous
Those
la
live
shall
we
Ce/h
mort,
dont
pleurons
She
whose
death
mourn.
nHy
sHre
pas
de
v4rit4
que
tous
plus les
There
than
is
no
truth
all
men
more
certain die.
que
celle
doivent
that
must
hommes
mourir.
162
SYNTAX.
[269, 270.
Monfls
ma
et
celui de
de
mon
frh'e^
My
son
and
my and
brother's,
my
and
my
file et cells
robe
de satin
monfr^re.
et
daughter
The
one.
brother's.
the
velvet
La
cells
de
satin
di-ess
velours,
VoUd,
votre
vos
There
are
your
letters
and
your
scaur.
sister's.
sevl
Je
iCai qv!un
d'etre
Note
used
one,
d^sir^
cslui
have being
only
one
desire,
that
of
heureux.
1. If
the
happy.
in value peut
"
relative
.*
clause
is parenthetic
coute
celui-ci, celui-la
est
are
for
celui
(270)
e.g.
a
Celui-ci, qui
de
chose,
excellent
This
which
costs
but
trifle, is excellent.'
though
Note
2.
"
less frequently
be
(and
into
a
not
elegantly),
clause
:
before
adjective
that
que
ceux
could
changed
a
relative
e.g.
Ces
livres sont
donnas
M.
A.
morales,
Sometimes
bonne
h lire.
etc.,
celui
may
be
omitted.
"
Ex.
Ces
sentiments
sont
270.
Cslui'Ci
used:
more
"
and
cslui-ld.
are
the
independent
pronouns,
near
being
a.
topointout
-,
distinct
to
objects as
back
to
{celuithings
"
cl) or
remote
as
^the
latter'
to
"
refer
two
former'
does
not
(celui-ld,) ;
immediately
b.
as
antecedent
relative
Ex.
which
follow
(269. 1).
deux
est
est
Ce
sont
tableaux;
Those
are
two
one
beautiful
is by
paintings
Bapha^l^
Murillo.
ou
; this
Eaphael,
that
(one is) by
have
Murillo.
or
csux-ci
csux-
Will
you
these
those
Le
est
doux
-ci
apr^s ^puise
nos
le
Sweet
is sleep exhausts
after
our
labor
; the
celui
latter
the
strength,
it.
les ripare,
former
repairs
b
heureux
qui
est
Celui'ld
content.
He
is happy
who
is content.
270-272.]
Celui
PRONOUNS.
163
[But
qui
est
cordent
est
He
who
is content
is
happy.]
heureux:
cf. 269.
Exercise
XII.
Interrogatives.
(Review 27 1
The
.
108.)
separated
as
noun
by
adjective quel (which may be lequel are, ^tre) and the pronoun
used
in
^
from
its
the
English
terr in-
both
?
direct
and
indirect
the
to.
"
questions.
question Ex.
to
Lequel
or
(like Engl.
certain
ones
which
of f
') always
Which
limits
one
several
objects referred
Quel livre
ne
avez-vous
(what) book
hour is your
do you
have?
Je
sais
quels
heure
livres
il
a.
Idonotknowwhichbookshehas.
?
At
quelle
est
viendrez-vous
avis
what
shall
you
?
come
Que/
votre
What
opinion
Lequel
plaXt
de
ces
tableaux
f
vous
Whichof
you
these
most
paintings
pleases
le mieux
?
out
Examinons
a
lequel
le plus
devosil^ves
Let
us
find has
who
of
your
fait
de progr^s.
pupils
progress.
made
the
greatest
Laquelle
vous
de ?
ces
fleurs
est
d,
Which
you^s
of
these
flowers
is
?
ones
Lesquels
de
avez-vous
ces
choisis
Which Which
speak
have these
you
chosen
Ouquel
vous
garqons
parlez-
of
boys
do
you
9
de la
ces
of ?
Auxquelles
nez vov^
fleurs
?
don-
Which
prefer
to
of
?
these
flowers
do
you
pr4f4rence
Note.
"
Quel also
I
*
corresponds
a
the
1
'
exclamatory
'
what
*
(a)
Quel
!'
beau
tableau
What
beautiful
picture
Quelle
and
hont"t
What
goodness
272.
reference
Qui is used
to
in both
as
direct
indirect
questions,
of
with
persons,
subject or object.
Instead
quiy the
164
SYNTAX.
[272-274
redundant
phrase
often
qui
used^
esi-ce
qui
(subject) or
when
no noun
qui
est-ce
que
the
(object)is
"
especially
follows
verb.
Ex.
esi-ce
qui)
f
fait
Who
has
done
that
Qui
chercheZ'VOua
(or Qui
f)
Whom
do
you
seek?
esf'Ce
est
ce
que
vous
chercTiez
Qui
gar^on
f f
a
Who
is this
boy
you who
Ji qui
Je
ne
pensez'vous
sais
Of
whom
do
know
think?
has
qui
dit cela.
a
I do not
said in
that.
273.
questions.
Que
'what/
Instead
conjunctive,
que^
is used
only
direct
of
the
redundant
phrase
qu'esi-ce
is often
qui
used,
(subject) or
the
former
qu'est-ce
regularly other
than
que
when
(object or
the
what
T)
is the
subject of
dites
impersonal
Ex.
Que
diteS'Vousf
vous ce
que
(or Qu'est-ce f)
Qu'est-
What
do
you
say?
Qiiest
ce
(or usually
What
is it
? (that)
que
c'esi
vous
9)
4tonne
9
language,
c*est
^tonne
Qu^est'Ce qui
Note
What
qu'est-ce
astonishes
qui
you
?
farther
"
1.
"
In
colloquial
(or que)
or
is often
extended
to
qu'est-ce
c'est
que
vous
qui
f
(or
What
que
with
without jou
?
verb).
?
"x.
cest
Qu'est-ce que
qui does
astonishes
c'est
Qu*est-ce que
What
he
wish
Qu'est que
que
Vavenir
is the
future
Qu'est'Ceque
2.
"
c'est
qtte cela
(or fa)?
*
What
is that? by
ce
Note
In indirect
Je
ne
'
questions
what
is expressed
qui
or
ce
que
(265).
"
Ex.
sais
pas
ce
qui
Vcfflige'I
do
not
know
what
pains
him.'
274.
Quoi ^what,'
preposition
disjunctive,
can
is used
after
prepositions.
or
Without
it
occur
only
in
exclamation
rogatio interEx.
when
the
verb
is omitted What
; and
are are more
after you
you
savoir.
"
A quoi pensez-vous9
thinking
of? of?
De
quoi parlez^ott89
plus
What
9
speaking
Quoi de
beau
What
beautiful?
274-276.]
Jl cherche
danc H
PROKOTTNS.
165
quelque
chose.
Quo/
He
is
looking is it ?
for
something.
What
cherche^
275.
je
ne
sais
quo/.
or
He
forming
is seeking,
indefinites
I don't know
cf. 287.
what.
About
quel, qui,
quoi
with
que
Relative
Pronouns.
(Review
276.
different
a.
109-11.)
Pronouns.
"
Use
of
the
Relative
is
The
use
of the
:
relative
pronouns
subject to
and
que
are
the
following used
to
an
rules
when
Without
can
preposition
gut
always
reference
no
ambiguity
with
diately immeserves
preceding
to
Lequel
avoid
more
ambiguity
remote
by
distinguishing
noun.
referring
to
the V
antecedent
et
est matade^
que
The
child
who
seen.
is sick, and
whom
I have
ont
Les
qui
4t4 pilUes,
The
cities that
have
been
dered. plun-
EUe
un
ruharCde^soie
qui
She
has
silk-ribbon
that
is
est Men
beau.
curi
very
pretty.
La
fille du
meure
laquelle
est
de-
The
vicar's
daughter, by,
is ill.
son
who
is
icipr^Sf
malade,
living
near
Le
ais du
vu
nMecin,
lequel
fai
The
saw
physician's yesterday.
to
whom
hier.
a
b. After
to
preposition
qui
refers
persons,
The
and
lequel
tional preposi-
usually
things
de
(less often
qui, duquel,
also
phrases replaced
often
un
and
lequel
c.
often
by
doni
and
oil
(cf. Ill,
etc.)are by below)
"
oh
less
in ordinary
style
than
It is
in classical
a
writers.
"
Ex.
C^est
often
ami
de
qui
parle.
(less
duquel
friend
of whom
I speak.
duquel) je
doni
Voild, Vami
or
(or
There
is
the
friend
of whom
de
qui) je
parle.
speak.
166
SYNtAX.
[276
house
I live.
La
maison
dans
demeure.
laquelle
(or
pour
est
The
in which
(or where)
he works
ou) je
Sa
m^re
pour
il
qui
(or
His
mother and
/aquelle)
vieille
ei
travaille^
is old
injirme.
oil
aux
Les
honneurs
(or,
more
vous
The
honors
to which
you
aspire.
commonly,
aspirez.
quels)
La
douleur
The
grief
into
which
am
La But
maison
d'ou
maison
il sort.
from
which
=
he
comes.
La
dont
il sort.
family)
from
which
c.
^
he
descends.
Whose
(of which)'
by
case
is
rendered
laquelle
by
dont;
The
or,
after
duquel
what
(de
etc.).
construction
'
'
is in
it would
be
in English
if
whose that
is
were
rendered
'of
whom
(which),'observing
and thus,
noun.
"
always
'
dont
heads
relative
from
clause,
unlike
Ex.
whose,'
often
separated
its governing
Vhomme
mort, est
dont
ici. voir
le
frh-e
est
The
man
whose
brother
is dead
is here.
Vhomme
Je
voudrais
vous
dont
should whose
much.
like honesty
to
see
the
man so
vantez
taut
la prohiti.
you
praise
Je
vais
vous
trouver
m^avez
V agent donn4
dont
am
going
to
the
gave
agent
me.
Padresse.
whose
le
address
L^ennui
travail
est
tin
mat
dont
Ennui
is
an
evil
cure
is
est
le remMe.
work.
Uhomrtie
vous
A parlez.
enfant
le
venu.
duquel
The
man
to
whose
child
you
speak.
La
femme
laquelle
lois d
avec
fls
de
The
woman
come.
with
whose
son
je
suis
have desThe
we
Les
la protection
nous
laws
to
whose
our
protection
quelles
bonheur.
c"njions notre
intrust
happiness.
277-280.]
[277.]
'
PRONOUNS.
167
Elliptically
qui
who,'
is used
or
as
an
indefiuite of
ce
pronoun
in the
sense
of
whoever, Ex.
ne
(any)
one
instead
qui, and
it is then
inyariable.
"
Qui
dit rien
consent.
He
who
says I love,
nothing
I love
consents.
que) faime, je
de
Vaime
Whom
well.
On
ne
peut
rien
exiger
qui
n'a
Nothing
has
can
be
exacted
from
one
who
rien.
nothing. shall
never
never
Voila
qui
(or
ce
qui)
n*arrivera
That
happen
Behold (/tY.
jamais.
what
is exceptionally
shall
happen).
adjective. d^tte.
"
[278.] Lequel
regu
cent
used
as
pronominal
Ex.
J*ai
dollars, de laquelle
sommeje
vous
paierai
ma
279.
Quo/
as
is
ce,
an
indefinite
chose,
relative
voildi, void,
referring
and
to
some
such
antecedent
rien,
is used
only
with
preposition.
a
"
Ex.
7Z n'y plus
rien
sur
quoi
Von
ait
There
is nothing
on
which
more
^crit.
has
il s^agit.
been
is
written.
the
Voild,
de
quoi
That
what
question
is
about.
peux
il pense.
avons
Je
deviner
{ce)
quoi
can
guess
of.
what
he
is think-
ing
Nous
so
de quoi
with
means
an
vivre
(and
to
We
have
the
means
our
of
means
living
of
sub-
on
iniinitive
or
(We
have
express
cause).
^what'
a
sistence).
(=
^that
280.
The
English
ce
which')
is in
French
rendered
by
and
relative
pronoun
(265).
"
Ex.
Ce
qui
que
est vrai
vous
est beau.
est
What What
c^est
is true you
I say
is beautiful. is true.
Ce
dites
me
vrai.
Ce
donf
votre
je
plains,
*
What
complain
of
is
your
inattention.
de
inattention.
sont
Les
ce
se
biens
h
la
fortune
The
we
gifts
must
of
fortune
are
what
quoi
il
faut
le moins
least
of
all
rely
fier.
upon.
168
SYNTAX.
[281-283.
follow
sentence
281
nearly
cannot
The
.
Relative
pronoun of
should
the
"
as
as
the
construction
as
it
be
ma
omitted^
table
un
in English.
Ex.
a
Tai
est
sur
sur
livr e^qui
un
I have
book
on
my
table
which
ct toi
ma
(not J^ai
table
livre d
is thine.
.
qui
est
Oil
est
le
papier^que
toi) fax
Where
is the
paper
(which)
achet^^
bought?
VoiVi
le livre^dont
je parle.
Exercise
There
XIII.
is the
book
I speak
of.
Indefinite
Pronouns.
Rules there given,
not
(Review
282.
partitive Avez-vovs
Have money
carefully
112.
repeated.)
than
a
Que/que
sign
(quelques)
may
f
'
some
is
more
restrictive
'
the
few.' Have
(45),and
often
be
rendered de
little,
f
quelqi/ argent
you
?
Avez-vous you
Pargent
(some)
little
any
money?
AveZ'VOv^
Have pens?
que/ques
you
a
plumes
Avez-vous
you
pens?
des
plumes
Have
few
(some)
femmes
A
"
Que/ques
se
hommes
sur
et des
few show
men,
and
some
on
women
montrent
"
le
word
"
mur.
themselves
the
*
wall.
some,
Note.
'
With
of quantity Ex.
(especiallya numeral)
am
*
quelque
about
is invariable.
*
Quelque cinquante
Some
fifty years.'
que Quel-
peu
Some
little.'
283.
Que/que
'whatever'
or
form
pronominal
the
phrases word
variable,
an
meaning
a
'h(jwever.'
quelque
'
If
an
intervening
is
noun
noun-phrase,
is
'
adjective and
it is
"
the
meaning
being
the
then
whatever
otherwise
adverb
and
invariable,
meaning
being
then
'however.'
Ex.
28^-287.]
Que/que
tende.^
PRONOUNS.
169
malkeur
qui
m'at-
Whatever
misfortune
me.
may
await Whatever
Whatever have.
riches
riches fine
he may
possess. he may
talents
Que/que
quails soient.
se
However
rich
they
one
may
be. resist.
is de
(Ufende,
*
However
stoutly
but
"
may
Que/que
chose
in
something' chose
que
is masculine,
chose
'thing'
(even
have
quelque
'whatever').
chose
*
Ex.
Que/que
'
chose
Whatever
Something
beautiful.'
Que/que
qu*il ait
faite (f .)
may
done.'
Une
belle chose
beautiful
thing.'
285.
follows Ex.
sort
Quelconque
the
noun
un
whatever/
it qualifies.
which
is used
ne
for
both
persons
and
things,
"
With
it is rarely
used
in the
plural.
me
some
vous
Donnez-moi
livre quelconque
of
a
(any kind)
*
book.'
// n'y
raison
can
quelconque oblige
you
qui
puisse
oUiger 286.
singular. ought
There
is
no
reason
whatever
'
that
to it.'
Quiconque
"
whoever
is rarely
used
etre
sera
except
for
persons
and
in the
Ex.
Quiconque est
riche
doit
ment
bienfaisant'Whoever
'
is rich
to
be
beneficent.'
Quiconque
punt
Whoever
lies shall
be
punished.'
287.
qv"
The
relatives
qui, que/,
quoi,
phrases.
'
ou
form
with
ing follow-
indefinite
*
pronominal and
Qui
'
que
'whoever/
reference
que/
to
no
que
whatever/
Ou
vous
quoi
then
'
que
used
whatever
as
(with
definite
6tre,
object)are
que
means
predicate
"
complements
with
wherever.'
Ex. you
Qui
que
que
soyez,
que//e
j
Whoever
may
may
be, whatever
and
soit votre
reputation
et
be
your
you
reputation, do.
case
quoi
que
en
vous
fassiez.
whatever
Quoi qu'il
Oil que
mort
soit.
Whatever
vous
the you
may
you
be.
are
vous
soyez,
moi.
Ues
Wherever
for
me.
be
dead
pour
Qudque
qui
or
que,
unlike
tout
que, always
requires
the
subjunc
(330).
170
SYNTAX.
[287-290.
used
the
Note.
one soever,*
"
The
*
same
phrases
are
also
with
like.
"
ce
soil in the
sense
'
of
any
ce
anything
not
*
whatever/
any
one
and
Ex.
at
"oi"*
There
ce
was
soever
(anybody
himself with
all).'
s*occupe
de
soil
He
does
not
busy
anything
whatever.*
On
(about
which
3)
may
apply
to
particular
person
or
to
distinct
number
"
body
of persons,
the
noun
following
adjective then
the verb
verb
agrees
in gender
in
"
and
with
referred
to ; but
is invariably
the Ex. is
singular.
voire
On
ma
must
be
repeated
eat
before
At
each
whose
my
subject
it is.
age,
on filler
curieuse
your
age,
daughter,
one
(f.).
est
inquisitive.
"gaux,
Ici ron
pi.
(colloquial).
on
Here
people is happy
are
equal. he
is contented.
On
est
heureux
quand
est
content.
One
when
289.
Jluirui\ which
after
can
refer
only
to
persons,
as
is
rarely
used
except
prepositions by
un
(it being
pi. les autres,
supplied,
Wautres fun
do
and
direct
V0U8
object,
pas
autre,
subject 'others').
people.
Ne
moquez
le
d'autruL
Do
not
make will
are
of other
D'auires
feront.
rien,
quelque
Others
that.
290.
to
Personne,
quelqu'un,
and
aucun
the
negative being
tives
choae^
and
qv^lque^
or
used
the
manner
action
of
the
verb
(expressed
or
understood)
"
is in
some
denied, personnel
forbidden,
uncertain.
not
Ex.
Je
ne
connais
I do
no
know
any
one
(I know
for God.
of
one).
is impossible
not
Rien
ne
n^est
impossible
aucun
d, Dieu.
de
vos
Nothing
I do
Je
desire
wish
any
your
livres,
out
e
books.
que personne
de
vienne,
Jed
I doubt
I forbid Is
whether
him
to
anybody
say
comes.
Je
T
lui
defends
aucun
rien
dire.
anything. who
a-t-il
{personne)
f
payer
there
it ?
anybody
believes
qui
est
Sonne
le croie
parti
sans
per-
He
left without
paying
anybody
(sans
miettx
rien
que
payer).
personne
(without
I know
paying
anything).
than
Je
le sais
it better
anybody.
(ne
le sait
understood).
290-292.]
PRONOUNS.
171
Q^i
le salt
Personne.
9
A
Who
knows
are
it ?
you
Nobody.
of?
qiLoi pensez-voua
rien.
What
thinking
Of
nothing.
Je
The
veux
rien
dire.
I will
mean
say
nothing
(or I
do
not
anything).
pronouns,
is masculine
Notice
that personne,
while
the
noun
other
person
uninflected
'
singular,
personne
is feminine.
291.
MuL
but
The
"
The
adjective
used
nul
is inflected
as
in
masculine
and
in the
feminine,
plural.
it is rarely
an
indirect
object or
is by
pronoun
negative
ne.
"
is
always
singular.
analogy
Although
itself with
revenu.
(Lat. nvMus)
No
one
construed
n^est
n^en
Ex.
has
no
Hul
returned. knowledge
of it.
Je
ai nulls
connaissance.
I have
292.
Tout
{toute; pi.
tous^
toutes),
"
a.
The
=
adjective tout
all
is distributive
(sing, 'every,
by
no
any,'
or
pi.
'all
kinds
an
of)
article
when
accompanied
pronoun
tout
article
pronoun.
With
all
"
or
it is
means
collective
'
('the
whole,
"
the').
b. The
pronoun
everything,
Conjunctive
all.'
Ex.
Directly
preceding
Followed
son
by
an
article
or
pronoun
Tout
pays.
homme
doit
man
aimer
Toute
whole
la maison
house
ftitbriUSe,
was
The
Every his
should
burnt,
love
country.
a son
Toute
chose
temps.
J^y
resterai
toute
une
ann6e,
a
Everything
has
its time.
shall
remain
there
whole
year.
Toutes
bonnes
v4rit4s
ne
sont
pas
Tous
All
les
men
homm"s
are
sont
mortels.
d, dire.
It
is
not
mortal.
well
Tout
Every
enfant
child
aime
le
jeu.
Tous
le
mes
(ces) enfants
All
my
aim^nt
likes
playing.
jeu.
like
(these) children
playing.
172
SYNTAX.
[292, 293.
DiSJUNCTITE
Tout
depend
de
VHucation.
Everything tion.
depends
on
educa-
Je
lea connais
tout dit.
tous
(a
aa),
the
I know I have
them
all.
all.
*
MTai
Note Parts
Note
en
said
city
1.
"
Tout
*
before Paris
as
name
of
means
all/
"
Ex.
Tout
park
2.
"
All
speaks
adverb
of it.'
means
Tout
preserve
'wholly, of
t
as
entirely,
quite.'
By
an
anomaly
(to
f
the
a
utterance
before
vowels)
with
a
it is inflected
consonant
toute
before (toutes)
.
feminine
bonne
y
adjective
"
beginning
(cf
toulT^tonn^ef
toute
f
.
Ex. toute
EUe
en
fat
tout
"onn"e
(or
She
was
quite
astonished
at
it.
surprise^.
sont
Files
tout
inconsolables
(or
They
are
quite
disconsolate.
toutes
d"8ol"es^,
tout
a
a
II parlait
Jierement.
son
He
spoke
quite
proudly. devoted
to
EUe
est tout
devoir
She
I
'
is wholly
her
duty.
Je
vous.
am
wholly
tout
3.
"
Tout
. .
.
"
que
means
however/
an
adverb,
treated
above.
Ex.
Tout
bon
(but
Toute
qu*elle gu'elle
est)
est
'However
*
good
much
he
(or she)
a woman
is.' she
femme
(used
adj.)
However
of
is.'
293.
Tef
such'
and
'
takes
it does
the
not
indefinite
prevent
the
article
use
before
the
it, instead
partitive
of
after, It may
specified
as
in English,
'
of
de.
not
mean
so-and-so,'
it may
'
such-and-such,'
mean
'
being
one,'
used Tel
.
instead
. ,
of
word
;
.
or
many
.
.
and
tel corresponds
to
'
one
another
son
or
as
so.'
Tef est
devoir.
me
rares.
Such
is his
duty. pleases
are
rare.
Une
telle conduite
plait.
Such
conduct
me.
De
tela amis
me
sont
Such
He Mr.
friends
owes
//
doit telle
un
somme.
me
a
such-and-such
one.
sum.
Monsieur
Tel rit demain,
tel. qui
such
a
aujourd'hui
pleurera
Many
cry
one
laughs
to-day
who
will
to-morrow.
Tout
. .
que
(unlike
qudque
que
330)
does
not
generally
require
the
subjunctive.
)2fi3,294.]
PBONOUNS.
178
One
As
laughs,
the
master,
another
so
cries.
master,
the
servant
(Like
like
man).
the
or
294.
Uun
refer
Pauire
to
(requiring
in gender
se
before
verb)
Ex. love
^each
other/
antecedent
agree
objects, expressed
and
These
understood,
with
which
they
number.
two
"
Ces deux
Pauire.
fiUes s^aiment
doivent
Puns
girls
each
other.
s'aimer
Les
chrkiens
uns
Christians
another.
should
love
one
/es
In
les autres.
same
the
way
are
used
also:
Pun
de
(d etc.)P
'
autre
^of
other/
or
Pun
ei
P autre
'both/ Pun
ou
P autre
the
one
the
other/ ni Pun
Vun
et V autre
ni P autre
the
noun
neither
nor
other.' verb
After
is in the
Vun
as
singular, the
but
usually
the
in the
or
or
plural plural
; after
ni
ni
V autre
verb
is in
singular
one
according
the
predicate
to.
"
is
Ex.
applicable
to
only
both
of the They
objects referred
speak of
one
Hsparlent
Pun
des
de P autre.
4gards
another.
On
se
doit
/es
uns
We
should
be
one
aux
autres. et
towards
gargon
le
Vun
Pautre
Both
boys
followed
suivaient. et Pautre
et
se
Vun
sont
tromp^s.
se
Both
are
mistaken. and
Ijucr^ce tu^s
elles
Cl^opdire
et
se
sont
Cleopatra
but
other.
both they
Pune
ne
Pautre,
pas
mats
sont
tv^es
Pune
ou
Pautre. Pautre
Vune
lefera.
Either
the
one
or
the
other
shall
(will) do
is my
it.
Mi
Pune
w^re.
ni
Pautre
n^est
ma
Neither
mother.
Hi Pun
ni Pautre
ne
viendront.
Exercise
Neither
XIV.
will
come.
174
SYNTAX.
[295-297.
XVI.
YEEBS.
[295.
some
HISTORY. in
the
"
The
construction
of
the
rerb
has
and last
been
subject
of
etre
to
yariation
century,
past
centuries.
was
Thus,
to
in the
16th
the
beginning only
ya
ce
of the
two
or
17th
more
Terb
allowed
agree
with
et
a
coordinated
; in the
subjects
17th,
etre
eux
(e.g. Leurs
usually
qui
en
maisons with
lew
ville
d"serte.
not
Bossuet)
agrees
preceding
M""
and
with
(e.g. Cesf
and 18th,
demeurent
even
d^accord.
a
de
to
S^vigne)
two
nouns
17th
in the
exceptionally
even
yet,
noun
verb
referring
is put first
plural,
comte
when
avec
the
second
to
the
(e.g.
"
Le
In
Piper
quelques
the
Sta/ent officiers
is found
even
du
camp.
st,
Voltaire).
and
a
the
17th
century,
conditional
after
future
sang
en
after
leading
main
future
when
logically
trop
vil
^at
ta
seratt
sera.
tremp"e.
Racine).
The
the
{Je
revieu"
voir
has
le soir
quel
many
elle
Moli^re).
under
the
used both
distinction
of
:
undergone
the
changes
(cf. further
supplying
more
subjunctive
infinitive
and
319), and
gerund
or
infinitive,
was
originally
once
Latin
than
gerundive,
much
freely
it is
now.]
Agreement
of
Verb
and
Subject.
its
"
296.
or
A
its
verb
agrees
in number
and
person
with
subject^
Ex.
with
subjectscollectively
viendra.
(ifthus
My My
considered).
will
will
come. come.
Monfr^re
brother brothers
shall
Mes
frh-es viendroni.
wiendrons*
Nous
We
soeur
come.
Mon
fr^re
et
ma
wien-
My
come.
brother
and
sister
will
droni,
Note. singular
After
e.g. Vun
"
Vun
et
V autre
est
the
hoii^
predicate
or
may
bons,
be
in
the
et Vautre
soni
[297.]
"
Agreement
The verb
with
One
in French
Alone
"
of
Several
main
as
jects. Subalso in
agrees
in
the
297.]
VERBS.
175
English
"
with
one
alone
one
of several
or
a. subjects,
when
its action
of them
really
affects
only
of them,
b. when
Thus,
it affects on^
more a.
emphatically
It agrees
are
than
one
the
others.
with
of several
ou
'or'
they
connected action
cannot
sceur
by
ni
'neither,'
provided
"
the
Mon
verbal
affect
'
all the My
subjects alike.
or mon
Ex.
fr^re
ou
ma
wiendra
Vun
ni
brother
n'est
my
sister
'
(not both)
is my
will
come.'
Ni
V autre
p^re
ou
Neither
father'
(only one
'Vice
ma soeur
could
or ne
be).
"
But
Le
vice
la vertu
font
Ni
nor
des
mon
revolutions
virtue
(both) cause
'Neither
stay
revolutions.'
my away: brother
fr^re
ni
wiendroni
will
my
sister
will
after
come'
both (i.e.
hence
usually
plural
nouns
combined
by
ni).
so
NoTB.
"
The
above
occur.
principle
As
a
is not general
strictlj
the
obserred,
but
that
occasional
deviations
rule,
singular different
is preferred
usage
*
after
ou
and
the plural
the
one
after ni.
is in the
Observe
singular
is
a
the
somewhat
* *
in English,
"
when
verb
after
or
or/
a
either
"
or/
noun.
neither
nor/
unless
of the
subjects
plural
collective
"
b.
The
verb
except
agrees when
with
that
one
only
of
several
subjects (the
1. when
honneur
nearest,
are
is of
subordinate
parole^
mon
value) :
they
placed
'
in
gradation
my
mattre
come
(ma
demands
le
are
demande,
My
word,
honor
et
it ') 2. when ;
viendra
they
synonymoiu
protector
{Mon
will
comm", noun mxi
protecteur
'My
master
and
');
que^
nouns
3. when
aussi
they
bien
are
connected
by
particle
like
ainsi
or
que^
etc. subordinating
the
following
bien que
under
viendra
the 'My
preceding
brother,
as
(Mon fr^re^
well
as
aussi
soeur,
my
sister, will
come').
Farther Examples
a.
to
297
Le
vice
ou
ou
la vertu V autre
friomphera.
Vice
or
or
virtue the
must
triumph.
write.
Vun
icrtra.
One
other
will
176
SYNTAX.
[297-200.
Luck made
have
Le
bonheur pu
ou
la t4m4nt4
ont
or
rashness
may
faire
des
hSros,
ne
heroes.
will
my marry her.
nor
Ni
Vun
mon
ni V autre p^re ni
Vepousera.
rn^re
ne
Ni
ma
father
come.
my
viendroni.
b.
will
Une
un
seule
parole^
un
sourire^
single
word,
smile,
look
regard courage^
suffit.
son
is sufficient.
mtr4pidit4
Son
nous
His
courage,
his
us.
intrepidity
efonne. le bien^
^
astonishes
la vie,
tout
Le
temps
Time,
property,
to
one's
life, everything
country.
est
d la patrie. bataille,
ne
comme
belongs
tant
Cette
This
battle, like
so
many
others,
d^autres,
d6cida
que
Hen.
decided
de
son
nothing.
as
La
vertu,
ainsi
(or
a
Virtue,
has
well
as
knowledge,
m^me
que)
le savoir,
its value.
prix.
Should
are
the
subjects
summed
agrees
;
be
by
of
one
different
personal
persons
either then
up
or
pronoun,
as
the
verb
the
verb
is construed
Ex.
Ma
sceur
et
vous
moi voir.
(nous)
vien-
My
see
sister
you.
and
will
come
to
drons
Vous
Ni
et lui 6tes
contents.
You
venus.
and
he
he
are
nor
satisfied.
you
come. came.
n'^tes
Neither
You
or
Vou^
lui
viendrez.
he
will
[299.]
lective
expressed
Agreement
in
or
with
Collectives.
determined verb
the
"
a.
a
After
col-
noun
the
singular,
the
by
plural
noun,
understood,
is treated
in French, if the
in the
of
main,
as
in English,
is had
being
in
singular
in the
unity
"
the
collection
in view,
otherwise
plural.
Ex.
299,
300.]
VERBS.
177
The
verb
in the
siDgular
La
foule
grande.
d'enfants
6faif
The
crowd
great.
of
children
was
Varm4e ditruUe.
des
infidMes
troupes
fut
The
army
of
infidels
was
de-
stroyed.
des
La
de
moitiS
mis^re.
perif
One
half
of the
troops
perished
of want.
de traits obscure/
f
Une
nu4e
cloud air.
of
arrows
darkened
the
Vair.
The
verb
s
in the
plural
"
Une
foule
enfant
de
crowd
of children
were
there.
etaieni.
Un
grand nomhre
de
soldats
un
great
number
of
want,
of soldiers
a
pernum-
perireni
nomhre
mis^re, soldats
petit
ished
small
(de
under-
ber
escaped.
stood) se
Cette
esp^ce
que "i"ent
sauYsreni,
de
dix
chiens
ans.
ne
This
ten
species years.
of
dogs
live
only
b.
Adverbs
genitive
"
of
Quantity
must,
la (beaticoup,
as
plupart^
etc.)
have
followed
a
by
plural
also
in
English,
plural
verb.
Ex.
d'hommes des
hommes
Beaucoup
y sonf. soni
Many
Most
persons
men
are
there.
Laplupart
are
selfish.
int6ress4s.
La
Le
plupart
le cro/ent
Most la pludu
people
senate
believe
were
it. sing,
sSnat
part
^ait
partagS,
en
The
(note
a
in
efa/ent
faveur
Fr.) divided
in favor
majority were
bill.
projet.
300
with
of the
After
"
ce
as
impersonal predicate
"
the
following
3d
subject of (expressed
etre,
or
this verb
agrees
if it
understood),
is of the
person.
Ex.
178
SYNTAX.
[300-303.
Ce sont
sonf
mes
eux.
enfant
a.
It is my
children.
Ce
It is they. pommesf
ce
Sont-ce
Id, vos
que
Are
les
those
must
your
apples mine.
II
faut
miennes.
soieni
They
be
But:
"
C^est
moi;
c^est
nous;
"est
It is I;
it is we;
it is you.
Note.
"
When
to
ce
the
sont.
"
predicate
Ex.
is
followed
by
que
the
vous
relative
aimez
f
que,
c^est
is
preferred
Eat-ce
les Anglais
301.
After
the
"
relative
Ex.
qui
the
verb
agrees
with
the
immediate
antecedent
of qui.
qui Vat
dit.
It is I who
It is You
we
are
has
said
it.
that
suffer.
only
am one
etes
the I
that
knows
it.
spoke
Je crois que
je
de
suis
le premier
qui
I believe of it.
the
first that
ait parl"
cela,
302.
After
noua,
voua,
and
on,
the
but Ex.
verb the
is construed predicate
according
noun
to
the
grammatical
to
value their
of
these
words,
"
or
adjective
according
implied
sense.
Vous
On
se
etea
bonne,
ma
mere.
You
are
good,
my
each
mother.
touchait
pour
la main,
et
Von
etait
They
were
grasped
others
hands
and
amfa
la vie.
friends
for life.
Exercise
XV.
Use
of
Modes
The
and
Tenses.
303.
so
Indicative.
universal
as
"
indicative being
on
mode
often
is not
in French
by
use
of
use
as
in English,
supplied
In
for
the
subjunctive
described
French
farther
(320 etc.).
though
the the
of
indicative
tenses,
and
English,
most
303,
304.]
agreeing,
VERBS.
179
part
also
not
unfrequently
differ.
Special
rules
are
given
below.
304.
a.
The
Simple
to
Present.
express
"
This
tense
is used:
state
or
As
in English,
purely
as
present
as
action
and
am
and
it represents
forms do
the
of the
indefinite
well
the
progressive
^
emphatic
loving,
La
English
present
faime (e.g.
I love,
love
').
"
Ex.
superstition CLCcidents.
cause
mille
Superstition
calamities.
causes
thousand
Scrit
b.
une
Uttre.
He
is writing
to express
(writes)a
present
combien
letter.
Unlike
the
present
from f
in English,
the
^
state
or
action
continued
en
past
(cf.Depuis
have
de
temps
etes-voVrS
Amirique
person
How
long
you but
been
in America
de
'
when
awez'vous
the
asked A.
f when
is yet
there; is
He
no
Combien
temps
ete
en
he
longer
ha^
there).
"
Ex.
est
ici depuis
une
semaine
been
here
for
week.
(or 21
est
une
semaine
quHl
ici).
quand
de
en
Depuis
Vaimez-vous
temps y
f
a-t-il
How How
long
have has
you
loved
her ?
in
Combien
long
?
she
been
qu^elle est
France
f He
France
has
Depuis
trente
hivers
il languit.
languished
these
thirty
years.
c.
To
express
as
future
state
"
or
action
after
si
if
(not after
'
si
whether
cf.
311),
also
in English.
Ex.
8*il vient,
d.
as
je
also
"
lui parlerai.
in English,
If he
comes,
I shall
speak
to
him.
As
often
Ex.
rhetorically,
to express
past
state
or
action
present.
La
nuit C^sar
approche,
se
Vinstant
arrt"9f
Night
draws
nigh,
the
moment
comes
presente.
Cesar
of past
presents
himself
(narratior
eyents).
180
SYNTAX,
[304,305.
future
in
to
e.
Exceptionally
certainty dans
une
(as
or
also
in
English) for
"
main
clauses
express
immediateness.
Ex.
I depart in be hour. in
a
Je pars
heure.
an
Je
8ui8
de retour
dans
un
moment,
I shall
back
moment.
305.
The
Compound
used:
a
"
Present
a.
(
not
Perfect)."
of
the
This
tense
is regularly
Where
of
the time
action yet
"
verb
is completed hour,
state
division this
past b.
(as
this
this
this
of
year, the
a or
century,
; etc.)
Where
a
the
or
verb,
though way,
an
completed without
in
past
to
period, attending
is
spoken
in
general with
reference
to
circumstances,
implied
reference
its consequence
in the In
discourse any
the
compound
to
a
present
past,
is used
quite
with
freely
reference
present
especially
the
1st and
persons.
a.
Mon
My
He
brother
came
has
written
to-day.
II est lui
et il
matin.
this
morning.
to
Je
parle
(cette semaine),
de
venir.
have
spoken
and
him
(this
to
promis
week),
come,
he
promised
b.
a
Dieu
Colomb
oree
a
le monde,
God
created
the
world.
America.
decouvert
a
VAnnirique,
la m^e
des
Columbus Greece
was
discovered
the
mother
La
Ghr^ce
beaux
vu
ate
of
the
arts.
fine arts.
a
un
Je Vai
il y
an,
I
que I
saw
him
year
ago.
i/'fl/
recu
hier
la
lettre
received which
yesterday
you
wrote
the
me
letter
vousm'avez^critelasemaine
demi^re,
Note.
last
week.
Exceptionally the Ex.
"
compound
present
is used
un
for
*
the
compound
I
future
(cf. 304.
finished
in
e).
a
"
Attendez,
J*aifini dans
TOOwi"nf
Wait,
(shall)
have
moment.'
306.]
306.
Preterit,
a
VERBS.
181
The
"
Simple
These
past
state
or
and
are
or
Compound
past
as on
Imperfect
tenses.
and
imperfect
both
action
going The
The
as (i.e.
describes
nnfinislied
when
existing,
continuous,
habitual,
something
else past
occurs)
at the
time
thought
in
of.
preterit
relates
occurrence
as
complete from
itself, and
without
reference
to
the
condition
arising
it.
Imperfect
:
"
II etaii
ans.
nigociant
pendant
dix
He
was
merchant
during
ten
years.
Des la
flambeaux
saUe,
mais
tous
eclairaieni
Us
Torches
lighted
were
the
hall, all
where
but
efaient
d,VextriVestrade
they
at
nearly
end,
was
placed
presque
places
the
other
the
mit4,
des
oh
s'elevait
judges' bench
When took
I
was
erected.
juges.
Lorsqfie
feta/s
souvent
PaHs^
chez M.
je
B.
was
in supper
Paris,
at
often
B's. she
soupa/s pensais
arriva.
my
Mr.
Je
elle lorsqu^eUe
thinking
of her
when
arrived.
Tawais
dejeund
quand
vous
had
breakfasted
when
you
entrdtes,
entered.
quand
eta/f
arriv^.
parti
je
suis
He
left when
I arrived.
Preterit
"
Le
roi
guitta
une
son
vaisseau
et
The
went
king
on
left
board
his
vessel of
a
'and
monfa
frigate
plus
smaller
Ugh'e,
craft
(frigate).
descended
and it.
as was
Louvet
descendii
de la tHhune,
Louvet
from
Eobespierre
the
et Robespierre
y monta.
tribune, mounted
D^s
quHl
fut
entre,
on
ferma
As
soon
he
had
entered,
the
la porte,
peine
me
door
closed.
had
I
fus-je le"6
quHl
Scarcely entered.
risen
when
he
enira.
182
SYKTAX.
[306-308.
preterit
were
:
"
Both
imperfect
and
Nous
efions
(assts) d
Men
sa
table
We
he
(seated)at
was
table when
lorsquHl
arriva. efa/t
il perdit
arrived.
friend
Mon
quand
ami
jeune
rn^re.
My
young
when
he
lost his
Le
vaisseau de cent
quHl
monta de
eiaii
canon.
he
boarded
vingt pieces
cannon.
Les
accus^
lis Us
avaieni
n'en
des
d^fenplus.
had
; they
been
no
having
seurs^
eurent
counsels
longer
receiv
On
menty
jugeaii individuelleon
any. sentenced
one were
They by
had
one,
been they
en
lesjugea
en
masse.
(now)
masse.
sentenced
[307.]
The
but
distinction
that
a
between degree
the of
imperfect
option
and
the
preterit
is not
so
absolute
certain
is allowed.
Especially
in
compound
tenses,
the
tendency
entra
*
is in
I
favor had
of
my
the
imperfect
form.
Thus,
J* avals
d"jeun"
lorsqu*il
he
had
breakfast
(or
had
just
breakfasted)
when
entered.'
[308.]
in
After
si 'if
(not
the
after
si
'whether'), introducing
the
an
unreal,
unaccomplished
French
"
condition,
imperfect
or
is
regularly be used
used
where
conditional
past
would
in English.
vous
Ex.
Si
me
tromp/ez,
Men
je
de-
If
you
should
me,
deceive I
(or
be
viendrais
malheureux.
deceived)
very
f
should
unhappy.
Si je venais,
mendriez-vous
If
should
you
me
come come
(or came),
?
would
11
mHa
demand^
si
fy
con-
He
asked
consent.
whether
I would
sentirais.
Note
1.
"
Even when
"
in
main
clauses,
writing
the
imperfect
may
be
to
used the
for
the
conditional
in energetic
Ex.
attention
is called
certainty
of the
ne
result.
S*il
Vavait
paa
fait, Vautre
etaft
If he be
had
dead.
not
done
it, the
other
would
mort.
308-313.]
Note
VERBS.
183
2.
"
About
the
use
of
the
compound
imperfect
subjunctive,
instead
of the
conditional,
cf
338.
.
[309.]
to
a
As
the the
present past
may
so a
express the
state
state
or
action also
continue
from
(304. b)
denote
imperfect
or
may
trary (confrom
English
time.
"
usage)
Ex.
action
continued
previous
y if ait depuis
longtemps.
He
had
time.
been
there
for
long
310.
tenses
The
Simple
to
and
Compound
same
Future."
in
These
observing
correspond
that
where
the
more
tenses
English,
in
only
future
"
French
is
strict
than
English
using
the
logically
required,
especially
in temporal
clauses.
Ex.
demain.
vous,
Je part/rai
I shall I shall
depart
to-morrow.
tPaurai le Je
fini avant
have
see
finished him
as
before
soon as
you.
he
verrai
aussitdt
quHl
shall
comes.
viendra,
Je pariirai
mes
quand
faurai
fini
shall
ished
leave
have
fin-
affaires.
direz
ce
my
Vous
quHl
si the
vous
p/aira.
is used
You
will
in
say
the
not
you
please.
[311.]
304.
After
Ex.
future
sais
only
*I
sense
'whether'
(cf.
come.'
d).
vous
"
Je
ne
vous
s*il viendra
*
know
whether I will
he
will
Si
yenez,
je
*
le dirai be
If you
(will) come,
tell you
it.'
Je
partirai
s'il vient
About
I shall
use e.
off if he
present
comes.'
[312.]
action,
the
of the
for
the
future
to denote
immediate
etc.,
cf
304.
.
[313.]
taken
aura
The
compound
"
future
sometimes
expresses
that
an
act
has
probably
place.
tout
Ex.
He
He
// lui
sera
se
dit.^
has
must
probably
have
told
started
him
all.
//
parti
sera
hier.
sans
yesterday.
other-
//
4gare,
cela
il serait
He
has
wise
probably
he
"ci.
would
Cf
German
Er
unrd
ihm
alles gesagt
haben.
184
SYNTAX.
[314-317.
Conditional."
tenses
314These
The
tenses
Simple
correspond
cannot
.
and
Compound
the
same
to
in English,
except the
they
be
; and
used
after
si 'if,' which
are more
"
requires
(cf 308)
je
(b.)that
they
strictly
Ex.
used
in subordinate Je
clauses
si
where
logically
I should
required.
come
viendrais
pouvais.
Jerauraisfaitsifavaispu,
Si
trompiez,
should been
have
able. should
me,
votis
me
je
If
you
(or
I
were
to)
be
de-
deviendraisbienmcdheureux,
ceive
should
very
unhappy. Si
je
je
retournais
d, Londres^
If
should
return
see
to
London,
le "errais.
him. you
Je
V0U8
V0U8
suivrais
should
you
follow
wherever
iriez.
After
may
me
went.
"yen
[316.]
conditional
quand,
guand
be
ne
m^me
rendered
m'en
'though,
by Even
"
though/
the
"
French
Ex.
in English
'were
to
were
(love,etc.).'
to hate
me,
Quand
vous
halriez^
je
if you
I should
plaindrais
pas.
not
complain.
[316.]For
317.
verbs
a.
the
conditional pouvoir,
needs
ne
some
'
of devoir
b.
of Thus
Devoir,
in English
savoir.
special have
no
"
The
rendering
these
:
explanations.
As
'
can
and
'
ought
participle
are
in
English, rendered
^
the
compound
another
or
*
tenses
of pouvoir
and
:
devoir
there
'
by
have,'
turn
of the expression
j'aipu
^
'I could
(or
'
I may
etc.
"
I have
been
le
able
') j'ai di ;
I ought
to have
Ex.
Je
n^ai pu
faire.
le
1 could
to
not
do
it
(I was
done
unable
do
ought
it).
to
faire.
He
have
it.
ant
(or auront)
These
men
may
have
perished.
auraif
b.
du
m'4crire
pouvoir,
(cf. b).
and
ne
He
ought
are
to have
written
an
^
me.
Devoir,
savoir
to
used,
before
infini"
tive, in
the
Bimple
conditional
denote
respectively
ought/
3l7,
318.]
'
VERBS.
185
'
could
the
(*might
componnd
'),and
have.'
can
not
; and
devoir,
pouvoir
likewise
in
*
conditional
"
for
^should
could
(might)
le
.
Ex.
dots
Je
dewrais
with
ref
faire (Je
I ought
to
to immediate
duty).
I could
f
more
Je pourrafs Pourriez'voua
Vessayer,
me
(might)
you
tell
me
try
?
it.
dire
Could
Je
ne
saurais
(ne puis
I cannot
do
it.
definite)le faire.
Taurais
du
le
faire.
venir.
I ought You
to
have
done
it. have
come.
VoiLS auriez
B
du
pu
8hould(ought to)
could
not
n^auraii
Note.
"
le faire.
part this
usage
two
He
of
the
have
seems
done
it.
only
Id
conditional
independent
idiomatic
into
one.
because
English
has
ne
fused
originally
forms
Cf
.
Sij'l^aiainvito, je
I
were
pourrais
go
invited
I could not
y alter; tTdtais invito, maisje ne pus invited, but I could not there : I was
y aller*lt
go
there.'
c.
Devoir
^
may
be used should,
oh^r
in any
is
due
Lea
[^doitought,
enfants doiweni
parents.
arriver.
Children
parents. That
He
was
should
obey
their
leurs
Cda
devaii
(destined)to
to have
happen.
II devaii
mourir
itre
ought
must
died.
Elle
du
She
have
been
beautiful
jeunesse.
Selon
avoir le
testament
in her
il
youth.
to the
devaii
According
la
maison.
318.
A Her
in
To
denote
^
immediate
am
turi fu-
je
'
vat's
"
etc.
used
in English
going
(I am
leave,
about)
II
va
etc.
Ex. He
is going
was
(is about)
to write
to
to
J^allais
about
him.
XVI.
186
SYNTAX.
[819,320.
Subjunctive.
[319.
of the
has
HISTORY.
use
"
The
same
use
of
the
subjunctiye
Yet restrictions
in French
has
between
as
:
grown the
out
of
much In
the
mode by
the connection
as
two
been
disturbed
languages, involved
well
chiefly is not
extensions
in French.
both
subjunctive
Lat. [e.g.
=
is used
A.
When
or
the
idea
in the
verb-expression
referred
=
to
as
fulfilled
certain
of being
fulfilled
est ut
Opto
//
ut
venfat
Fr.
Je
desire
quil
yfenne
;
; Lat.
Necesse
qui
venfat
Fr.
yienne
Lat.
Legatos
consu/erent
Apollinem
Fr.
lis envoyerent
des
d^put"s B. When
as some
qui conaultassent
the idea
Apolloti] ;
in
involved
the
verb-expression
is
not
the
thing
a"med,
especially
surprise
or
(in French
reserve
almost
exclusively)
Miratur
=
when
it is accepted
=
with
[e.g. Lat.
Unus
est
quod Fr.
venfat
Fr.
MU
est
; Lat.
quipoesft
Quamvis
QuoiquHls sofent
of differentiation of
^
bons'].
which language,
has
Still, by
the
process
been
some
going
on
out through-
whole
history
nature"
the
such
French
as
discrepancies of
of
indirect
comprehensive
the
the
loss
of
the
subjunctive
in
use
discourse,
development
of
conditional
gretitly
mood, increased
etc.
"
part
assuming
the
office of the
Latin
subjunctive,
expression exist
now
the of
of the
many
subjunctive
of Latin.
a
of surprise
(afterany
nature,
emotion),
that
has
and and
on
more
restricted
uneven
between
language
been,
the
The
towards
quite
tendency of
the but
use
of
of
the the
French
the
whole,
restriction
subjunctive
in the
both
and tendency
ordina subis
clauses,
work,
especially
former. in
a
that
at
and
the
choice
or
of
mode
depends,
measure,
the style
used,
whether In
the
rhetorical
colloquial.
17th
same
and
as
18th
now.
centuries Thus
we
the
use
of
in
the
subjunctive
authors
was
not
always
the
often
the
que
classical
find
the
expect
indicative
ce
instead:
e.g.
Je
crois
;
crois
soft
Pautre
(Comeilie)
; Je
On
qu'il
the
dirait
que
les temples
fussent
autant
d*h6telleries
versa, we
(Racine)
also
:
pensais
fallttt pleurer
(Moli^re).
we
And,
expect
; //
vice
the
sometimes
e.g.
find
indicative
where
should
subjunctive
qu *il est
en
J*appr"hende
qu'il
sera
plus
difficile (Balzac)
rien
semble
vie
(Moli^re) ; Quoiqu'i
n*y auraft
de surprenant
(Bossuet).]
is used, Clauses
to
some as
The
Subjunctive
described
the
below,
notion
of
.320.
I. In
Subordinate
with
qualify
their
as
rerb-phrase,
reference
to
preceding
expression,
320-322.]
VERBS.
187
a.
not
realized
with
some
(but simply
emotion
reserve
as
willed^
feared,
doubted,
; etc.)
as
b.
as
realized
some
c. etc.);
stated and
with
mental
or
being
of
sweeping
exclusi
nature,
simply
admitted
without
to
special
affirmation. notion of
II.
In
Principal
as
Clauses
chiefly
qualify
the
the
verb-phrase
I.
willed.
in
Subjunctive
Subordinate in
a
Clauses. clauses
32 1
The
.
subjunctive
conjunction
a
:
is used
subordinate
duced intro-
by
the
or
que,
or
ending conjunotion-plirase
with
que^
relative
"
pronoun
or
particle,
for
mainly
three
purposes,
A. To
viz. denote
is not
that put
the idea
forth
:
"
expressed
by the
or
subordinate
of being intended
verbso,
phrase simply
as
a.
realized
to
certain
or
but
with
or
reference
its willed
completio
non-completion
'I desire
Je [e.g.
diaire
(ordonne,difends^ etc.)
he
cas
qu^U
b.
'In
to
vienne
its
case
contingent
he
come'];
qu^U
"
or
vienne
or
should
come'];
doute
"
or
c.
its
doubtfulness,
ne
uncertainty
*
Je [e.g.
(ne croispas,
say, with
in
dispas,
vienne
B. To
I doubt denote
(do not
that
sorrow,
believe, do not
it is
etc.,
that etc.)
some
realized
emotion, leading
that he
of
surprise,
joy,
expressed
^1
am
*
the
clause:
has
Je
it
'
m'4tonne
; Je
quHl
I'aii
quHl
that
dit
surprised
I
am
said
suis
fdch4
le saohe
sorry
some
that
he
knows
it.'
G.
To
denote
"
it is stated
a
with
mental
reserve,
whether:
a.
as
involving
eat
"
sweeping
qui
a
assertion
that
^
may
be only
of
erroneous
one
H [e.g.
le sevl
or
c.
puisse
le
faire
made
He
is the
that
can
do
it'],
statement
concession
as
in favor without
est
more
emphatic
and
qu^U
such
admitted
U
positive
homme
*
assertion
Though These
[e.g. Bien
he
be
soit
is
are
an
pauvre,
honnite
poor,
yet
he
honest
more
man'].
specified
form
[322.]
general scheme,
use
principles
presenting
fully
in
the following
in
synoptical
of the
subjunctivein
subordinate
188
SYNTAX.
[323.
Clauses:
[323.]
Subjunctive
a.
in
Subordinate
que
With
the
conjunction
that
(or
act to
relative
expressed
word)
by
or
after
verbs
or
phrases
is viewed
or
implying
with
reverse:
the
the
dependent
verb
reference
"
intended phrases
completion
the
and
denoting
and
command,
verbs
exhortation,
expectation
to
or c,
(esp^er
sion, permis-
M
H
O
of
believing,
unless
referable
etc.,
excepted),
opposites
fitness,
fear,
M O
necessity,
their
(forbid
if the idea
apprehend,
"
etc.).
"
Cf.
325.
Note.
purpose
After
relative
l ("qui,equel,
dontf
ou)
only
of
is implied.
b. After
en
conjunctive
'in
case,'
phrases
*
such
as
'
afin que
etc.,
in order
a
that,'
cos
que
pourvu
que
act
provided,' expressed
by
or
denoting
contingent
5 SI
"
completion
and
of the if used
for
the
dependent
si
verb
after
que,
such
phrases
for
(403. b).
Cf.
326.
c.
With
the
conjunction
the
act
or
que
(or
relative) after
by
as
verbs
verb
or
as
phrases
not
describing
or
expressed
the
dependent
certain,
f
probable,
possible,
so on,
after
t7 n'est pas
certain
and
and
after
negative,
tive, interroga-
conditional
"
statements.
*
"
Cf
.
327. of believing
or
Note.
must
^s/xfrer
hope
'
and
verbs
or
si,
thinking
be
be the
used
negatively,
interrogatively
verbs
with
to
followed
always
by
subjunctive,
that
que mode.
while
of
doubt
and
fear
require
With
such
n
H
after
verbs
or
phrases
expressing
an
inner
emotion,
shame,
as
surprise,
disappointment, allowing
with the the
joy,
when
que
no
sorrow,
0 GO
rage
"
(allrarely
of que
be used
indie, de
ce
surprise with
is the
involved)
indicative
"
Instead
subj.,
to
usually verbal
may
a. n3
to emphasize
the reality
of the
a
action.
Cf
.
328.
In
relative
the
a a
clauses
soften
by
some
sweeping
exclusive
assertion word
or
"
in
main
clause
especially
superlative,
seul, nul,
"
etc.),when
there
be
"
room
for
b. After
possible
mistake.
or
Cf
329.
.
ft* M O H
*
.
concessive
que
hypothetical si
.
.
such
as
bien
'although,'
que
'however'
one
alone), quoique
and
(the
only
one
written
in
word)
as
after que
indefinite
pronoun-phrases,
tout
such
"
qui
quel
que,
quelque
(but
rarely
que), etc.
Cf. 380.
323.]
Examples
VBBBS.
189
(determining
in
words
are
spaced^
and
the
subjunc
bold
type) :
"
A.
Subj.
of unrealized
a
.
or
uncertain
also
completion
(323.A)
it.
(cf
.
382-^)
you
to
tPordonne D i S'leur
quevoualefassiez}
qu'ils soient qu'ils
pr^ts.
I order
do
Tell
Order) them
them
ever
to be ready. to
come.
Je
defends jamais,
mattre
vienneni
I forbid
Le
exige
que
vous
The
teacher
requires
yau
to
be
so/ez
attentive.
vous
desire
always
(wish)
be
to
that
you
may
toujours
heureux,
e
Pe
rmettez
(souffr
diss
quHl
z)
ne
que
Allow
me
je
vous
la v4rUi,
J'empScherai
fasse.
le
I shall
prevent
him
from
doing
it.
garde quHlne I
Je prendrai
le fasse.
shall
not
take do
it.
care
that
he
does
J^ attends
que parole.
que
vous
me
expect word.
you
to
keep
your
teniez
J^approuve
vos
vous
preniez
approve
of
your
taking
your
precautions. quHl
precautions.
tout
II
faut
suite.
importe
vienne
de
He
must
come
immediately.
quHl
le sache.
It is important
that
he
should
know
II est
it.
juste
{de
vous
toute
jus-
It is only
fair
that
you
should
tice) que
II it ait
lui icriviez.
que
tu
write
It
was come.
temps
should
vinsses.
^
French
where
often
in
(cf.331)
only
allows
the
subjunctive
can
or
an
infinitire
construe*
tion,
English also
latter
be
used.
Here
Jt
v"m$
ordonne
de U
fat're would
be
correct.
190
SYNTAX.
[323.
I trying
can
Je
cherche
un
mattre
qui
am
to
find
me
teacher
sache
Idsez
m'enseigner
livrea
voire
lefrangais.
puissenf
who
Read
teach
that
French.
des
qui
books
will form
your
former
Us envoy
goUt
(cf a. note).
.
taste.
^rent
des d4put4s
qui
They
sent
who
were
consu/iasseni
ApoUon,
place
aise,
ma
to consult
vous
Choisissez
so/ez
Je
crains
une
oil
Choose
place
you
will
d, voire
que
be comfortable.
m^re
ne
fear
my
mother
is
(may be)
(383) soii
Je
ne
malade,
pas
que
ma
iU.
I
am
crains
not
afraid
that
my
mother
rn^re
soii maJade,
quHl
n^
is sick.
J'ai
d
peur
temps,
arrive
pas
am
afraid
he
may
not
arrive
in time.
(cf
.
also
387)
that
Approchez
fin
que
(or simply
dise
cela. le
Approach
you.
I
I may
tell
it to
que) je
Je
le
vous
feraiy pourvu
quHl
shall it.
do
it, provided
he
does
fasse.
Conduisez-vous
que
vous
de
mani^re
Behave
in
such
manner
as
to
so/ez
esiimS,
de mani^re
be esteemed.
[But
11 s'esi conduit
est
[He
manner
has
behaved
as
in be
such
quHl
moins
esitimi,']
que
ei que
ne
ne vous
ne
to
esteemed.]
and
so/ez
moins de
Unless
you
be
diligent
(for ct
preniez
(unless you)
la you
trouble,
que) vous
peine,
vous
will
not
rhissirez
pa^
sans
pas.
Je
ne
le
vu
ferai
que
je
que
ne
will
seen
not
do
it until
have
Vaie
Vaie
Si
(for
je
If
him.
vu).
ne
je
suis
et
pas
de
retour
I any
am
one
not
back
at
noon, me,
and retain
midi,
que
calls
for
qu^un
vienne
demander^
him.
retenez'le.
323.]
VERBS.
191
(cf.also 383)
I doubt
ne
Je
doute
ne
que
cela
so/t
que
vrai. cela
if that
no
be
true.
Je
doute
pas
vrau
I have
doubt
that
is true.
(383)
est
so/t
douteux
(^possible,
qu'il
It
is
doubtful
or (possible,
imposs
has
i mp
ossible)
crois pas
Vait
done it.
not
whether
he
fait
Je
ne
qu*il
le
do do
believe
that
he
'will
fasse.
it.
CroyeZ'VOus
vous
quHl
croyez
le fasse
f
le
Do If
you
believe believe
not
he
will will
do do
it ? it, I
Si
quHl
point
you shall
he
fasse
^
je nHrai
Esp4rez-vous
qu'elle
re-
Do
you I hope
hope
return?
vienne
J^esp^re
qu'elle
she
will
reviendra.
ne
Je
savais
pas
(JHgno(Je d4nve)
I did
not
know
that
it
was
mitte per-
rais)
ne
Je
dis
do
not
say
(I deny)
that
that
he
quHl
n'est
a/t tort,
pas
sUr
is wrong.
(certain)
(sAr, certain)
It
is
not
certain
he
is
quHl
so/t
coupable.
Is
guilty. it proved
has
qui
est tou-
Est-il
prouvi
quHl V a/t
un
(certain)that
it ?
he
fait f
homme Is
done
a
a-t-il
there that
man
who
can
say
?
pu/sse
dire
quHl
he
is always
happy
jours heureux?
B.
Subj. of
a/t
pu
emotion
le
(323. B)
astonished
able
to
Je
m^4tonne
quHl
am
that
do
he
he
has
faire,
suis
been
it.
Je
fdchi
qu'il
so/t
am
sorry
that
is sick.
malade.
se
plaint
que
vous
lui
de
vos
He
complains
that
him
you any
so
dom selnews
donniez
nouveUes,
si rarement
send
(write to him).
192
SYNTAX.
[323.
is
a
C^est
dommage
quHl
Vait
It
pity
that
he
has
done
fait
Je
suis
it.
bien
aive
qu^U
soft
am
very
glad
that
he
has
de
retour.
returned.
qu^un
ennemi
II
enrageait
presque
une
It
angered
him
that
an
almost
barbare
lui opposat
barbarous
an reserve
enemy
should
offer
resistance
invincible.
invincible
resistance.
:
C.
Subj.
of mental
a
(323.C)
C^est
V unique
espoir
qui
me
This
is the
to
only
me.
hope
that
remain
soii rest4.
Vous
Hes
le
seul
ami
d qui
You
are
the
only
rely. you
can
friend
on
je pui'sse mefier.
C^est
le
mieux
whom
que
vous
can
It is the
best
do.
pu/ssiez
VEvangUe
present
aux
faire.
est
le plus
beau
The
Gospel
God
is
the
given
best
to
gift
men.
que
Dieu
ait
fait
which
has
hommes,
a
II
peu
d^ hommes
qui
There
are
few
men
that
can
sachent
supporter
VadversitL
bear
adversity.
Bien
quHl
soii
(Quoiqu^il
il est
Although honest.
he
be
poor
he
is
soif) pauvre,
homme,
honn^te
Si
mince
quHl
soif
un
cheveu
However
causes
small
a
it
be,
hair
fait
de
V ombre,
shadow. be
a
QuoiquHl
Q
uHl,
(En
soii etc.)
d4pit
brave
cet
quHl^
guerrier,
Though
I shall
he
brave that
warrior,
pride of
humble
je lui
rabattrai
vous
orgueil.
entrez,
Qui
que
so/ez,
be,
come
in.
possess,
poor.
Quelques
possediezy
les pauvres.
richesses
ne
que
vous
Whatever
do
not
riches
you
m^prisez
pas
despise
the
About
the
use
of
with
subjunctive
after
verbs
of
fear,
doubt,
denial,
etc.^
324-326.]
324.
Alphabetical
"
VERBS.
193
Reference-lists of
reference,
of
Words
Followed
more
by
common
the
juncti Subwords
For
convenience the
are
all the
and
phrases preferred
causing
:
use
of the
be
331)
to
below
above
under
corresponding
those
(323).
A.
SUBJUNCTITB
OF
TJnBEALIZED
UnCEBTAIN
a
COMPLETION
(323.A)
by
[325.]
Verbs
:
and
"
verb-phrases
of contingent
agr"er, aimer
result
^
followed
mieux,
not
que
and
the
subjunctive
is implied
abhorrer,
admettre,
aimer
apprihender, positive
; soin)
approuver,
arriter
(when
hesoin
,
expectation,
convictio
cf
also
c), avoir
commander
(cratnto,nvie, e
,
peur,
Uamer,
hruler
(*desire
craindre,
ardently
'); ');
6on,
vient);
dtfcider, d"cTiter,
*
=
d^sirer,
dire
a
order
assez,
empecker,
(*intend,
d'avis,
expect
*);
"
etre
(h
d^sirer,
propos,
bien, convenable,
digne, difficile,
d'opinion,
important,
f
"
indispensable,
n^cessaire,
"viter, exiger; falloir(il faut: cf. also c) ; etc.); importer (il importey,louer; m"iter; (cf. note); s'opposer ordonner garder; (i ce que), permettre, plaire, prgf^er, prendre (prendr"^oin), prOendre garde
temps, urgent,
(= 'require') ;
(
'
=
prier, redouter;
r"pondre
(introducing a command),
(il '), souhaiter, suffire suffit"), supplier, supposer bon (mal, mauvais, tarde^,tenir a ce que, trembler (=*feB.T*), trouver
allow
etc.
; tdcher, tarder
souffri me (il
injuste
decree
the
juste,naturel,
Note.
"
cf
Stre) ;
by
valoir bien
an
or
mieux
(impers.),veiller, vouloir.
decision (official)
or
or
Verbs
denoting
authoritative
or
are
frequently
being
son
followed
looked
ann^e
the
as
future
"
indicative,
Ex.
the
conditional,
que
result
upon
certain.
(Edipe
qu*on
ne
donna
chacun
regneraft
(Racine).
II
fut
b
d"cid^
recevraff
plus
de
com-
missaires
(Guizot).
followed
[326.] Conjunctive
the
phrases
a
of
contingent que
result
the
or
condition
is not yet
by
subjunctive
a
"
condition
cas
(when
que,
proviso
accepted),
crainte de peur
en
ajin defagon
que,
moins
or
que,
au
que, que
avant
dans
la crainte
not
que, de
que que
de maniere
denoting denoting
(if denoting
not
purpose,
result),
que,
de sorte
sorte
an
(if
purpose,
purpose,
"
en
que
(if
not
or
cas
(not
pourvu
referring que,
sans
to
accomplished si
ce
fact) ;
(here
doni,
330)
pos^
que,
que,
n'est
que,
que.
The
relative
the
words
or
qui,
action
and
ou
are
followed
verb
by the
or
the
subjunctive
clause
is
so.
whenever
state
or
denoted
as
by
the
of
relative
simply
intended
conceived
possible,
not
real
sure
to become
194
SYNTAX.
[326-329.
('who
should
%in
Cf.
qui
lU
envoyhrent
*
de$
who
d^ptUA
consulted
gut
ctmstdtcuierU
consult/ but
chemin
vous
une
consulthrent
*) Apollon.
a
Montrez-moi
un
qui
can-
duise
pas
vous
(but
le chemin
qui
conduit)
vous
N.
Pretez^moi
pas
liure dont
n*ayez
besoin
soyez
(but
hien
ce
livre dont
n*avtz
une
besoin).
ou
Choisissez
place
ou
(but Ne
quittez pas
place
c
vous
ites si
bien)"
[327.] Verbs
bj
be
be que
and
the
verb-phrases
of denial
and
doubt
with
or
uncertainty
lowed folto
and
asterisk
st,
requiring
used
negatively,
interrogatively,
the
with
conditional
in order
to
followed
by
*apprendr"f
*arr{ver
^admettrCf *s*attendre
*affirmer,
s'apercevoir,
*comprendre
*
(always
d"sesp"rer,
when
find reasonable
'),*
concevoir
(always
croire,*
when
find reasonable
*),*connaitref contester,
*deviner,
pas
*conclure^ convenir,*
tell*:
or
declarer,
d^mentir, dissimuler
*dire
(*say,
with
cf. also
326),
douter,
disconvenir,
se
(but
*
ne
dissimuler
indie,
subj.),
*etre
douter,
*8*ensu{vre,
dangereux,
tre',
s^en
entendre
(cf. also
325), *
entendre
rare,
dire, *esp^er,
certain
etre
(in
il
est
douteux,
impossible, possible,
sur,
etc.),
; etc.)
(clair, d^mon-
Evident, probable,
vrai, vraisemblable,
s*en
*se
faut, peut
ignorer
s'en
pas
with
/aut, tant
faut
cf. also
(but
ne
*parier^
*penser,
* *
pouvoir
peut,
il peut
*se
sefaire),*pr"dire,
rappeler,
*remarquer,
*pr"tendre
(cf.326),
pre'sumer,
reconnoitre,
pre'voir^ *promettre,
*r"pondre{cf.. 326),
but
*r"sulter
(ilsemble,
*supposer,
*il
me
semble),
*sentir,
*trouver,
*soupgonner,
*
souvenir,
tenir
'
voir. phrases
non
Conjunctive
que,
non
followed
by
the
subjunctive
"
ce
n*
est pas
loin
pas
que,
que.
B.
Subjunctive
verb-phrases
op
Emotion
(323. B)
followed
by
[328.]
:
"
Verbs
and
of emotion
que
and
the
subjunct
admirer,
"
approuver, s'aflliger,
etre
avoir honte
b (regret),ldmer,
charm^, choqu^,
d"plorer,
curieux,
s'enrager,
s'"tonner; "tonn^,
afflig"(dommage, chagrin^,
Grange,
Aonnant,
honteux,
jaJoux,
au
malheureux, dans
m^content,
regrettaJble, surprenant,
d"sespoir,
se
l*"tonnement, plaire
honte,
un
malheur,
se
etc.);
"
se
/acker,
g"mir,
s'indigner,
trouver
plaindre,
bon
(ilplait),regretter,
a
r"jouir,ripugner
(ilre'pugne),
C.
((Grange), voir
of
regret.
Subjunctive
Mental
a
Beservb
(323. B)
followed le
[329.]
pronoun
Words
or
of
an
excessive the
or
sweeping
"
sense
by
relative
particle
and
subjunctive;
le dernier,
premier,
le seul,
a2d-sai.]
Vunique, complement, and
VERBS.
196
auperlativeB
such and
as
negatitves
aucun,
(ne
personne,
alone,
or
especially
with peu
pas,
point,
nvl, que,
rien
; etc.)
de
(with
noun);
in questions
of appeal,
b
[330.] Conjunctions
followed
que,
and
pronominal
:
"
phrases
concession,
que,
en
etc.,
by
the
non
subjunctive
bien
ou
que,
combien
de'pit
que,
.
malgr"que,
.
.
(pbstant)ue, q
que,
que, pour
.
que, que
. . .
(= quoique),quel
que,
sans
quel
qui
que,
que, quelque
ce
quelque
que,
quelque
que,
qui
que,
,
.
que
tant
soit +
.
.
relat., qui
.
. .
que,
quoi
quoique,
part,
que,
a
si
que, tout
que
(for
that
the
most
however,
denoting
fact
and
followed
by
the be
indicative).
noted
so
21^^
the
It should
the
above
classification
some
of words
may
requiring
not
subjunctive
uses
is not
absolute,
but
that
ot
them
in
feren dif-
be
referred
to
different
classes.
331.
Infinitive
that
or
for
Subjunctive.
the
"
It is of
importance
clause
or
to
observe
when
subject
of
dependent
is actually
impliedly
identical leading
with
subject
object
(director
the
sense
with
d)
of the
cases
clause,
infinitive
is usually
preferred
(in some
is not
required) to
obscured. in this
the
subjunctive,provided
student
can
thereby guided,
be
an
The
often,
but
an
:
not
always,
be
respect,
"
by
testing
whether
cases are
infinitive
a.
would
allowed infinitive
necessity,
cheval,
in English.
would and be
Special
Grcnerally
preferred
"
after
verbs
or
phrases disire
crains
ifer
of willing,
feeling.
Ex. I had
a
Je
aifoir
de
lui,
ne
un
I wish
(to have)
I
horse. him
at
Je
pas
le trou-
fear
shall
not
find
chez
home.
ce
Jl
faut
le fat re
soir.
It
must
be
done
this
evening it ;
(ifit
de
s'en
is clear
who
is to do
otherwise
subj.).
to
DiteS'leur
suis
alien.
d4gu, quHl
Tell
1
am
them very
or
be
gone.
to be
Je
bienfdchid^dtre
"
sorry
II lui
deceived* 'He
Note.
come
We
'
say
II
faut
II
vienne
mon
faut venir
'
must
; but
only
faut
que
fr^re vienne
are
My
brother
when
must
come.'
a
That
pronoun,
is, two
constructions
allowed
a
the
subject is
but
only
one
when
it is
noun.
196
SYNTAX.
[331-334.
de
b. Instead
avant sorte
of
afinque,
a
pour
que,
manure
que,
de
en
sorte
que^ d,,
en
que
with
de
me
subjunctive, afin
with
an
de, pour,
mani^re used.
"
de,
avant
infinitive
I
is frequently
to to
save save
Ex. in
Je
consens
d
sauver.
perdre
afin
consent
destroy
her.
myself
de
la
order
se
sauver.
He
de
does
it to
himseK. before
inf.,
no
porte
avant
Close
out
the
door
you
go
sortir.
(always
being
the
uncertainty
implied).
before
you lose
Tuez
le
cJieval
avant
de
le
Kill
horse
perdre
(or subj.).
Special Cases
is regularly
him.
of
Subjunctive
followed
by
Usage.
indicative.
is sometimes
332.
imperfect
especially compound
verb
Si
*if'
Yet
the used,
of the
simple
or
(usually)
of de
eu
imperfect
si,
or
without
si, with
inversion
and
pronoun-subject.
je
vou^
Ex.
Sifeusse
Euf-il
vou/u
(or favais)
prendre d
cent
ce
Vargent,
Pierre
aurais
payL
pas
parti,
d'ici,
n^y
eUt
(338)
consenti,
Fui-il
mime.
lieues
firais
Note
it.'
le chercher.
also
Fui-U
la valeur
I should
die, I shall
do
333.
Que
followed
the
.
by
ne,
and
"
used Ex.
in the
sense
'
'
of
without/
qu*il
ne
unless/
perde
'until/
requires
subjunctive.
//
ne
joue jamais
sans
qu'il
perde)
334.
kind
govern
When
no
uncertainty
mind
or
mental
reservation
of
any
is present
in the
of the
speaker,
words
that
usually
the
subjunctive
versa,
require
the
are
indicative
commonly
(observing 323.
followed
by
the
B)
; and,
vice
may,
:
words
that
uses,
indicative
in special
be
followed
by
the
subjunctive.
Compare
334.]
VERBS.
197
Indicatite
86
Subjunctive
vous complains
plaint
de
ce
que
II
se
plaint
que
vous
Vayez
that
Vavez
tromp4.
He
He
complains him.
about
him.
your
ing deceiv-
deceived
PenseZ'VouB
m'esf
que
sa
tion protec-
PenseZ'Vous
me
que
sa
protection,
n^cessaire I need
Do
soii
n4cessai7'e f
Do
you
you
think
his protection do
est
think
I need
his protection?
! (= I certainly
not).
cow-
Si
vous
croyez pourquoi
quHl
ne
Si
vou^
quHl
7ie
soii
cou-
pdbley
le punis-
pable^
vous
Vexaminez
sez-vouspasf
If you
believe
If
you \^hy
?
vous
think
do
he you
him do
guilty
you
not
(asyou do),why
punish
que
vous
may
not
be
guilty,
him
examine
him
que
raoi.
J^entends
voulez
that
tPentends
restiez
you
(327)
you
n
Tester.
hear
(325) avec
to
I expect
me.
wish
to
remain.
II
remain
with
que
que
suffit
vous
le
le croie.
disiez
For
(325)pour
me
je
you
have
wished
it
to
believe
say
pas
it, it is enough
it.
that
crois
you
crois
Je
ne
pas I do
que
not
Dieu
Je
ne
que
cet homme
est that
cruel,
believe
soft
(325)
that he
cruel.
I
man
do
not
God
is
cruel
(which
de
a
believe
this
may
de
is cruel
he
H
cannot
be).
telle
(though
vous
be).
telle
sorte
s'est
comport^
quHl
des
ComporteZ'Vous
que
mani^re
m4nt4
de
meriiiez
gens
a
(326)
Behave
as
Vestime
gens
bien.
a
Vestime
des
de
bien.
He
manner
has
behaved
in
such
in such deserve
the
manner
to
esteem
of honest
the esteem
people. J^y
resterai
J^y
restai
jusqu'd,
arnva.
que
jusqu'di,
guM.
ce
que
monp^e
I remained
je sois
remain
(326)
there
I shall I get
there until my
father
arrived.
until
well.
198
SYNTAX,
[355-3^7.
and
the
[335.]
after
Ex.
qu*on
qu'on
Exceptionally,
same
both
the
as
indicative
the
et
sense
subjunctive
one or
are
found
"
the
verb,
que
au
according
requires
the
other. criaient
Dis-lui
les menat
je
8ui8
combat;
empech^,
quHl
v/enne.
venger
Les la
mort
soldats de
quails voulaient
leur g"n^al;
les laiasat
faire ;
Tense
tense
qu*tls etaient
furieux.
Subordinate
Subjunctive.
in
a
Use
of
in
the
336.
usually is present
present
The
of
the
subjunctive
on
subordinate
clause
It
337) (cf.
or
depends
that
of if
the
principal
clause.
(simple or
leading
; in
verb
is in the
cases
other
it
is
imperfect
As
to
(simple or compound).
the
choice
or
for
of
simple
or
compound
and the latter
tenses,
the time
former
are
used
to
express
present
future
verb.
time,
past
relatively
the
time
of the
principal
Examples
"
Je J'ai
Je
permets
per
quHl
mis
sorte.
I permit
him
to go
out.
quHl
sorte, sorte.
I have
allowed
permit
him
him
to go to
out.
out.
permettrai doute
quHl
I shall
I
go
Je
quHl
ait
fait
son
doubt
his
whether
he
has
done
devoir.
duty.
not
Je n^ai
point
dit
qu^il parle
que
vous.
I have
said
that
he
speaks
you.
(has spoken)
I permitted
better
to
than
out. to
Je
quHl
sort it.
him
go
J^avais
permis
quHl
sortH.
I had
go
out.
out.
Je permettrais Je
qu'il sorttt.
que
vous
I should
I doubted
to
go
doutai{s)
siez
Peus-
had
done
it
We
(would
should
do
it).
wished been
that settled
Nou^
qtie
souhaitS
ter-
have
the
in
a
matter
had
way.
minee Je
friendly
le lui ai
afin
qu^il
le
have he
told might
are
him know
about
it.
it, that
sache. [337.]
The
chief
exceptions
to
this
rule
those
determined
by
the
relation
to
of that
thought,
rules
for
the
sequence
of
tenses
being
subject
principle.
^37,
338.]
In
in
some cases
VERBS.
19$
a.
(as especially
referred
to
to
in
the
those main
coming
and
the
"
under
330),
the
ence differmay
the the
time latter
by
subordinate
verb
require
Bten
Ij^eonstrued c
vaincu.
independently. Although
Ex.
is strong,
qu'il soit
fort ilfat
he
he
was
van*
quished.
Supposons
a
que
noire
Mstoire
fut
Let
us
suppose
to
not
that
our
history
were
composer,
n'en
yet
pas
un
be
composed.
one
me.
Je
connais servir.
qui
voulut
do
know
to
serve
who
would
be
me
willing
b.
to
The
present
a
subjunctive
truth, and
is used always
independently
after
"
of the
on
governing
verb
=
denote
general
on
dirait,
croirait
(both
il
semble')^ .ndje ne a
La
raison
nous
saurais
(^=je nepuis),
que
avec
Ex.
was
nous
fut
donntfe pour
nous
Reason
might
bestowed
on
us
that
with
we
puiasions
conduire
conduct
ourselves
wis-
sage"se.
dom.
dtait
qu*on
c.
une
des
plus
voir,
belles
fetes
It
was
one
of
can
the
see.
finest
festivities
puisse
that is
a
one
The
imperfect
when
conjunctive
to
commonly
preterit.
"
used
Ex.
after
compound
present,
this is equivalent
J*ai
mpech"
qu*il
avant
ne
sortit.
I prevented
1 paid
him
him
from
he
going
out.
Je Pax pay"
d.
tense
q uHl partH,
before
by
a
left.
the
When
the
subjunctive
is determined
clause by de
is followed
conditional
"
clause,
of its verb
that
of the
latter.
Ex.
Je
doute V argent.
qu'il jou"t
s*il avait
I doubt money.
if he
would
play,
if he
had
Jene
crois
pas
qu*tl
en
fut
venu
I do
not
believe
even
he had
would
have
suc-
hout^ quand
mimeje
Vaurais
aid".
ceeded,
I helped
him.
Exercise
XVII.
IL
Subjunctive
independent in
an
in
Independent the
Clauses.
is used
:
338.
A. that
In
clauses^
subjunctive
or
To the
denote,
act
imperative by
the
"
exclamatory
some
manner
way,
expressed
verb
some
is in
willed
such
as
desired, (i.e.
diairer
commanded, readily
etc.)
governing
word,
etc., being
supplied.
200
SYNTAX.
[338, 339.
to express
B.
a
Frequently,
instead conclusion.
of
compound
conditional,
hypothetical
Examples
A.
Vive
Ainai
Dieu
le roi !
Long
live the
may
king
Thus
it be ! ! it
were so.
God
en
be
praised
to
Plui
Dieu
quHl
filt
Would
God
ainsi.
Puissiez'vous
rhissir,
May
Let
you him
QuHl
diss
la vMtL
tout
(be able to) succeed. (May he) tell the truth. (He must)
do what
QuHl parte
QuHl
fasse
de
suite.
Let
him
depart
medi im-
ce
QuHl ?'
lui
Let
him
he
likes.
plaira. B.
Qui
II
Veui
eut
(Vaurait)cnu
vovlu
suivre
?
les
Who
He
would would
the
have
believed
it ?
fain
have
frequented
thidtres, J'eusse
81
theatres.
adouci
voire
sort^
connu
I would your
(might) have
lot, had I
lightened
your
feusse
mis^re,
(332)
known
voire
misery.
prendre Even
EUt-il
ce
(332) voulu
parti,
if he
this have
had
been
willing
would
to
Pierre
n'y
edf
take
not
step,
Peter
pas
NoTB used
to
consenfi.
1.
"
consented.
que
The
the
independent
imperative
;
subjunctive
for the
*
with
is
*
habitually
'
supply
3d
persons
come
(Engl.
'
etc.
; cf
example Note
6 etc.
2.
"
above The
*
Qu'ilvienne
(do
let him
:
*
etc.).
Who
which
shown
comes
sentiners
Who
you
challenge
Qui
may
vive
there
are
? ?
'
originally
the
meant
wish)
is
no
live ?
felt,
On
as
'
side
by
you
answer
But
*
force
of
the
expression
longer
the
ami*
339.
know
ne
To
soften
be
an
assertion, negatively,
*
^^the
in
subjunctive
the
form
or
sache
after
(of
que.
ne
"
savoir
Ex.
') may
sache
que
used
first person,
more
Je
I know quod
nothing
beautiful.'
//
so
viendra
far
as
pas
je
sache
(cf. Lat.
sciam) "He
will
not
come
339-341.]
VEBBS.
201
know/
'
Etait-elle
jdte,
que
vous
sachiez
Do
you
know
whether
she
was
prfetty ?
Exercise
XVIII.
The
Infinitive.
[340.
and
HISTORY.
gerund both.
or
"
The
French
the
infinitive,
Latin
replaced
the
Latin
tive infini-
Unlike
*
infinitive,
it is frequently
construed or
with direct
use
de
:
(the
infinitive
est
sign
=
'),even
when
used
as
subject
object
de
the
cf. Lat.
to
Turpe fact
"
mentin
in
de
mentir.
"
The
as
of
is due
the
that
was
early
the
as
subject-infinitive
the lying
'
also
or
often
subject-noun
predicative
looked
expressing is
source
:
origin
of the
est
statement
(e.g.
good
Shame
:
from
so
also
this
sign,
Bonne de
even
chose
de paix
Peace
came
is
to
thing'
as
a
Joinville).
neutral
a,
Gradually
infinitive
to
are
losing
where
or
its significance
not
be
used
mere
logically
came
explainable.
to
So
neutral
also
at
first used
denote
now
aim
more
purpose,
be
no
mere
sign.
De
and
far
used
was
than
once
preposition. much
more
used
the
freely
than
now.
Even
in the
where
writers
some
17th
century,
infinitive
now
is frequently
be
found
; and
used
of expression
that
would would
required
be
it is often E.g.
construed
preposition
a
not
now
allowed.
Ma
gu^son Dieu
depend
nous
de parler
cet
Mdite
a
(Corneille).
nous
Jusqu'a
=
avoir
parle'
(Sevigne).
donne
exemple
(^ fortifier
pour
quHl
nous
: fortified Moliere.]
341.
noun
The
Infinitive
the
is in rrench,
action of the
as
in
English,
verbal
representing
or
verb
without
designating
person
time. importance,
however,
to
It is of
remember be
that
the
French
infinitive
infinitive
noun
English
rendered
by
the
by
the
gernnd
any
(=
participial
not
in
to
-ing),
*to.'
"
by
the
II
latter
aime
chiefly
d
after
equal
Ex.
parler *He
^He
talk
(or
talking).'
Note
be
1.
"
II s^abstient
As
into
de parler
below,
English
uses
abstains
talking.*
cannot
will
be
seen
the by
an
"
French English
infinitive
always
translated
Note
2.
"
idiomatic
never
infinitive.
etc.
as
a
French
en
parlant
speaking'
verbal
noun,
except
after
(370).
202
SYNTAX.
[341-34S.
be
the
Like
any
other
or
noun,
the
infinitive
may
subject,
a
predicate
Unlike
or
noun,
nouns,
'
object (direct or
it is often
'
=
prepositional)of
preceded
*
verb.
de
however,
by
.
neutral
a
(the
or
infinitive-sign
"
English
vous
to,' cf
340) as
'
tive nominato
accusative.
Ex.
C'est d
to
de parler
It is for you
a
speak'
loves
belongs
talk
you').
II aime
parler
'He
').
Alone
alone,
or
or
342.
The
The
Infinitive
may
With
be
Preposition."
by
or
infinitive
stand
governed
entre,
one
of
a
the
prepositions
de,
a,
par,
pouPj
in de
sans,
or
a
apres,
by
preposition
phrase
The
ending
main
are
principles
pointed detailed
out
determining below.
the
construction of
to
of
the
infinitive
Instead
expanding
these
practical
more
or
principles
by
rules
(too intricate
reference-lists
be
of
or
of
real
value), alphabetical
verbs
cases
all the
with
de
common
the
infinitive
alone
(the
that
serious
are difficulties)
added
under
each
general
rule.
343.
Infinitive
;
Alone.
"
The
infinitive
is used
without
preposition
a.
As
subject (except,usually,
and, often, when
c'est,
when
by
ce,
inversion
or
it follows
the
verb,
repeated
by
; cela)
as
predicate-
nominative
est
after
une
semblery
parattre.
"
Ex.
Medire
infamie.
To
calumniate is shameful.
(calumniation)
to
Prometire
et
ienir
sont
deux.
To
promise different
and things.
keep
are
Ifetre
n'dfra
Te
bon
qu^a
soi
c'est
To
be
good
to nobody
but
one's
hon
rien.
self is to be good
To
f
see
for
nothing.
thee.
thee
is to love
of it?
to love
bon
en
Why
He
speak
seems
II aembU
me
vous
you.
it
II
sernbU
vu,
Methinks
saw
(him).
343,
344.]
VERBS.
203
b. As causation
and
object (director
or
prepositional)
of
after
most
verbs
of
duty,
Ex.
or
thinking,
willing,
speaking,
motion.
"
Jeferai btiir
Je
dois parti homme
r
une
maison, soir.
I shall
cause
house
to be built.
ce
I
doit
am man
to
set
out
this
evening.
keep
Uh
d'honneur parole,
of
honor
should
ienir
Je
sa
his
I
word.
croyais
(youlais, d^sirais,
(wished,
etc.)
service. I did
desired,
espirais,
un
etc.)
lui
rendre
(to do)
service,
He
asserts
(protests, pretends,
that etc.)
admits,
I hasten
he has this
seenit.
news.
Je
cours
lui
apprendre
cette
to tell him
nouvelle.
Venez
nous
voir
ce
soir.
Come
to
see
us
this
evening.
[344.]
Kbference-list
of yerbs
taking
the
direct
infinitive
1 "
Also,
though
rarely,
with
de.
fjg when
construed
term
with
datire.
Direct
infinit. with
de in second
(cf.348).
204
SYNTAX.
[345, 346.
of
appeal, where
"
[346.] In
exclamations
the
and
questions
the Ex.
governing
Moi,
vous
yerh
is understood,
infinitiye
is also
used
directly.
f
payer I
Note.
Pourquoi
"
toujours par/er
also
to
d'un
pareil
scil"at
Observe
'Applj
these the
elliptical
infinitives
3
of direction: 'See
page
S'adresaer
3.'
au
concierge
porter.'
Ifoir page
Saroir
namelj,
viz.*
346.
a.
Infinitive
as
with
de.
"
The
infinitive
as
with
de
is used:
Generally
after
a
inverted
snbject or
il vaut
predicate-nominative^
impersonals
il
except
few
verb-expressions
semble^
[the
direct
faut,
c'es^,
il
aembler^
b. As
verbs
means
logically
concern
implying
or
Examples
a.
he
plus
grand
art
est
de
The
greatest
art
is to
conceal
cacher
(Test A
n
me
vous
Vart,
art.
de parler, d^obliger
un
It is for you
ami.
to to
speak.
oblige
a
plait
premier
me
friend.
Son
est
commandement
commandment
is
to
d^ aimer
Dieu.
love
Grod.
(but)
II
faut venir.
It is necessary
to
come.
b.
Je
Ne
vous
conseille
de pariir,
longtemps
I advise
Do
not
you
to
set
out.
diffSrez pas
de parti
r.
plus
delay
any
longer
your
departure.
soin
6vite
avec
de
me
ren-
He
me.
avoids
carefully
to
meet
contrer.
II s^abstient
de
boire.
au
He He
abstains commands
from
the
drinking.
sun
II commande
mer
soleil d^ani-
to
give
la nature,
life to nature.
venu.
Je
me
rijouis d'dtre
de
vous
am am
glad afraid
that
to
came.
Je
crains
dbplaire.
displease
you.
206
SYNTAX.
[348-350.
is always
by
[348.]
After
comparatire,
'than'
rendered
que
de.
"
Ex.
II aime
mieux
autant
perir que de
rester
se
pfaindre.
que
He
would
rather
as
die than
to
complain. here
as
J*aime
id
de
I like
go
just
out.
much
stay
to
BOrtir.
[349.]
used
Historical
Infinitive.
"
The
French
infinitive
with
de
is sometimes
in
(like the
"
Latin Ex.
historical dit
instead infinitiye)
of the
indicative
lively
narration.
Ainsi
le
renard,
et
flatteursd^applaudir
(La
Fontaine). 360.
a.
Infinitive direct
no
with
a.
"
The
,
infinitive
aimer
with
A is used
aimeraiSy
As
object
after
avoir
(yet, after
trouver,
the
cond.,
preposition),
"
hair^
chercher^
appr4hendery
enseigner^
V0U8
montrer,
Ex.
JTai A
parler.
have you
something about.
to
speak
to
aime
(H hait) a
matin.
a
se
lever
de
He
likes
early.
(dislikes)
to
rise
bon
II cherche
m^eviter.
He
a
tries to avoid
me.
Jl
m^enseigne
(me
montre)
He
teaches
me
drawing.
dessiner.
b. As
indirect
object usually
in, in reference
son
after
to
verbs
implying
some
direction
others.
"
towards II
s^
(*to,at,
a
^), and
Ex.
applique
m'a
faire
a
devoir.
une
He
tries to do have
his
duty.
to
On
invito
faire
been
invited
take
promenade,
walk.
se
aspire
faire
un
nom, a
He
is ambitious
your
to make
name.
Habituez Dieu,
Notre
vos
enfants
prier
Accustom
to
children
to pray-
God.
happiness
to
bonheur
consiste
vivrq
Our
consists
nature.
in living
suivant
la nature,
a a
a
EUe
f^
a
platt
pas
iravailler,
pleasure
room
in working.
for hesitation.
II vHy
h^siter.
lire^
EUe
^amuse
diverts
herself
by reading.
[362.] After
where in English
"
etre
the
active
infinitive with
is in French
participle
must
often
used
the
passive
est
a
infinitive
*
Lat.
in
Ex.
Ge theme
refaire
This
theme
be done
is (i.e.
to
for
be saved
II deux cents correcting).' restait a sauver It remained to (not save) 200 men.'
hommes
'There
remained
363.
Same
Infinitive Verbs.
"
Alone
some
or
With
the
de
or
ft after
the
After
verbs
infimtive
is used
variously
preposition or with de or d, according to certain distinctions, or in part optionally, as described below. ^without
208
SYNTAX.
[36a
de
mind'
*
commencer,
continueTf
de,
*
contraindre
make
optionally
up
*
or
a.
ddcider:
intr.
'decide,
one's
(tPai d^cid^
*
de
parttr);
d
-^
h,
tr.
cause
*
to decide,
i.e. induce
; refl.
decide
*
(Je
Vat
'
d"cid"
te
partir)
d^fier:
au
de,
defy
'
(Je
'
le d"jie d'y
oiler);
"
d,
challenge
(Je
*
d"ftea jouer
Hilar
:
d).
de,
*
demander
observe
ask
somebody
*
'
else
one's
{Je
self
demande
d'observer
a
I ask
*
that
one
');
"
d,
to
ask
for
(Je demande
observer
I ask
the
permission
remark').
d like decider,
'say,
assert';
determiner
dire:
no
de
or
preposition,
vu.
with
de 'tell, order.'
s*en
"
Ex.
He
// dit Vavoir
seen
He
says
he has
II lui dit de
him
to
aller.
tells
(told)
it. 8*ennuyer,
takes
a.
go
away.
8*empresser,
etre
or
essay But
er
de
or
er (essay
us'ly
a
de).
infinitire
requires
usually in the
c'est
'
followed
to to
by
or
predicate
(346. a)
de.
"
expression
a
c'est
*
it belongs
is the
office of
Ex.
G'est
lui de
venir
It is for him
miss,
come
come.'
faillir: no
very
'
near';
'
forcer Jinir,
11
de, d.
jurer 'attest
swears
oath,'
seen
no
preposition; II
(/e, promise
'He
Jure
Payoir
it.*
'
vu
'He
he
:
it.'
'
Jure
cause
de U fat re
'
swears
to do
laisser
no
preposition, with
a,
let,
"
"
de, in negative
clauses
leave
off,
cease*;
'leave.'
Ex.
II
me
ne
/alsse partir.
laisse pas
laisse
a
He
se
lets
does
me
depart.
cease
// //
de
plaindre.
He He
not
me
complaining.
think
about it. 'He
came
me
y penser.
leaves
'
to
manquer:
near
ses
'all
omit,
=
but
do
'
(II a
Cf
.
manqu"de
tomber
manqu"
');
"
"
d,
fail in
manquer
li remplir
devoirs);
or
no
prep.
de.
dbliger: de
s'occuper:
d.
busy
to
'
'
physically
;
*
"
"
ft, 'be
how
A,
*
mentally,
'think
of.'
ouhlier
penser
:
:
forget
d,
'
forget
'
to.'
preposition
:
'
intend
'
; with
think.'
'
prendre
*
garde
care
de,
(de faire)
to
take
care
(not to do)
tr.;
"
rf
(a
ne
pasfaire)
take
(not
'
do).
intr.;
"
r^soudre:
d, 'induce,*
'try;
'
determine,
refl.
tdcher:
generally
;"",
*
purpose.*
a,
'
tarder:
tarde
de
I long
'come
"
delay.'
or
'come
'
venip:
preposition
sense
a
and/
to
come
in
order
=
to'
(in this
also with
pour) ;
venir
"
just (done
thing)
'
"
'
venir de happen.'
from
have
"
Ex.
36S-360.]
B le dire.
VERBS.
209
vint
viens viens
me
He
came
come
and
to
told
to
me
about
it.
Je Je
(pour) lui
de
h mourir.
a
parler,
speak
him.
to
lui parler.
I have
If he
just spoken
should happen
with
him.
to
S^U
Observe
venait
also but
die.
tive, transi-
few
a
verbs when
de when
with
347,
351.
364.
Par
and
with
the
infinitive
rarely
occurs
after
verbs
"
of
beginning
n
ending
par
(chieflycommencer,
nous
continuer,
finir),
us.'
Ex.
comment
injurier ' He
before
of of
'
began
by
insulting
366.
*
Pour
is
common
'
an
'
infinitive
assez,
in
the
sense
now
of
for,
(in order) to
rarely in the
me
; also
sense
to
after
=
more
for
because
is here
of.'
"
Ex.
to to
see me.
est id
est
pour
voir.
He
vous
in order candid
trop
franc
pour
He
is
you.
too
deceive
tromper. H
est puni
pour
avoir
menti.
He
is punished
for
having
lied.
356.
Sans
is
common
with
an
infinitive
// parte
sans
penser,
357.
by
Apres
apres
is used
only the
before
the
"
compound
Ex.
infinitive
*
(being
supplied
de
before
simple).
Aprhs
avoir
Jini after
having
finished.'
358.
and
Entre
is
rare
//
balance
entre
alter
et
rester
He
wavers
between
going
staying.*
369.
After is used
en
not
the
infinitive,
as
but
the
gerundial
participle
(in
in French,
in English
-ant)
(367).
after
360.
by
de hair
'
The
an
inverted expletive
a
c^est is often
un
preceded
C^est
un
tourment
que que
gens
It is
^
torment
to
hate.'
O'est
besoin
se
de
Vdme
des
W aimer
It is the
soul's
^
need
to- love.'
C^est
moquer
(que)
de parler
ainsi
To
speak
thus
is to ridicule
people.'
210
SYNTAX.
[361,362.
and
nouns
*
361.
Infinitive
of
a
noun
after
Nouns
with
Adjectives.
and
the
"
The
the
:
infinitive
e.g.
*
adjectives
desire
is
of
le (Usir
de parler
to
of speaking
; ^tre prU
parler
be
ready
speak certain
(forspeaking)/ etc.
require
sentence,
It
must
be
observed
only
that
ease
or
adjectives (facUe,
de
in
adaptiveness
of
the
case
is the
logical
by
a.
"
subject
the
which
semhle,
preceded
an
impersonal
:
verb
(U
est,
it
; etc.)
otherwise
Examples
a.
est
de diffixiile rSsoudre
'
ce
Ce probUme
dre.
to
est
a difficile r^sou-
probl^me.
It is diflB.cult to
This
problem
is
hard
solve
II
est
this
bon
problem.
solve.
bon
to
a
de
savoir
se
taire.
C^est
well
II
savoir.
That
is
It is well to know
to be silent.
know.
une
VoUd,
une
Amotion
quHl
serait
iprouva
A exprimer.
emotion
diffici
d^exprimer. diffidle
is
an
There
He
experienced
to
emotion
it would
be
an
emotion
difficult
expres
difficult to
express.
362.
frequent
use
of
the
as
is
characteristic English
of
French
writing.
Especially,
its
use
from
usage,
should
be observed
after
after
believing,
declaring,
etc., and
when
clause
is identical
of
the
leading
she
that
clause
croit
etre
aimie
bien
She
'He
de
believes
is loved.'
assure
la
connaiire
Je
lui
fort
insists
he
'
knows I pardon
her
him take
very
well.'
pardonne
me.'
m'avoiP
oublii
forgotten
Venez
les prendre
I 'Come
and
EXBBCIBB
XIX.
B63-3650
VERBS.
211
Participles.
[363.
the
HISTORY.
Latin
as
The
Present
Participle
in French
usually
; but
comes
from
present
participle
{aimant
it
answers
from
to
amant-em)
the often
Latin
in
some
instances, -ndo
especially
aimant
=
after
in
"
en,
ablative
a
gerund
or
in
(en
in
amando),
The the
and
is
was,
then
called
enough,
gerund left
as a
gerundial
participle. French,
but
gerund
naturally
whether in
unin-
flected
a
real
participle, inflected,
construed
number
verb
or
qualifying century
also
adjective,was
in
agreeing
(during
prevailing
the
yet
16th
gender)
allowed
.
with such
its
noun.
This
principle,
as
in
the
17th
century, petits
the
constructions
Cent
But
fois
in
suppliants
the
same
(Racine)
; Les
voletants
(La Fontaine),
the its yet
etc.
etc.
century
was
fixed
as
present
to
participle when
in
a
to be
as an
unlnflected
when
used
such,
but
agree
used few
adjective.
like
Traces
of
the
old
construction
found
expressions
les
allants
The
et venants;
les ayants
is really
or
droit;
an
Past
Participle its
an
adjective
the
subject
being made
the
have
predicate
qualifying
the book'
in
=
as
bought
it
was
*I
possess
book, always
bought':
to
etc.).
in
As
such and
once
French, the
as
in Latin,
agree
gender
number
nature
with
was
word
qualified. after
Gradually,
some
however,
the
usage,
feeling
of its real
dimmed
classical
and
discordant
characteristic
even
of
to
the
were
period
of the
language
(17th cent.),the
rules
now
adhered
fixed.]
364-
The
French
in
Participles
part
remain
are
in
part
inflected
rules
like
invariable.
Special
are
below.
365.
Present
as
or
Participle.
"
The
simply
present
qualifies
participle
a
noun
is
treated
an
adjective
denote
AS
when but
or
it
as an
expres
understood;
to
invariable
"
verb-form
when
it is used
action
Adj.
condition.
Ex.
as
UsBD
Used
Fartic.
caressant
seen
ses
Les
nitres
caressantes
gdtent
J'ai
vu
cette
rn^re
leurs
enfants.
Caressing
enfants,
mother A
have
this
mothers
caressing
mourant
her children.
de
Une
femme
woman.
Une
A
femme
woman
faim.
dying
dying
of hunger.
212
SYNTAX.
[365-368.
Ces hommes,
ont
su
Ces
hommes le
pr4voyants
danger.
men
ont
su
le danger,
^viter
Those how
to
These
men,
prudent
avoid
NoTB
knew
foreseeing how
to
danger, it.
knew
the
1.
"
danger.
Sometimes
should
usage
avoid
can
and
good
as
taste
a
alone
decide
or
whether
not.
the
present
participle
he
considered like
pure
*
adjective
[366.]
Several
are
adjectives,
hj
origin
charmant participles.
charming/
Sometimes
exist
at
inttfressant
such
interesting
etc.,
present
more
adjectives,
side
*
usually
preserving differently
*
the
original participial
*
spelling, forms.
'
the
of
the
'
somewhat
spelled
;
E.g.
*
different
fatiguing
:
'
different
'
diff^ant
negligent
differing
'
'
fatigant
*
tiresome
'
fatiguant
*
; negligent
*
ne'gligeant
neglecting
; v(icant
vacant
vaquant
vacating.'
[367.]
Present
:
Participle
participle with
or
with
en.
"
The
to
present
an
(i.e. gerundial
gerundial 'while, pMt
en
363)
with 4n'
en
corresponds
English
participle although,'
phir
expressing
"
ousness, contemporane-
'by.'
He
Ex.
voyant
ses
perished
hopes
(in)
war
seeing
his
"sp4rances,
d
perish.
to
Forc4
faire
la
guerre il la
en
Driven
make
while
peace,
(al
he
d^sirant
la paix,
fit.
though)
made
it.
desiring
On
hasarde
en
voiUant
trop
One
too
risks
much.
used:
by
wishing
to
gain
gagner.
NoTB
act
1.
"
For
emphasis
tout speaking.'
en
is often
tout
en
pariant
in the
very
(^oreven
2. the
"
while)
the
was
Note of
met
The
suhject of the
of
I
sentence
to
participle
; Cf
with
en
must
en
be
the
same
a
as
that
verb
while
him
Je
.
le rencontrai
but
allant
V"gli8e
a
*1
him *I
met
going
church';
way
can
Je
le rencontrai
"
allant
tions devia-
V"glise
going
(=
no
on
his
to)
church.'
are
Occasional
with.
from
this
rule, where
mistake
result,
met
368.
Past
the
Participle'.
treatment
"
The
general past
principle
now
which
has
determined
of
the
participle number
to, is that
it should
agree
in gender word
and
with
it determines,
provided
that
is already
mentioned,
368.]
in
VERBS.
213
sucli present
the
mind
is
:
of the
speaker.
"
Hence
the
slightly
modified
a.
rule,
which
Without
qualified
With
the
dtre
auxiliary
:
the
past
participle
agrees
with
the
noim
e.g.
Uhe
fille aim4e.
and
neuter
b. with
a
in
passive
construction,
est
it agrees
also
preceding
subject:
e.g. Elle
aim4e
; and
with
following
invariable
c.
the
verb
is impersonal,
when
it is
With
a
6fre
in
refiexive
constructions, uninflected
it agrees when
no
with such
sont
preceding
direct
object (being
Vai aim4e
cette
object precedes):
aim4s.
e.g. Je
{V
lis
for
se
la).
Us
se
But
J^ai
aim4
fille.
sont
bkss^
la
main
(se
dat.).
Farther
a.
examples
auxiliary:
Without
Ma
m^re
aim^e.
My
beloved
mother. granted
never
Les
recompenses
ne
accord4es
doivent
de
au
Rewards
to
merit
m"rite
Hre
jamais
should
of
be
the
prize
le prix
Vintrigue.
b.
With etre
intrigue.
: reflexives)
(except
in
Cette nouvelle
ville
4te regue.
This The
news
is received.
was
La
fut
prise.
aimes
city
are
taken. by
our
Notts
sommes
de
nos
We
loved
parents.
parents.
De
grands
malheurs
II
est
sont
ar-
Great
pened.
misfortunes
have
hap-
riv^
grands
(but
arriv^
de
Que
Mnie
folmla
Blessed
be
me
the
hand
that
has
lows)
sauvL
saved
(m.).
c.
With
avoir
(or "fre
in
(Partic.inflected):
Vai
seen
: reflexives) (Partic.uninflected) :
Je
vue
her
have
Avez-vous
you
seen
vu
ma
m^re.
Have
?
my
mother
214
SYllTAX.
36d. t:368,
La
lettre letter
que
fat
lue.
The
J*ai
lu cette
lettre.
I have
read
which
I have
read. Rentes. he
has H
this
a
letter. tragHies,
Les
The
tragedies
quHl
4crit des
He
has
tragedies
which
written
tragedies.
written.
Les
se
fruits
sorit
que
nous
avons
eus
Nous
cette
avons
eu
heaucoup
de
fruit
had
gdt4s.
The
fruits spoiled.
qu^on
a
ann^e.
We
fruit
have year.
we
had
have
des
been
choses
plenty
of
this
ces
On
fait
crues
On
cru
longtemps
choses-ld,
longtemps
impossibles.
impossibles.
Those
things
Things
long
are
considered done
vous
possible im-
have
long
been
thought
imposs
to-day.
a-t-on
Quelle
faite
one
rSponse
f
Quelle nuit
night
a-t-on
dans4f
dance
What
f
What
you?
answer
has
did
they
(no
given
object).
Cic4ron.
that
La
langue
qu^aparUe
L^affaire
lis ont
dont
(not
spoke.
direct
obj.)
of
The spoke.
language
Cicero
parlL
they
The
affair
which
Elle
s^est
(seace.)lavSe.
herself.
She
Elle
s*est
(se dat.)Iav4
She
has
les mains
has
washed
(ace).
hands.
de
repented
washed
her
Elle
ses
s^est
Elle
s'est
(se dat.)
rappeU
ces
remembered
her
faults.
Us
la
se
(ace.)sont
ville.
empar^
have
de
se
(dat.) sont
avantages.
arrogS
de
They
grands
They
have
possession
(made
arrogated
great
for
themselves
L^amitiS
se
advantages.
Elles
se
(dat.)sont
amitii.
t4moign4
une
sont
grande
They
other
have
great
friendship
they
have
shown
shown
each
each
other.
Attendu,
a
noun
friendship.
excepts,
pass"y
[369.]
before
suppose,
vu,
(or non)
compris
are
able invari-
(cf.219. 4).
370,371.]
[370.]
When
after
an
VERBS.
215
adverb
agrees
of quantity
with
the
sauv^s
noun
*
no
noun
is
expressed,
"
the
past Beau'
participle
se
nevertheless
that
is understood.
coup
sont
enfuis,mais
In
pen
se
sont
Many
fled, but
few
were
saved.*
[371.]
avoir
accordance
itre
with
the
main
rule,
the
past
participle
there need
with
no
(or
in
reflexives) object.
:
is invariable
whenever distinctions
is
preceding
direct
The
following
be
specially
a.
observed
'
Que
it,
that
referring
are
to time
or
measure,
or
to
the
pronominal
que
a
particle
en
'of
some'
not
"
direct
two
objects.
hours he
has
"
Les
deux
slept.*
me
heures
(^
=
pendant
lesquelles) ai f
a
dormi
He
The
I have
given
//
des
Jleurs,et
ii
nCen b.
dimn" If
a
has
flowers, pronoun
and
some.'
preceding
the
is the
participle,
:
latter
is invariable
infinitive being
the
following
the
"
infinitive).
Compare
a.
preced'g
pronoun
object
"us
enseve-
b.
infinitive
object
vu
Les
soldats
que
fai
I
Les
soldats
que
fai
enseveHr.
I have
lir leur
camarade.
The
solseen
The
seen
soldiers
buried I have
que
whom
diers burying
whom their
have
the (lit,
burying
comrade.
whom
La
seen).
fai
song
La
JUle
chanter.
que
The
fai
girl
enteiidue
I
chanson
entendu
I have
have
chanter.
heard
sung.
The
heard
singing.
vue
Je
Pai
leaux,
peindre
ces
tab-
Ces
tableaux
je
les ai
seen
vu
peinpic-
I these
ai
have
seen
her
dre,
tures
have
these
paint
pictures.
partir,
painted.
sont
Je
les
/aissSs
go.
Us
se
fa/'sse
surprendre,
to
let them
They be
allowed
themselves
surprised.
invariable,
I let them
go
Note
1.
one
"
Fait
before
"
an
infinitive
is always
*
the
two
together
forming Note
causative.
"
Je
duj
les
aifait
voulu
soriir
an
out.'
2.
"
When
after
pu,
infinitive
is understood,
que
nous avons
they
are
invariable.
Nous
*
lui
avons
donn"
him
tous
les
help
secours
pu
(viz
lui
donner)
Note 3.
We As
have
"t"
given
can
all the
we
could.'
^
"
be
preceded
only
by
avoir
it is always
invariable.
Exercise
XX.
216
SYNTAX.
[372,373.
XVII.
DTDEOLINABLES.
A.
Negations.
[372.
has
H ISTORYi
"
Latin
non
noriy
which
in popular
"
usage
often
ne
supplanted
used
ne,
in French though
a
become
or
ne
(older nen)
Latin,
to
French
is always
with
Terbs,
rarely
by
.
alone. adding
a
like
other
languages, particle
a
frequently
emphasized
negation
. .
the
negative instead
'not
word
of
compariso was
(e.g.non
also
*
f
drop/
of simply
move
done
in French,
not
"
expressions
like
This
=
Lat.
possum)
see
point
( potW
Lat.
punctum)
by
"
becoming other
stereotype,
pas
guere
came
and
point
unless,
'
indeed,
some
word though
such
as
much,*
goutte
drop,'
personne,
gradually,
slowly,
to
be
the
not
=
regular
*
complement
'
of
ne
in
purely
=
negative
expressions
even as
(cf.
Engl,
nd
a
wiht
not
whit value,
than
; (xerm.
nicht
now
ni
wiht)
They
.
assumed,
negative
themselves, with
negative other
being
verbs
often
the
used
century
usage,
once
alone also
particles
words
(in
17th
with
verbs,
distinction).
especially The
is
when
use now
interrogative,
and
as a
yet,
in popular negative,
cases
without
of
ne
alone
to
ne now
full
common
in the
17th
century,
confined hand,
doubt,
few
definite
described
in
below
(376 etc.)
as
On
the
other
enters
ezpletively and
in the
many
expressions, proposition of
of
fear,
negated
etc.
use
prevention,
second
comparison, This
(381 etc.).
ne
"
of
often
"
corresponding
in
to
the
most
:
use
in
English perfectly
'
of
'lest'
(^quominus)or
Latin
'from'
ne
was
its origin,
meant
ne
use
'
in
cases,
logical.
;
so
The
timeo
ventat
really
I fear
may
he
meant
not
'
come
wise likethat
impedio
may
ne
(from
come.'
pes)
Latin qu*il
veniat of
originally
ne
I check
him
he
not
was
inherited
ne
into
French
(cf
=
timeo
veniat
=je
ne
ne
vienne;
the
impedio
(or quominus)
of
that
use
veniat
fempSche
is
more
quHl
vienne).
and
even
But
development and
use
in French
is
often
anomalous
no
inconsistent,
the
force
ne,
of the
original
is being
negation
more
longer
felt.
The
expletive
of
however,
and
neglected
in popular
usage.]
Except
373.
Hon
the
(or
non
pas),
pas.
"
in
connection
non
with
verbs,
purely
negative
particle
is in French
(or,with
373,
374.]
IKDECLINABLES.
217
adversative
emphasis,
is used,
"
non
pas,
in
non
answers
point).
for
Exceptionally
pas by
(or point)
chiefly
'not/
followed
another
word.
Ex.
Viendrez-votbs
Hon,
n'est-ce
Shall
pas f
you
come
come,
No.
Vou8
viendrez,
You
will
will
you
not
Hon
on
pas.
non.
No Wise
et non
(I will not).
or
Sage
not.
Sa
cruaut4
non
(or non
orgueU.
pas.
His
cruelty
and
not
his
pride.
point) son
des
A't'il
livres f
Pas
du
un
Has
he
books
none
?
at
Not
one
(not
{pas
Note
a
beaucoup,
pas
tout),
preceded
by
"
many, by
que,
all).
elliptically by
'I say
non
'
1.
"
Non
is often
gue
{que non,
translatable
non
for
whole
or
clause
a
introduced
'
and
dis
no,' no.'
or
'not,'
crois
whole
non
so.'
'
phrase).
I
Ex.
not.'
Je
quo quo
Je
quo
believe
Je
gage
I wager
that
NoTS
it is not
2.
"
In
popular
usage style:
pas
alone
is often
the
negative
even
with
verbs;
rarely
in literary
Craignez-vous
pas
374.
Ho
.
,
pas
(or point),
by
two
or
"
With
words,
'
'
not
is
in
no
French
'
usually
'
expressed the
negative
(/?') not
These
and
adverb
pas
though (optionally,
rather
more
emphatically) point.
words
"
are
ne
placed it
one
on
each its
side
of the
personal
if there
a
verb-form
before
pas,
(preceding
after
object-pronoun,
both
is then
be
one),
and
point
it.
Usually
precede
simple
infinitive.
An
object-pronoun
"
placed
after
or
(lessoften) between
no no no
them.
Ex. I do
I do
Je
parte
pas
(or point),
pas
speak.
Je
lui parte
(or point).
speak
to
him.
Je
I do
tell him
not
about
it.
Je n'ai
pas
parl4.
I have
spoken.
^18
S^rNTAX.
[374-376.
to him.
not
Je
n
ne
lui ai point
ne
parU,
I have
ne
not
spoken
faut
pas
lui
(pv
lui
It
is
must
necessary
to to
the
(You
pas)
NoTB
parler.
1.
"
not)
by
an
speak
him.
negatives
ne
If
personal the
cannot
yerb
is followed
infinitive,
"
are
arranged
with
*
verb do
they it.'
actually
determine.
ne
Ex.
*
Je
puis
(pas)
Note
le
/aire
it.'
2.
"
Je
puis
pas
le
fcUre
am
gapable
of
not
doing
In
questions
pets
is used
"
only Ex.
when
an
vous,
affirmative
n'est-ce
reply
pas
f
is
expected,
but
point
without
distinction.
C'est
375.
Me
any
Used
Alone.
"
^Not' in
is expressed several
cases,
by
as
ne
alone,
without
complement-word,
explained
below.
A.
"
Ne
is used
or
'
alone
in independent
clauses
*
[376.] More
know,'
cesser
less optionally,
oser
'
with
pouwoir
^
cease,' sense
dare,'
'
bouger
in
a
'
budge.'
set
with
savoir
'no
in
of
ne
'
can
; and
en
few
nlmporie
matter,'
ne
vous
deplaise
n^
may
it not
'
displease
not
you,'
d IHeu
plaise
God
not
forbid,'
wish, be
avoir
garde
"
have
the
inclination
ne
(not care,
(or
Je
ne
far
from).'
it.
Ex.
Je
puis
peux
I cannot
believe
pas)
ne
ne ne
le croire.
II
pent
sais sais
He
cannot
delay. what
to think
Je
I don't
know
of it.
Je
I cannot
express
myself
differ-
primer
ne
n*08e
n'a
autrement.
ently.
le dire,
Je
saurais
I He
can
(could) not
dares is too
not
tell you.
II
(pas)
garde
honn^te
de
revenir. tromper,
return.
a man
II
il est
He
honest
to think
trop
Note.
homme,
is omitted
by
ne
an
of cheating.
pas
with
"
Ordinarily
and
rare
ne
pouvoir
In
etc.
when
the
usage
negation
is unemphatic
is always
followed
infinitive.
more
popular than Je
ne
the
sion omis-
(e.g.Je
occurs
puis
classical
option.
peux
pas).
Sometimes
alone
by
arbitrary
877-379.]
IKDBGLINA6LES.
219
[377.] After
or
que
and
(optionally) qui
"
introducing
rhetorical
questions
n'^s
exclamations. arriv4
plus
Ex.
Que
vous
tdt f
Why Ah,
have why
of
us
you
was
not
come
before?
! ?
Ah,
que
de
Id,! n^4tai8-je
rums n*a
I not
not
there
Qui
{pas)
ses
Who
has
his faults
ait f
Who
alone
in dependent
would
not
:
love
her
Ne
is used
clauses
[378.]
Usually
so
when
sans^
the
leading
peu,
verb
is itself negative
etc.,
or
or
impliedly
(as with
The then 'but,'
impossible,
in questions
of
dependent
often in
verb
(usually in
be
Ex.
the
subjunctive :
affirmatively
English
"
construed
*but
quHl
that.'
ne
impossible
It is impossible
not
come
that He
he
cannot
should but
(=
come).
n'y
sache,
a
personne
qui
ne
le
There
is nobody
it
that
does
none
not
know
knows
(= There it).
one
is
but
Je
ne
connais
personne
qui
ne
know
no
who
a
does mistake.
not
fosse quelquefois
peu d^amis qui les vdtres, Y Ort-U
personne
des
ne
fautes,
soient
sometimes
I have few
are
make
tTai
(=
not
not
many)
whom
friends
that
dont
yours.
eUe
ne
Is there
not
anybody
?
she does
m^dise
f
un
slander
you
a
Avezrvous
aussi
ami f
qui
ne
soit
friend
who
that
is not
he
le mien
also ?
(=
but
is
also?)
my fault
ne
tient
se
pas
d moi
que
cela
It is not
not
if that
does
ne
fasse.
After
a
happen.
[379.]
leading
'not'
clause
expressing
care
or
effort
(that something
may
take
place).
"
Ex.
220
SYNTAX.
[379^82.
I take
that he
Je
prevdrai
tombe,
garde
quHl
ne
shall
not
care
does
fall.
to
Soyez
cUtentif
qu*il
ne
se
See
it
that
he
does
not
blesse,
wound
Usually
in the
*
himself.
[380.]
expression
si
"
ne
if not,
for
unless
'
; and
"
when
by
inversion
si is omitted
(as
Vavais
in n'eta/t
*were
it not
etc.).
had
Ex.
II
serait Veusse
tomb^
:
si
je
ne
(or
des
He
would ported
hare
him.
fallen,
I not
sup-
332)
pas hien
retenu.
N'esp^rez
gens
vos
obtenir
Vestime
ne
Do
not
hope
to
gain if you
the
esteem
of
de
si
votis
remplissez
honest
do not
(unless
for
devoirs.
you)
I should
taxes.
duties.
were
Je
it not
the
N'eut
"t"
la
crainte
de
surprise,
je
Had of
it not
been
for
(But
not
for)
hare
fear
left
n'aurais
pas
quitttf cet
endroiU
surprise,
I should
this place.
381-
Me
by French
.
.
Used
the
Expletively.
"
In
dependent
a
clauses
tro inin
conjunction
has
ne
que
(or
conjunction-phrase
has
no
qy^),
.
often
is then
where
English
negation.
Que
/la
variously
rendered by
the
or
as 'than/ etc.),
illustrated
various
below,
382-7.
Usage
ne.
is not
In
the
consistent following
:
with
cases,
regard
however,
to
this
the
expletive
use
ne
of
expletive
is
generally
introduced After
[382.]
personal
emp%cher
'
'
prevent
and
iviier
'
'
avoid
"
before
Ex.
verb-form
qu^U
ne
(always
vienne
subjunctive: 325).
prevent
prevent
J'emp^cherai
I shall
his him
coming. from
com-
(I
(but
Je
Vemp^herai
de
shall
venir).
quHl
"
ing).
ne
vous
Evitez
Note.
parle.
exceptionally
or
Avoid
his
speaking
ne
to
you.
chiefly
Both
or
are
construed
in the
without
(empicher
when
negative
interrogative,
infinitive).
383.]
INDECLINABLBS.
221
[383.]
of
After
the
expressions
dependent
rather
or as
of
fear, donbt,
or
denial
when
the
325,
than
action
verb merely
(then
in
the
subjunctive;
or
327)
is viewed
probable
possible
as
improbable
That
certain.
after expressions
avoir
is, usually,
of
peur,
fear de
or
apprehension
de crainte,
Icraindre
etc.] when
negation,
est
appr^hender,
trembler,
or
redouter, interrogatiye
expressions
peur,
affirmative inversely,
without
implied
and
and,
after
of
doubt
denial
Idouter (il
douteux,
il y
du
doute,
etc.),
d^sesp^rer,
with
ddsconvenir'] when
negative
or
interrogative
negation.
Examples.
Action
probable
or
possible
Action
improbable
or
certain
Je
Grains
J (J^appi*4hende,'ai
quHl
ne
Je
ne
crains
pas
am
(etc.) qu^U
afraid that
peur)
fear
vienne,
vienne,
I
come.
not
he (etc.)
peur f
may
quHl
come.
he
vous
will
Avez-vous
trompe
ne
Pouvez-vous
trompe
craindre
quHl
fear
can
vous
Are
you you
?
afraid
f
cannot
Can
you
he
may
deceive
You
fear,
you?)
you?
quHl
me
that
pas quHl
not
he
should
deceive
point
N'appr4hendeZ'V(ms
ne
vous
Je
n^appr4hende
trompe,
trompe
9 Are
you
am me.
not
afraid
he
afraid
ne
lest he
doute
ne
deceive
you
pas have
will
deceive
Je
(d^esp^re)
I
may
Je
doute sisse.
{d^esp^re)
I
quHl
rius-
qu'U
no
r4ussisse.
he (etc.)
doubt
whether
he
doubt
or
will
succeed.
will
succeed.
Doutez-vous Do
you
quHl
doubt
?
ne
r4ussisse
he
Doutez^ous
Do you
quHl
soit
malade
whether
doubt
he
that
he
is
will
ne
succeed
nie
sick?
ne
(which
nie
really
vous
is).
soyez that
Je
pas
quHl I don't
soit trhs
Je
ne
pas
qu^e
not
Eloquent
deny
that
malade
I do
deny
he very
may
be
{or
his
being)
Je
you
are
(or your
being)
I deny
sick.
eloquent.
nie que
cela soit,
that
that
can
be
so.
222
SYNTAX.
[383-386.
doutez-vous vienne
Je
ne
disconviens
soit
pas
que
cela
Ne
pas ?
qu^U Don't
en
ne
ainsi,
I don't
not
deny
so.
bout
you
that
Note.
que,
that
"
may
be
doubt
after
avani
that
que
he
in
will
succeed?
of 'lest' for and
sans
Ne
is sometimes
construction
ne
used
sense
sans
but
this
is becoming
ne
antiquated. de la
maison,
Que used
qu*il
ne
que
usually
sans
requires
Je [e.g.
puis
sortir
le sache
(or
qu'il le
sache^"].
//
s^en
[384.]
ne
After
faut
used
negatively
ne
or
with
peu.
"
II
s'en
faut
de
pas
son
heaucoup
quHl
He
is not equal.
far from
being
soit V^gal
s^en
fr ere.
ne
se
Peu
estfallu qu^il
With
.
.
soit tu".
He
came
very
near
killing
himself.
[385.]
compound
.
tenses
after
depuis
with the
que
or
que
'since'
(qu"
ne as
also,
a
by
beginning
dependent
clause,
translatable
vous
negative).
port4
How f
saw
Comment
depuis
a
Mes-vous
have you ?
you
been
'
'
since
que
je
ne
vous
ai
vu
II y
trots
vaois
que
je
ne
Vai
It
is
met
three
him these
not
'
'
months
since
ren^ontri,
(or
have
not
met
him
y
ne
three
seen
months).
each
other for
II
avait
nous
dix
ans vus.
que
nous
We
had
ten
^tions
If
"
years.
a
Note.
"
verb
is in y
a
simple
que
tense,
nous
full
nous
negation
(ne
*
pas
etc.) is
used.
II
trois mois
ne
parlons
pas
We
have
not
spoken
to
other
for three
months.'
[386.]
With
personal
verb-form
a (i.e.
in
the
second
that
clause the
"
of
comparison
could
of difference
be construed
With
ne
comparison
such
second
term
negatively
if placed
Without
first).
ne
Thus
II est plus
He
riche
quHl
ne
Vitait.
II est plus
riche
quHl than
V^ait. he
and
He
was
is richer
was
than
not
he
was
is
is
yet
richer
was
he (i.e.
rich, he
(i.e.he
richer
rich,
he
is
better
off
now).
yet
now).
386-388.]
II n^est
INDECLINABLES.
223
pas
plus He
riche
qu'U
ne
plus
riche
quHl
V^tait.
ntait.
than
not
est
is
not
richer he
was
richer
than
he
was
he
was
(and
he (i.e.
*
was
rich).
moins
rich).
moins coupable
quHl
ne
II n^est
pas
coupable
quHl
less
le paraXt.
He
is less guilty
he [i.e.
le paralt.
He
is
not
than
not
he appears
appear
so
does
guilty
he less II
ne
than
he
appears and
(i.e
is
no
little guilty
as
appears
guilty,
(free
of
guilt)
he
is].
n'agit. than
so).
parle
pas
autrement
II parle
autrement
quHl
quHl speak
He
speaks
acts.
otherwise
agit.
He
does
than
plus
not
he
otherwise
devenir
he
acts.
Pourrai'je
que
plus f
me
fort
Puis-je
'
itre
heureux
que
je
je
ne
le suis
Is there
of I
am
le
suis! I
am
Can
I
be
happier
any
prospect
for
coming be?
than
stronger
Note.
"
than
pure
tot
Aside
from
comparatives,
the
construed
comparative with
ne.
words
autre,
autrement,
plutdt, and
plus
may
thus
be
[387.]
"
After
It
moins
que
unless/
or
que
used
for d moins
que,
ne vous
Je
d, moins
que
I shall
not
do
it unless
you
do
le fassiez.
n^attaque
d moins
it.
Le
lion
jamais
quHl
ne
The
lion
never
attacks
man,
Vkomme
soit
n^en
unless anger.
it
be
provoked
to
provoquA,
parle
pas
quHl
n'y
soit
He
does
not
speak
forced
about
to
it
so.
un-
less
forc4.
388. Other Negations
above
with
he
be
do
Verbs.
consist
"
Other
of
ne
negations
than
those
or
described
usually
with
(a)
an
adverb
Their
(b) indefinite
arrangement
pronoun.
is like
that
of
ne
pas,
to
except
their that
that
the
pronouns
take
their
usual
place,
according
syntactic
relation
plusj
ne
only
a
as
subject);
infinitive.
and
only
ne
rien
precede
simple
224
SYNTAX.
[388, 389.
these
list
;
of
the
more
common
of
negations
is
given
below
a.
ne
with
adverbs
""
ne
jama/a
guhre
never
^
//
ne
park
jamais.
parU.
He He
never
speaks. spoke.
ne
{
I
1 *
II
scarcely
'lo more no
n*a
gubre
scarcely
/
-" t
//
longer
ne
ne
-#.." plus
faut J
no
plus
chanter.
You
must
sing
more.
ne
que
(cf
f nothing
but
Je
ne
connais country
que
mon
pays.
I know
note
.
2)
aucunement
only
1 not
at
my
only.
veux
ne
all
Je
ne
lui
en
aucunement. any
ne
nullemeni
/
cf. 390.
nowise
nowise
wish
him
harm.
ne
ni
etc.
b.
'I not
ne
with
pronouns
-p
ne
aucun
any
Je
n'y
ai
nul
in
inttfret.
it.
ne.
have
no
ne
nul
/no
ne
interest
ne
person
nobody
//
n'a
vu
person
He
has
seen
nobody.
.
.
ne
") none
//
n*a
parU
spoken
qui que
to
ce
soit.
He
has
ne
ce
soit
soever
not
anybody
(soever).
seen
ne
nothing
//
n'a
rien
vu.
He
has
nothing. and
verb
Note
Jamais,
ellipsis,
in
plus,
have
aucunement,
a
nullement,
meaning
aucun,
nul, personne,
ne,
by
negative
"
without
when
the
*
is
and
certain
phrases.
Ex.
Viendrez-vousf
Jamais
*No
more
Shall
no
you
Never.'
etc.
*
"
Plus
de
112.
larmes,
4.
by
/i"
plus
de
chagrins
tears,
more
sorrows';
Cf.
'
Note
an
2.
Only
or
is expressed
que,
or
by
seulement
Either pays
the
or
may
limit
object
seulement
predicate
mon
adjunct
ne (.Tie
connais
be
que
used
mon
Je
connais
e 8
pays.
sont
Seulement
or
must
to limit
subject
(Z
bons
seulement
que
ne
heureux)
the predicate
(Reyardez
Seulement
me
seulement^,
may
une
and
before
strengthen
(ildit
.
seulement
g u'il
n*avez
viendrait).
seulement
*
also
serve
to
que
(Vouz
*
qu'a
mot
"
dire
'
parole).
(in sense
vois goutte
[389.]
rien)
see
as
Brin
mote/
in
it.*
goutte
to
ne
drop/
a
mie
set
*
crumb/
phrases.
word
Ex.
say
occur
of
I
complement
in
few
mot
Je
a
n^y word
nothing
//
ne
dit
He
does
not
(He
says
nothing).*
1
n"
.
.
pas
plus
means
*not
any
more'
(with
reference
to
c^uantity
or
comparison).
390.]
INDECLINABLES.
225
390.
Use
of
ni,
"
The
expression than
a
'neither
nor*
when
determining
/I/
. .
.
other
words
as
personal
; and
verb
is rendered is
a
by
nif arranged
ne
in English before
if there
e.g.
verb
in
the
m^re
sentence,
is placed
it
Hi
nor
man
p^re
ni
ma
(ne vienGb'ont)^Neither
directly
ne
.
my
father
my
mother
(willcome).'
Determining hj
personal
ne
:
verbs,
II
ne
'neither
lit ni n^^rit
nor'
is
rendered
nor
.
.
ni
e.g.
'
He
neither
reads
writes.'
Further
examples
Who
nor
Qui
Va
fait f
Mi lui ni moL
has
I.
done
it ?
Neither
he
lui ni moi
n'a
ne
viendrons.
sceurs.
Neither
He has
he
nor
I shall
come. nor
II
nifr^res ni
neither
brothers
sisters.
ne ne
II
sait
ni lire ni 4crire.
He
can
neither
neither
so.
read
nor
write.
so nor
Je
Vai
ni dit ni pensL
have
said
thought
ne
veux
Je
ni
quHl
Use
ni
I will
not
or
allow
write.
eats
him
either
to
quHl
ne
ne
derive,
mange
vous
read
ne
II
ni
boit.
He
vous
neither
nor
drinks.
Je
lov"
ni
ne
I neither
praise
nor
blame
you.
bldme.
ne
veux, vous
Je
ni
ne
dois^
ni
ne
neither
wish
nor
nor
ought
I do
to
puis
Note
verb
ne
ohUr,
*
"
obey
'
you,
*
can
it.
1.
at
Nor
used
without
preceding
by do
et
ne
neither
:
'is rendered
ne
(a) before
pas
the
beginning
*
of
clause
not to
e.g. //
devratt
it
*
le
fairer
et it
lefera pas,
before
by said
"
He
ought
it, nor
will he hy
do
; but
(b) within
before
clause
other
words
than
ne
personal
verbs
nf, and
(c)
ne
personal
verbs
I have
not
/?/
ne:
nor
e.g. Je
Vai pas
thought
is
dit ni pens"
it.'
in
ne
(or ni
*
Vai
pens^),
it,
.
.
(have I)
nan
Note
the
not
2.
Ni
plus
"
used
the
'
sense
of
nor
either
*
where
verb
it,
is understood.
nor
Ex.
//
le
non
fera
plus
pasy *Nor
ni moi
vSf
non
p/us
He
will
do
I either.'
Ni
monfrere
brother
either.'
Exercise
XXI.
226
SYNTAX.
[391-394.
B.
Other
short
Indeclinables.
391
of
The
.
following
of the
remarks
that
about
have
part
the
not
use
and
meaning
some
indeclinables in the
already
the
been
sufficiently
here
described be added.
preceding
of
grammar
may
Adverbs.
392.
the
Position
sentence
of
Adverbs.
"
Adverbs,
a
unless
ing introducand
"
personal
as
verb-form,
under
a
an
infinitive,
II
with
souvent
exceptions
'He
'
described
II
411.
Ex.
He
parte
often
speaks.'
souvent
parU
'
has
often
spoken
etc.
Distinctions
of
Certain
iant
Adverbs.
'as
393.
Aussi,
si
are
'as,
so,'
autant,
(so)much
;
si,
or
many.'
only
AiLSsiy autant
negative
used
in comparisons
or
generally
comparison
tant
in
comparisons,
where
no
is involved.
"Ex.
est
Elle
aussi
pas
grande
si
que
luL
She She
is
as
tall
so
as
he.
as
EUe
n^est
(or aussi)
is not
tall
he.
grande
est
Si
que
lui.
Elle
belle, si bonne.
autanf
She
cou-
is
so
pretty,
as
so
kind.
courage,
as
Henri
possMe
mais
de tant
Henry
has
not
so
much
rage,
pa^
(or
que
but
much
prudence,
autant)
Jean.
tant
de
prudence
John.
Je Vai
pri4
quHl
m^en
prayed granted
him
me
so
much
that
he
accord^
Note
the
la permission.
1.
"
the
permission.
tant
Tant
mieux
means
'so
much
the
better/ and
pit
'so
much
worse/
2.
"
Note
much'
Tant
introducing in
same
clause
:
is emphatic,
e.g.
corresponding
to
'
so,
so
(usually
did
he
position)
Tant
U marchait
rapidement
'So
rapidly
walk/
"
394-
Au
limit
mains,
or
'
du
mains
du
'at
least.'
"
Au
moins to
denotes
'
the
lowest
'at
estimate,
in
moins
is equivalent
no
however,'
"
any
rate
| but
ordinary
usage
distinction
is made.
Ex,
^94-^96.
iKBECLINABLES.
227
au
moins
cent
miUe
He
has
at
least
dollars.
do
hundred
dollars.
ne
thousand
pas
SHI
pent
au
le
en
fairCj
parler. U
a
il
If he
cannot
it, he
should
at
devrait
n'est
moins
riche,
least
If he
of it.
S'U
pas
de
du
is not
least
moins
quoi
resto,
"
vivre.
(however)
*
live.
396.
Au
du
reste
resto
as
for the
to
no
rest,
*
besides,
du
reste
"
moreover.'
Au
'
is equivalent usage
besides,'
and
to
otherwise
reste
n^est
; but
vous
in ordinary
dirai
que
distinction
is made. I
Ex.
Mu
je
cela
Besides
you
(Moreover)
that is not
will
tell
pas
vrai.
true,
est
est
caprideux,
du
reste
il
He is
is capricious,
an
otherwise
he
honnHe
Tiomme.
honest
is used
man.
396.
to
Pius^
modify
dawantage
another only
at
more.'
"
Plus
both
absolutely absolutely,
may
and
word.
the
or
Davantage of
"
is used
and
usually
end
encore,
clause.
Either
be
strengthened
me
by
bien Men
Ex.
Cela
plait
.
plus
(or
That
pleases
me
far
more.
davantage)
paresse
est
La
plus
dangereuse
Laziness than
is
more
dangerous
qu"e la vaniti.
vanity. is is dangerous,
more
La
vanU4
la paresse
Note.
"
est dangereuse^
mats
Vanity
ness
but
lazi-
Vest davantage,
In
so.
archaic
style
davantage
is often
followed
by
que,
397.
"?!//,si
answer
^yes.'
to
a
"
Qui
is the
afcmative
used
and where by
si
a
the
correcti
question
(si being
be
negative
"
answer
avez
is
expected).
4t4 f
n*y
avez
^
Si may
you
strengthened ?
'
fait.
^
Ex.
Yes,
vous
Were
pa^
there 'You
Om,
not
monsieur
sir.'
Vous
4t4f
were
there?'
Si
(oi
Si
fait) 'Yes
398.
a
(yes indeed).'
quant.
"
Quand,
Quand
'
'
'
when
to,
as me
is
an as
adverb
for
'
of
time
or
in
regard
'
to,
is always
d moi
as
for
').
228
SYNTAX.
[39"-403.
ioui
399.
'
Tout
stroke^
coup
all at
means
^suddenly'
"
and
d
coup
tout
d'un
coup
^
in
one
once.'
Ex.
sa
TotU
il dispanU
He
He
suddenly
disappeared.'
in
one
II perdit
fortune
dHun
'
coup
stroke.'
often
400.
French
adverbs
eat
Comma
then,
and
que
English,
introduce
the
an
exclamation.
by
unlike end
places
"
word
qualified
elle
these
at the
^
of
the
clause.
is !
'
Ex.
Comme
(or Qu'dle)
belle
How
beautiful
she
Conjunctions.
40 1
*
Ei
.
. ,
.
et
means or
both
.
. .
'
and
.
; soif
. .
9oit
(or ou)
whether
(either)
.
'
. . .
soif que
so/t
que
(or ou
qtte)
'whether
or.'
.
"
Ex.
Both so/t
he
and
I.
Soit
cUmencey
Either
(whether)
he lives him.
clemency
or
justice.
justice.
Whether
see
or
dies
I shall
qu^iC)meure
402. Si,
"
je
le verraL
The
use
of
the
mood preceding
be
and
tense
after
c,
si
been
314,
described
already
in
(cf.304.
that
a
308,
332).
Below
(403.b)
used
will
noted
of
que
si.
(with
subjunc
is often
instead
repeated
403.
be
Que
Hhat.'
"
a.
Que
can
not,
as
often
at
'that'
in
English,
omitted,
"
but
must
be
repeated
votre
cause
the
est
head
bonne
of
et
each
proposition.
prosp^rer
Ex.
'I
Je
crois
que
qu'eUe
will
va
believe
(that)
for
to
'
your
cause
is good,
and
prosper.'
b.
a
Que
is often
; and
'
used also
or
when
after
a
an
expression
of
or
time
cou-
or
negative
supply
comme,
com
p.
.
conjunction
junction-phrase
roi
in gwe,
mort
si, or
(Cf
king
seen.
also 323. A. b. )
not
"
Ex.
he
Le
n'^tait pas
qu^on
The
was
was
dead,
since
{z=puis qu^on)
le vit.
403,
404.]
a
INDBCLINABLES.
229
Lorsqu^on
des dispositions
et
When
is
one
has
the
to
ability study,
and
one
gu'on
des
veut
itudier^
rapides.
ne
on
fait
desirous rapid
one
progr^s
qu'on
ne
makes
diligent
de
pas,
est
moins
et
soit
Unless
be
and
less (unhe
qu^on
^
prenne
la
one)
will When
not
one
trouble,
peine
on
ne
r^ussira
succeed.
QvMnd
on
est ricJie et
on
gu^on
is
one
both
does
rich
not
and
g4n4reiix^
d^amis.
ne
manque
pas
generous
lack
friends.
avez
Si
vous
vous
des
amis
et
que
If
you
to
have
friends
and
wish yourself
dSsiriezles
digne
conserver,
retain worthy
them,
render
rendez-vous
estime.
de
leiir
of their
esteem.
peine
vint
ne me
fus-je arrivi
voir. point
content
qu'il
Scarcely called
had
on
I arrived
me.
when
he
Je
serai
que.
ne
shall
I know
not
be
satisfied
unless
(=d
sache.
train
moins
que) je
le
it.
Le
n^itait d peine
vint,
for
the
use
pass^
The
train he
had
came.
hardly
started
quHl
c.
when
of
que
Cf. also
b. note,
in
comparison
84,
as
an
expletive
266
a.
and
and
in exclamation
400.
404in
Quand^
a more
lorsque
general
'
when.' way
"
Quand
lorsque.
is
said
In
to
refer
to
time
than
actual
usage,
can
however, used
little distinction
as a an
is made,
except
that that
quand lorsque
alone
must
be
interrogative
present.
adverb,
"
and
be
used
with
historical
ans
Ex.
J'avais
quinze
mon
lorsque
je
was
fifteen
years
father.
of age
when
peiyjtis
est
ph^e.
1 lost my
hon
d'itudier
quand
on
It
is well
young.
to
study
when
one
is
arrivS
9
de
When
did
you
arrive
the
Lorsque
ces
blessures
When
these
finally
wounds
men
of
are
s^amilio-
unfortunate
rent,
pMssent
faute
de
healing,
of food.
they
perish
for want
subsistance.
230
SYNTAX.
[405-40:
condition,
with
vous
Note.
time plying
:
"
Quand
Faites-le
and
lorsque
vous venez
also
denote
reference viendrez
t"
Cf
.
si
(implying doubt),
viendrez
quand
almost
(im
lorsque probability),
vouz
(implying
'
certainty).
"
406.
introduces
Pares
the
refers
veux
que
cause
'
because/
of
puisque
is stated
"
since.' in the
Parce
qiu"
what
main
clause:
pxdsque
le
to
it
as
consequence.
est
Ex.
it, because it is right.
Je
parce
que
cela
I wish
juste.
Je
le
veux
puisque
cela
est
I wish
it since
it is right.
juste.
Note.
"
Par
dit
*
ce
que
means
from what
what,
by
me.'
that
'
which
Je
le sait
par
ce
qu*il
m*a
I know
it from
he
told
^
406.
Pendani
of the
pendant
que,
action,
while.'
que
"
Both
denote
simulto
taneousness
'
tandis
is usually
equivalent
while
entra
on
contrary.'
que
Ex.
dor-
II
je
He
entered
while
was
sleep-
mais.
me consume
ing.
de chagrin
vous
vous
Je
tan-
pine you
XXII.
away
are
with
grief
while
dis que
amusez.
amusing
yourself.
Exercise
XVIII.
ABBANGEMEITT
HISTORY. by
their
OF
THE
SENTEITOE.
[407.
each
"
Latin, form,
than
being
able far
to
express
the
relation
in the
of
words
to
other
the
possessed
French, for
greater inflection
paier
freedom
is
ment arrangeby
amat
of
sentence
where
instance,
largely
or
replaced
fixity
f
of position.
or
In
Latin,
were
ctmat
Jihum,
Jilium
unable
pater
amai
pater
Jilium
the
equally
and
allowable, accusative,
while
except
French, by
to
distinguish
between allows
only
to
nominative
their
relative
position,
le pkre
a
aime
state
le
fils.
was
This
transition
French,
fixed
of position
accomplished inflection,
only
gradu-
ally.
'Old
retaining
much
of
the
Latin
also
allowed
407-411.]
of
the
ARRANGEMENT
OP
THE
SENTENCE.
231
much
Latin
freedom
are
of
position.
especially
than
Even
as
yet
some
traces
of
an
earlier
independence
and much
more more
preseryed,
in poetry
regards
But
certain
common
modifying language
words,
in prose.
the
is tending
and
more
towards
rigorous
uniformity.]
sentence
408.
The either
arrangement
of
the
is in French,
as
in
English,
direct
or
inverted.
direct
409.
Direct
used
is:
for
Arrangement.
the
most
"
The
arrangement,
being
part with
in affirmative
and
negative
2.
ments, state-
1. the
subject
The
its
modifiers,
position of
the
predicate
modifying below.
ment arrangeor
with
its
as
modifiers.
relative
the
words,
far
as
it is peculiar and
to French,
is described
"
Adjectives, pronouns,
of
negative
particles.
personal
The
adjectives, conjunctive
particles, and negative
pronouns
is described
pronomin
particles
pron. 102,
already
374,
in the
preceding
254-6;
direct
neg.
388).
[410.]
Direct
longer
indirect
the
object.
"
The
object,unless
it.
direct
decidedly
than
indirect,
comes
usually last,
precedes
whether
An
or
emphasized
"
object,
Ex.
le
however,
indirect.
inspire soldcUs.
courage
ses
He
inspires
courage.
his
soldiers
with
faut
V
amour
inspirer de
"
aux
enfants
Children with
should love
as
be
inspired
Dieu,
and
rien,
"
to
God.
often precede
an
Note.
T(mt and
a
when
used
alone
objects,
infinitive
ne
participle. celer.
Ex.
To conceal thinks nothing she
Pour
vous
Hen
from
done
you.
everything.
Elle
croit avoir
tout
fait.
and
She
has
[411.]
follows
a.
Adverbs
:
adverbial
phrases.
"
They
are
arranged
as
They
usually
or
follow
the
personal
But long
verb-form
adverbs
or
(i.e. the
adverbial
simple
verb
and
the
auxiliary).
of relative of
a
phrases,
adverbs
time
{hier,demain,
"
etc.)
follow
the past
participle
compound
tense.
Ex.
232
SYKTA:jf.
He parU.
Vadqu^il
[411-414.
II park
souveni.
often has
speaks.
often spoken place
to
me.
II rtCa souvent
He We
On
met
ord/nairement
apr^s
usually
after
the
adverb
verbe
le
verbe
the
verb
it modifies.
modijie.
ai M
J'y
quelquefois.
a
I have
been
there
sometimes.
Je
Vaifait
la hate. h/er.
position rather
I did
it in haste.
II est arriv^
Note.
latter
"
He
before
more or
arrived
the
yesterday.
is often
The being
after
participle
many
common
optional,
like
the
emphatic.
etc.
But
adverbs
d^ja^ souvent,
b. Long
several
blentot, toujours,
always
precede.
adverbs
short
and adverbs
adverbial
phrases
follow
mal,
an*
infinitive.
trop^
But
pis^
and
usually
adverbs
of negation
(374, 388)
One
He
precede
it.
"
Ex.
II
(or I) must
makes
can
an
write
tenderly. well.
II
effort to write
You
of
not
do
better.
very
Adverbs those
a
and
adverbial
; and
au
phrases both
are
time,
unless
long,
"
precede
of place
followed
Let
by
come
other
adverbs.
to
Qu*il vienne
/'instant
palais.
him
us
the
Marchons
ma/ntenant
avec assurance.
(or presente-
Let
now
assurance.
ment)
[412.]
can
Prepositions
as
precede
the words by
at
to which
they
a
:
belong,
relat.
or
and
never
in English
ellipsis the
^
(omission of
of
a
interrog.
pronoun)
de laquelle
"
be
placed
end The
a
clause
e.g. La
maison
Note.
sa
house
he
speaks
its
of.'
noun
Exceptionally
'
(by
origin
e.g.
vie durant
are
during
his life.' In
as
adverbial
m
follows
s'^leva
contre)
prepositions
construed
adverbs.
413.
Inverted
requiring the
Arrangement.
"
The the
inverted
ment, arrange-
subject
the
verb.
to
follow
verb,
is used
in
the
cases
described
In
below.
[414.]
and
ce
questions,
the
personal Other
on
follow
414-416.]
the
ARBANGEMENT
OF
THE
SENTENCE.
288
precede
verb,
being
repeated the it
after
it
in
the
form
of
personal
pronoun.
Or
que
question
is
that'
introduced
by
with
the
paraphrase
Est-ce
"
4s
(the case)
Has he
(1^2)
direct
arrangement.
venu
Ex.
come
EsUil
Votre
ce
frere
que
"
est-il
venu
f
est
verb
or
Estf
Has
your
brother
come
votre
When
the
Ex.
fr^re
the
venu
Note.
is preceded may
by
an
interrogative
optionally
be
particle
placed
or
by
its
object,
"
subject-noun
Ou
est
votre vaut
in many
cases
after
is your
its verb.
frere f celaf
a
(or
Oii
votre
frere est-ilf)
cela
'Where
brother?' worth
1
Comhien
'
(or
'
Combien
that What
Quel
your
livre
votre
fr^re f
is
book
has
brother the
woman
Que
want
veut
femme
cet
(or Cettefemme
f
que
veut-elle
?)
What
does
is the
'
Qu^a
1
'
homme
(or
Cet homme
'What qu'a-t'tlf)
matter
with
this
man
[415.]
a
In
optative
or
conditional
phrases follows
the
not
introduced
"
by
conjunction,
r^ussir
!
the
subject
May
d^un
verb.
!
me
Ex.
Puisse-t'il
he
succeed
preserve
!
Me
pr4servent
tel mcUheur
!
fes
cieux
Heaven
a
from
such
calamity do
me
Je
le
ferai^ dM-il
m^en
coiJtter
shall
cost
it, my
even
if it should
la vie.
auraient
life. have
resisted,
Us
r^sist^^
n^eUt
4t4
They
would
but
/e
canon.
for the
cannon.
[416.]
When
the
another
word
than
sentence,
subject
is frequently
its verb. frequently
the
less
optionally)
a.
placed
after
The
phrase
follows
an
its verb
when
the
word
introducing
indirect
question
(qui,ce
que,
quel
que,
or
indefinite
concession
(qui
que,
adverb
or
adverbial
au
expression
of time,
space,
(alors,id,
oii;
"
ainsi,
milieu,
(3.)the
relative
"
(4.) a
predicate
; etc.) adjective
(especiallytd).
284
SYNTAX.
iilQ.
1.
qui
sont
ces
Dites-moi
jeunes
Tell
are.
me
who
these
young
people
gens.
lui demandai
comment
ce
Je
lui
asked
hiih
how
this
was
unex-
Hait
advenu
secours
pected
dared
assistance him.
ren-
inaMendu.
Quel
n^est
que
pas
soit
cet
homme,
il
Whoever polite.
this
man
be^ he
\a not
poli.
que
soit
votre
Quelque
smur,
habile
eUe
ne
However
skilful
will
not
your
sister
be,
r^ussira
pas.
she
2.
succeed.
Alors
commenga
une
lutie
Then
terrible
struggle
ensued
terrible.
(or Then
une
began
etc.).
formerly
a
Id
fleurit jadis
opulente.
ville
Here
flourished
rich
city.
mon
cdt4 de
smur.
fr^re
itait
ma
Beside
sister.
my
brother
was
my
De
Id
d^end
votre
sa/ut
On
3.
that
depends
your
safety.
La
lot permet
souvent
ce
que
The
law
often
permits
what
defend I'honneur.
vu
honor
est
forbids.
seen
Tai
la place
oh
dress^
I have
the
place
where
the
/'Schafaud.
4.
scaffold
is erected.
Telle
4tait
la
fiertS
de
ce
Such
was
the
pride
of
this
peuple.
people.
Humbles
pouvoirs. b. The
phrase
furent
d^abord
les
Humble powers.
were
at
first
the
pronoun-subject
is introduced such
du
as
commonly
certain
follows
or
its verb
when
the
by
a
adverbs
or
adverbial
in
-ment
phrases^
especially
moins,
aussi^
contain
en
preposition
rarement^
end
etc.,
(d, peine,
others,
au
moins^
vain,
and
also
as
encore,
peut-Ure),
cases
Other
subjects
their verb,
than
personal repeated,
pronouns
in
similar
precede
being
416-419.]
PUNCTUATION
AND
USE
OF
CAPITALS.
235
however,
as
in
questions the
(414),in
"
the
form
of
personal
pro-
nonn
placed
peine
entra.
after
verb.
Ex.
4tai8-Je arriv4
mon
qu^elle
Hardly
had
I arrived
when
she
entered.
peine
frere
entra.
itait-il
Hardly when
In
my
brother
arrived
arrivi
vain
qu^elle
entered.
I say
so.
En
vain
dit,
Peut-Hre
vous
pourrai-je wi
Hre
mon vous
jour
Perhaps
to
serve
one
day
you.
I shall
be
able
utile.
PeuU^tre
un
pere
pourra-t-i/
Perhaps be able
one
day
serve
my
may
jour
^tre utile.
to
[417.]
middle
as
In
or
phrases
at
like end
(//7-/7, s'Scria-t-il^
of
a
etc.,
in
the
the
quotation,
Ex.
the
subject follows
dit-if, tout
le rot\
common,
its
ira
verb,
hien,
Note.
usually
Elle
"
in English.
morte^
"
Consolez-vous^
Bien^
est
s^^cria-t-il,
phrases
has
ripondit
French
Such
used
interjected
where dtt
etc.
are
in
a
very
:
and le sublime
sometimes
already
subject
s
e.g.
Alors
orateur,
^levant
sa
voix, Dieux
the
protecteurs
d'Athenes
'4cria't-f/, etc.
an
*
[418.]
"
Exceptionally,
Ex.
verb
itself
cents
introduces
arm"s
affirmative
Finally
came
ment. statetwo
Vinrent
men.'
ensuite
deux
hommea
hundred
armed
allows
Poetry
much
more
freedom
of arrangement
than
prose
cf
426.
.
XIX.
PTIirOTUATION
AND
USE
OP
CAPITALS.
419.
similar special
than
on
Punctuation.
in French
cases
"
The
rules
that
of
are
so
and
English rather
on
any
of
usage
in
depends
individual
preference
difference
"
of principle.
more
Note.
direct
French,
quotation,
consistently
than
English,
re"juire8
i^ colon
bef
orf
any
236
SYNTAX.
[420, 421.
The
420.
Capital
are, a
Letters.
few
option
"
rules
the
for the
same
use
of capital
initials
with certain
exceptions,
in
cases,
French
reserved
a
and in
English,
being,
contrary
in
certain
to
either.
:
French,
however,
English,
requires
small
initial
a.
In
adjectives
of languages.
denoting
"
nation,
un
party,
or
'
sect,
a
and
also
in
'
names
Ex.
a
Uvre
frangais
'
French
'
book
French
un
prHre
cathoUque
'
Catholic
English
nation, when
priest
; le frangais
the
language
Note.
"
; V anglais
Nouns
'the
language.'
or
party,
they
*
sect
to
usually
have
"
capital
Ex.
*
initial,
though
refer
;
'
indiyiduals.
*
Un
Frangais
(or frangais)
; les Protestants
Frenchman
Protestants
les Frangais
; les Gihelins
*
the
the
French
(viz.
people)
b.
the
Ghibellines.'
In
names
of
the
months
mardi.
and
of
the
days
of
the
week.
"
Ex.
c.
mai^juin;
In
the
lundi^
pronoun
je
I.'
XX.
PREirOH
VERSE.
421.
General
differs
from
Character.
that of
"
The
construction
of French
verse
either
classical
(Grreek and
was
Latin)
or
Germanic.
The essential element
as
of Classical determined
verse
rhythm
(pvOfio
* '
'regular
movement')
and
by
of
a
regular
recurrence,
at
short
measured
intervals,
syllable the
with
or
musical
sentence-
stress
{ictiLS, entirely
intervening order,
independent
syllables
regard
to
verse
of
word
accent),
being
arranged
in various
"
though
ment ele-
definite
with
their
quantity.
The
chief
of modern
Germanic
a
(English included)
though
not
rhythm,
but
rhythm
which,
largely
by musical
borrowed
accent,
classical
models,
is determined
but
by
421.]
*
FRENCH
VERSE.
287
the
natural
accent
of
the
words
in
the
verse,
and
not
by
the
quantity
least,
of by
intervening
unaccented
To
syllables
this
but,
prevailingly
of
at
their rhythm
number.
essential
verse,
requirement rhyme
has
or
accentual
as an
in
the
Germanic
which
the
been
not.
added
accessory
verse,
element,
may
be
present
In
French
and
essential
of of
elements
the
are
also is
or
rhythm
rhyme.
quite
rhythm that
French
the
law
verse
something
different
from
either
classical observed
that
Germanic
verse.
The is that
only
each
definite
portion
of the
metrical
of
"
in
can
French
poetry
the
verse-line
be
uttered
line,
without
or a
fatigue
part of
voice
i.e. practically,
every
two
"
short
each
longer of
has least
line
divided
and
into terminate
shall
contain
whose
definite
number
syllables
a
in
word
final sonant-syllable
requires, the line
or
accent, pause
and
thus
naturally
at
brief
(in
final
the
middle
of
which
called the
cces^ira).
of by
the
Between
these
verse,
syllables,
nor
form
are
a
pivots
French other
neither than
that
accent
quantity
regulated way,
any
law
which
in
general
variation
of accentual
rhythm
and
of combination. in
the
French
verse
The
of each
regular
and
such
at
ear,
sustained as
rhythmical
of
one
pulsation
the
within
verse,
line,
to
is
characteristic
ear
English
to
is apt
To his the
verse
offend,
first,
ever, howto
the
of
used
the
latter.
of
French
the
freedom
and
variation
beat something
a
is preferable
verse,
the
regulated
accentual
perceive
even
of
the
of
to
Germanic
monotony;
in which practice
he
is apt
soon
to
and
the
will
teach
of good
stranger
verse.
appreciate
harmonious
movement
French
for
In
compensation
a
this
freedom
of
rhythm,
rhyme
has
become
well-nigh the
indispensable
poet
last
element
on
in
French
poetry.* pro-
Moreover,
French
imposes
himself
certain
Assonance
(accordance
French
poetry,
of
tone-vowels
simply)
in popular
was
characteristic
of the
oldest
and
is yet
used
songs.
238
SYNTAX.
[421-423.
harmony,
he
sodial
also
more
laws,
or
in
part
tending
to
promote
but
avoids
in
part
Thus
a
especially
hiatus,^
except
in
where
formerly gives,
a
pronounced archaically,
consonant
has
become
silent.
e
Further
that
he
full syllabic
valne
after
to every
mute
at the
has
of the
consonant
before
he
and
end
and would
line.
Again,
is restricted
principles,
verse
in his
the
words which
constructions
by
deprive
certain
his
neglect
tend
to
of
its
poetical
The
out
effect.
essentials
are
of
the
French
more
verse
that
are
briefly
sketched
above,
considered
in detail
below.
422.
pronounced
from
two
are
Number
of
Syllables;
that may
C"esura.
be contained
"
The
in
one
number
of
syllables
to
line varies
six syllables
twelve. used
or
Short
except
lines in
counting
less than
with
rarely of
ten
alternation
are
longer
lines.
parts
Lines
twelve
syllables
by
a
divided
or
into
csesnra,
or
two
(hemisticJis), separated
lines the
"
short
pause,
4th
which
sometimes the
in
of ten but
syllables in lines
comes
syllable, usually
6th, Ex.
of
syllables
after
6th.
12
5678
Un
jour^
sevl
dans
le
Colis^e,*
12
56
789
10
11
12
Out,
je
viens
dans
son
temple
\\ adorer
VEtemely
423.
"MUTE
e
Sounded.
'mute.'
"
In
any
syllable and
after
not
ending
as
verse-line,
is slightly except
sounded
before
or
counted
a
full
vowel where
of
syllabic
value,
as
vowel-sound,
the
it is silent
in prose
(cf.note
less rigid
1).
Thus,
combina-
Old
French
poetry
was
much
in avoiding
hiatus
than
mod*
em
2
French.
Roman
type
here
used
for
without
syllabic
value
(423).
423-425.]
FRENCH
VERSE.
239
tions
fairs
three
ce,
faites-le would
and
each
avec^
in
the
middle
ce,
of
line
also
count
syllables,
In the
/aire
feraierU
the line
lajoie
est
only
three.
last syllable
to
of
it is also
faintly
uttered
(thus serving
masculine
bring feminine
nous
out
the
harmonious
:
interchange
; but
between
and
Thus,
rhymes
sommes
425)
does
not
count
syllabically.
as
would end
9
in the
middle
two.
12
"
of
Ex.
line count
12
three
3456
syllables,
but
7
at the
8
only
10
as
11
Telle
Note
1.
qu'wie
E
mute
berg^re,
is not allowed
by
a
au \\
plus
form
beau
hiatus
jour
with
a
de
fete.
Yowel.
"
to
preceding
Hence
it is either
replaced
circumflex, 128
especially
; gaii"ioT
in
future
or
and
condition
of verbs
as
(e.g.lourai
by
for louerai:
2
gaiety);
vowel,
it is simply
silent,
in prose
(e.g. aimaient,
a
only
when being
2.
followed
then
"
vowel
final, after
it is
not
it
can
occur
hiatus
tolerated
aid
an
(e.g.lajoie
making up
but
Note
T"^
in
e
the
required
of
syllables,
to
several
words changed.
with
mute
in
their
encor
end-syllable for
encore^
allowed for
aic,
be
slightly
Thus
we
may
find
ay for
certe
for for
certes,
Jusgues (also
and 3.
"
allowed
in prose,
before
is also
vowel)
sometimes
jusgue,
Londre
Londres,
Note
verse,
so
on.
Instead
distinction
quite
of
avec
used
avecque.
The
at
between
diphthongs
and
dissyllables
always
they
(cf. 16)
as
is in
times, ie,
to
arbitrary.
as
Oi
treated would
not
a
so
diphthong,
but
sometimes
dissyllables
be
treated
in prose.
424.
Hiatus.
is not
e
"
Between
except
a
two
words,
hiatus
the final
or ez
(meeting
of
of
vowels)
is
allowed, by
1. when
the
first
it is
a
word
preceded
vowel
(423
note
1) ;
ay
2. when
mute
Note. Note.
unlinked
"
consonant
*
huissier, (e.g.
before
a
*
garde).
hiatus,
it is in
Et
As
'
and the
is not
used
vowel.
'
"
phrase
by
il y
there
is
contains in prose.
verse
regularly
supplanted
il est ; found
also
426.
Rhyme.
when
"
There rhyming
they
are
are
two
kinds
of
rhyme:
:
masculine,
the
final
e are
(e.g.mUr
to
pur)y
:
and
feminine,
when
an
'mute'
(e.g. mUre
pure).
Masculine
and
feminine
rhymes freedom
required
nate, alter-
though
with
considerable
of arrangement.
240
SYNTAX.
[425-428.
is
sameness
were
Note
as
1.
an
"
The
chief
quality from
a
of
time
French
when
rhyme
of
sound.
But,
inheritance rhyming
than
final
letters
pronounced,
now
some
really
words
that
or
terminate
six^
in discordant,
are
though
to
mute,
letters
:
(others
meres; autant:
:t,
;
eg,
z)
not
allowed
acceptable
be
a
so.
rhyme.
Thus
pere
peux
:/eu
plier
Jiez would
;
not
be
rhyme-couples,
while
attend;
"
banc:
s
rang
fais :
Ist
paix
would of
Note
:
2.
The
final may
not
of
the
to
s
singular
the
verb
(an
rhyme
anomalous
to
addition
p.
61)
word
be
omitted
make
verb-form
for voi, be'ni
the
eye
with
another
ending
in
(e.g.vien^
and
viens, vois,
"
b^is).
426.
Choice
like
of
Words
only certain Thus
serious
Constructions.
higher
French
poetry the
English, of
in
degree,
terms
is characterized
by
exclusion
common
and
by
much
dom free-
of construction.
a.
"
It prefers,
common, or as
in the
style,
certain
or
more
words,
more
for
instance
glaive
fer for
for
;
flanc for
for
ventre
sein ;
maint
for (-te)
etc.
plusieurs
soudain
aussitdt;
b.
"
tre pas
for
for colere;
the
sentence
certain
"
of
it allows,
or
even
prefers,
especially,
that
of
placing
modifier
before
its
verb.
Ex.
Ma
soeur,
de
voire
sort
\\ je
vous
laisse V empire.
Et
tons
devant
f'aute/
avec ||
ordre
introduits,
427.
ENJAMBEMENT.
to
a
over
"
In
French
terminate
poetry with
(especiallyclassical
a
428)
close
it is
objectionable
with
'
have
line
the
one
that
a
is in too natural
construction
a
word
'
in
following
line
to
line
another
to
pause
(such
striding
Thus,
to
from
on
called
ment)
caeur
separate
or
different
cette
lines
etc.
(or even
would
different
enjaxnbehemistichs)
especially
son
aimahle
il aime
or
Jemme
be
unpoetical,
when
in lines
of ten
of
twelve
syllables. described
less above,
as
428.
Some
the
are
rules
those
referring
by modern by
to
hiatus poets,
and
enjambement,
those
much
strictly
school, than
observed
they
were
especially
of
the
Romantic
the
the
poets
of
the
classical
school
(in
17th
and
18th
centuries).
a
429.
verses
One
line
is usually
a
called
verse.
certain
a
number
of
forming
unit
by
themselves,
constitute
stance
(or
428,429.]
FRENCH
VERSE.
241
in
an
ode
strophe^
or
in
ballad
couplet).
according
A
to
stanza
is called
quatrain^
quintil^
sixain,
etc.
the
of
syllables
their
as
(4,5,
number
in the
6,
etc.)
being
it contains.
Several except
stanzas
poem^
undetermined,
and
the
rondeau.
in
few
kinds
of poems,
sonnet
Examples
a.
"
of
Various
"
Kinds In
of
Verse:
and
Alexandrines,
larger
poems
compositions, and
lines
usually
of twelve with
are
full syllables
and
into
two
hemistichs;
masculine used.
rhymes
are
in alternate
couplets, probably
much
as
Such
on
called
Alexandrines, about
part
being Great
first used
large
scale
in
poem
Alexander
of
the
{Roman
They
were
d^ Alexandre) in
once
the
latter
the they
has,
12th
are
century.
now,
much
more
common
even
outside
'
of
age
France,
and
the
18th
In
in fact, been
called and
the
of Alexandrines.*
example
are
below,
:
caesura
rhythmically
prominent
syllables
marked
Oui^ je viens
Je
viens
dans
son
temp/e
\\ adorer
VEternel
selon
avec
Vusage
vous
|| antique
et solennel
CiMbrer
Oh
sur
la || fameuse
journee
le mont
Sina
sont
sacree
Que
La
les temps
trompette
ce
jour
|| annongait
le retour,
Dii Le
temple, peuple
ornS
saint
partout
en
\\ defestons magniffques,
les port/ques
;
fou/e \\ inondait
b,
"
Verses
of ten
syllables
les
Nevers
donc^
|| chez
un \\
Visitand/ties
Vivait
A
qui
naguere
son
Perroquet
coeur
fameux,
art
\\ et
son
g4n4reux,
In
declamation
to
of
course
taste
decides
how
much
prominence
should
be
given
these
syllables.
242
SYNTAX.
[429, 430.
badines,
rigoureux,
heureux.
Sea
vertua
mdme
dH
|| et
ses
graces
sort
Auraient
fa/re
ccBurs
un ||
moins
Si les beaux
^aient ||
toujours
c.
"
Verses
of eight
on
se
syllables
(very common)
s^aime^
Qaand
Que
rencontre
et qu'on
peut'on la pri^re,
qu^on
^changer
don reqoit
de
m/eux
Que
supreme^
meme
Or pur
aux
c/eux
d.
"
Mixed
verses
Lorsque
enfant parait
d, grand Fait
le || cerde doux
de
famille
qui
Applaudit
cris I son
briller tous
regard
brille
les/eux^
souilMs
peut-^ire,
Et
les plus
tristes
fronts
les || plus
Se
d^Hdent
soudain
Innocent
|| voir ct
enfant paraiire
etjo/eux.
XXI.
EELATION
OF
AN"LO-PREirOH
AND
TSESOR
WOEDS.*
430.
of
French
the
Words
in
English.
is of
"
vfery
large
The
portion
English
vocabulary
was
Frenob.
into
The led
origin.
English
bulk
consequence
of
its
French of
the
elements
brought
in
Norman
conquest
(1066).
Normans the of
obstinate
to
ance resist-
of
the
Saxons
against
state
the
their
the
exclusion
from
; and
language
the
of
conquerors
became
official
language
government
and
the
For
sw'
fuller
discussion
roman
of this
subject, cf
consid^"
the
author's
ses
Queues
avec
tions observa-
V"l"ment
de Vanglais
dans
rapports
lefran^is
modeme
(Acta Uniyersitatis
Lundensis,
xix).
430,431.]
ANGLO-FRENCH
AND
FRENCH
WORDS.
248
fashionable
of the
dialect
schools
more
of all the
was
upper
classes. alone.
Even
the
tion instruc-
given
two
in French the
During the
than classes,
centuries, looked
Saxon
upon
idiom, by
any the
retained higher
as
by
lower
and
almost
down
free
two
rude
jargon, kept
as
entirely
from
influence
of the
the
French, and
was
is
shpwn
by
But of 14th
the
poems,
a
Layamon's
Brut
the
Ormulum.
to
later
native century
vast
body and
of the
French
English
words
added
those
the
stock;
of
the
latter chiefly
part
to
a
of
reveals
ties
the
fact
that,
owing
severing
of
political
upper begun and
between
England
as
and
France,
the
interests
of the
lower
classes,
well
as
their
two
languages,
had
then
to blend.
This
assimilating the
many
course
on
process
continued,
To
with
the
various
fluctuations,
during
following
centuries. directly
whole stock compete
Anglo-Norman
French of French from native
were
element
words
borrowed
The
from
added
elements
a
in the
of
time.
number
engrafted
point
the
English they
of
is
so
large
those
that, of
dictionary
origin.
of
view,
with
words
(The
that
entire of the
more
number
foreign The
considerably
surpasses being
up of
native.)
Saxon
than of
are,
words, French
however, and
making
much
familiar
use
the
almost
as
entirely and
such
categories
frequently
as
recurring used
of
words
pronouns
indeclinables,
in
a
actually
though
by
course
classical varying,
A
and
modern
writers,
very
decided,
majority.
careful
[431.]
the
Proportion all
^
of
French
in
Words.
"
mation esti-
of
the
words
'
Skeat's
of the
etymological
dictionary
the
(i.e. of
primitive
in
words
language) gives
of
to be
ing followwords
French the
results
round 5,000
numbers:^
are
Out
nearly
14,000
from
that
it contains,
considered
of these
derived
from
(which
has
received from
are
3,500
sources,
words
Latin,
remainder 4,000
other
of
chiefly
origin
Greek
above
and
German).
purely
Only
Germanic
(a trifle
p. 242.
3,000
See
foot-note,
244
"YNTAX.
[431-433.
Latin
Saxon).
The
remainder
or
are sources.
from
"
(400),
also
of
a
Celtic
(250),
words,
other
Taking
derived
these
proportions
would
change
in favor
the
German
element, number
With
the
must
Germanic
of derivatives
French
not
primitives
than
having
yielded
much
greater
French.
[432.]
element be
of
the
English
language
the
the
purely
Latin
element
confounded.
Already
introduction
of
study
Christianity
Latin, and
among
the
Anglo-Saxons
words
:
of
many
Latin
were
the
:
priest;
the
prcedicare:
preach;
diaholus
devil,
etc.).
increased words
When,
in
the
a
16th
century,
classical
literature became
elements
known
to English
scholars, by
can
considerable
influx
science,
of Latin
took industry.
by
use.
place,
The
later
the
necessities be
of
commerce,
and
the French
Latin
which
generally and
distinguished
their
more
from
their
form,
is less
altered,
even
by by
technical
to
Yet,
it is not
source
always
feasible,
respect,
tests,
decide
the
immediate
in this
because
words
as
have
to
come
in English
nearer
(as indeed
their
in
French)
been
reformed
origin
to
:
so
ultimate
to
classical
;
thus
old
was
changed
etc.
to
; subject
iuge
judge
marchant
merchant
voicinage
vicinage;
433.
Difference
Words.
should
a
in
"
Form
It
between
Anglo-French
that
more
AND
French
words
is natural diverge
Anglo-French and
more
and
French they
gradually
life
in form
as
lived
separate the
never
under of
a
different
different writing
portion,
most
or
circumstances,
language. Their
each
yielding
to
tendencies alike.
pronunciation
is
In
they
are,
indeed,
more
sometimes
identical
however,
(e.g. mention,
they
as
etc.).
part
after
Far
so
frequently,
to
slightly
as
be
recognized with
the
:
cognates
glance,
but
:
little
Engl.
familiarity
;
commonest
changes
anc^tre:
Fr. (e.g.
ancestor;
M^gant
elegant
concours
concourse;
coupable:
so as as
culpable
to
4pice:
a more
spice;
chanter:
chant,
etc.);
their
proie:
but
also often
require
practised
cdte:
eye
for
identification
prey; huttre:
twinoyster;
forms
(e.g.Fr.
war;
Engl,
coast;
guerre:
guichet:
wicket;
eteule:
stubble;
jiasque: flaccid^
etc.).
433-436.]
A
few
as
ANGLO-FRENCH
AND
FRENCH
WORDS.
245
of the
compared The
more
common
peculiarities
the
native French
of the
are
Anglo-French
below.
forms
with
noted
[434.]
Anglo-French
words
gradually
yielded
to
the
tendency
in English
of the
were
of accenting
(emphatically) the
As
or a
beginning
atonic
instead
end
of
the
word.
dimmed
branche
consequence,
syllables
generally
lost
=
(e.g. Fr.
chapter,
chapitre,
captain
,
capitaine^
geyitil^ demoiselle^
Engl,
gentle,
damsel,
was
branch).
loss
of
to
A the
wide-reaching
result
of
this
ciple prin-
the
French
of
infinitive-ending,
English,
obe-Xr
after
-ew, as
its
in
previous
assimilation
that
formerly
=
German
(e.g. old
obey-en
=
abat-re,
abate,
o.
Engl,
chant-en,
abat-en,
obey).
Anglo-French words, by
[435.]
or
On
the
other
or
hand,
many
regular
transmission letters
or
artificial reform
consonants
(432),contain
and for instance, the
various
sounds
(chiefly
in French.
tone-vowels)
that
were
lost
altered
Thus,
English
words
barge,
bailiff, pilgmm,
varlef,
arrest,
hostage,
couri,
market,
gim(b)lef, corne,
have each
one
liquorice,
waste,
sound
forms,
several
lost
bailli,
or
which, altered
p^lerin,
cour,
though in the
otage,
gdter.
formerly modern
marche,
present
in old
French
are
berge,
fonction,
cor,
gloire,
juge,
gibelet,
4tape,
r^glisse,
valet,
arrUer,
[436.]
in
In
to
virtue
of this
preserving
tendency,
words
an
it is especially old
s
or
common
find
in Anglo-French
Nearly
5,
I which
have The by
a
is lost
an
French.
200
not
English
far
primary
a
words
such
etymological
s
and
from
hundred,
loss
of
within
:
French
coast
word
:
is usually
Fr.
cdte
there
indicated
Lat.
circumflex
:
e.g. Engl,
(old Fr.
(o.
coste,
:
; costa)
cost
coHter
(o.
F.
coster,
L.
constare);
honn^te
cloister
cloitre
(o.
L.
F.
cloistre,
L.
daustrum)',
^
honest:
F.
honeste,
ho-
See
foot-note,
p. 242.
246
SYI^TAX.
[436-440.
L. but
ostrea)^
taking
also
discover:
Latin
initial
i
si-, sc(Ji)-j
sp-, usually
in popular
esc-,
Latin and
prothetic by
(latere),
loss of
became
s
in
old
French
est-, esp-,
then
the
(retained in Anglo-French)
esquire
or
4c-, 4t-,
^
F.
(cf.1. II.).
low
Hence
Lat.
Engl,
squire:
spi/
;
Fr.
^uyer
(o.
escuyerj
; sciUarius)
;
espy
or
4pier
L.
(o. Fr.
espier^
;
0. H.
Germ,
spehon); spice
estable,
^pice
(o.F.
etc.
espice,
; species) s^a5?e
^^a"Ze The
(o.F.
lost
Fr.
L.
; stoibulum)
Z is
in
French
usually
culpable,
changed L.
to
t";
e.g.
Engl.
or
culpable:
coupahle
(o. F.
F.
mantel cidpabilis);
mantle:
manteau
(o.
mantel,
L. F.
(o.
F.
; c^'seZ)/awZf ; /aw^e
(o.
ciseau
pencil
pinceau
(p. F. pincel,
It is also
come
L.
penicillum), etc.
to
[437.]
have
well
notice old
that
several into
Germanic
have
words there
to
that
through
w,
French in
English
was
retained
g
primitive
which part,
French
changed
gu
OT
(as
such
e.g.
also, Engl,
in
by
later
transfer
brought
into
English):
reward
:
(o.
wicket
F.
:
viquet);
fact
that
the
and
words
of
classical
have
the
frequently,
learned brought
such
as
of
(also, in
part,
affecting always
out
pronunciation),
to
are
originals,
as
it is
those by
not
easy
decide
to
whether be
apparent
genuine,
archaisms, i.e.
pointed
above
or
considered
transmitted
general
usage,
simply other
accidental.
changes may be
[439.]
an
Among
noticed
word:
the
e.g.
etc.
frequent
attachment
of
English
suffix
to
an
Anglo-French
motion-less,
pain-ful
pain-lesSf
n pain-Jnl-ness,ice4i/f
cease-less, charm-er,
440.
Difference Words.
less than
in
"
Meaning
The
between
Anglo-French
of
words
AND
French
not
meaning
is
subject
do
to
change
their
any
form,
and
the in
student
will
well
to
observe
carefully
distinction
sense
between
French
440.]
words
that
AKGLOFREKCH
AND
FRENCH
WORDS.
247
and
French
their
Anglo-French
cognates.
Even
here
to
it is natural
and
Anglo-French
diverge.
words,
subject
otherwise The
varied
ences, influon
should either
sense
gradually expanded,
common
Different
or
conditions
have
side
restricted,
modified
the
of originally times
so
words.
to
is, indeed,
the
at
slight
as
be
means
appreciated
in
nicest
observation.
'
Respectable
but
both
and
what
French
worthy
respect
of respect,'
is not
the la
the
moral
tone
deciding
the
is worthy
;
of
in
same
all
cases
precisely
in English of
same
sentiment
usually
sentiment
means
thing
is
la
^a
and
music,'
French,
un
yet
un
de
musique
sense
'
sentiment
un
'
faim
*
feeling of hunger,'
ment senti-
le bras
feeling in
use,
^
the
arm
; English
sa
and
French
pour
religion
coincide
in general
yet
the
French
religion oath';
^
le serment
is in English
but
there
his pious
vite,
on.
regard
il y
for
an
marcher
is /march,' will
get
il marche
'
arrivera
is
he
walks
more
fast, he often
; and
so
Yet
cognate
words
Engl,
differ
in
some
or
all
of
their
accord
usual
in
sense,
acceptations.
fashion:
of
^
Fr.
fa^on
'
often
but
the
meaning
quite
prevailing by French
style
is
so
peculiarly
English
(not
has
covered
mode)
mean
*
that again
the
form
fashion
in that
ba^'b:
signification
Fr. barbe
been both
a
borrowed
into
or,
French.
Engl,
may
beard,'
while
for
by
is
metaphor,
rare
something the
'a 'a
resembling
sense,
beard; the
'a
but
word
barb
in
former
man's
barbe barbe
; and
is
it
(barbe Whomme
barbe
sense
beard^
de chat
cat's
whiskers, figurative
de
bouc
goat's
beard')
yet
arrow
while
in their
they
as
agree
in
a
part,
or
the
usual
meaning
of
English
Engl.
'
barb
viaiid
part
^
of
hook
is lacking
viande
in French.
^
means
article
now
of food,' but
usually
figurative
meat
sense,
; Engl.
a^ase
is
rarely
usually in the
used
means
except
in
while
impeach
^accuse,'
Fr.
abaisser
^let
of
'
down,
lower';
meaning
'
Engl,
now
is obsolete
while Fr.
sense
means
^impede,'
emp^cher
(impede)
prevent
; Engl,
pier
is
248
SYNTAX.
[440-442
or
'solid
stone
stone-work,
'
wharf
'
(of
stone
so
wood!),
but
Fr.
pierre
'
(Lat.petra
As
might
rock be
') :
and
on.
[441.]
more
expected, than
the
Anglo-French
deviated
words
from they
have
their
much
frequently
sense.
the
French
a
new
primitive struggle
Transplanted
into
words,
not
soil where
the
as
had
to
against
the
Saxon
while thrive
rootlets
of their
as
own
origins usually
could
well
to
in
the
native
adapted
not
their
meaning
the
or
special
needs
or
shades
its
thought
covered
by
indigenous
words.
In
adjustment
where
to
of
original
not
synonyms
one
English,
it did French
the
drop
of
more
them,
given
the
to
sense
:
derivative
the
metaphorical
the
lower;
more
gant, eleor
and
indigenous
(esp. Saxon)
beard; abase:
literal
every-day
(cf.barb:
bounty:
ness; goodoften
travail
work)',or
been
of
of
the
discrimination
is
more
subtile,
one
of taste result
(cf.sacred:
has
holy; great
flower:
benefit have
bloom;
to
liberty:
freedom).
language, by
this
The
the much
English enriched
and
whose
stores
expression
been
struggle
between
to
native
uses.
and
foreign
words,
their
mutual
adaptions
different
[442.]
few
of
examples
will
serve
to
illustrate
the
as
relative
conservatism
Anglo-French
meaning.
words less
barb
*
and
Thus,
^rench
words
regards
their
ordinary
Anglo-French
'
a.
conservative
;
"
than
*
French
'
"
Lat.
bont^
*
barba goodness/
beard
F. harhe
beard/ E.
Lat.
*
Lat.
'
bonitas
*
goodness
E. sharp
F.
E.
'
bounty
:
"
davis
key
F.
"
clef key/
Lat.
*
clef;
"
Lat. aigre
coUigere
*
collect eager
;
F.
cueillir
collect/ E. coil
*
acer
'
F.
sharp/
E.
"
liSit.folium
*
leaf
'
tin foil
a
Lat.
diurnus
*
daily
'
'
F.
joume'e
*
day/
E.
journey (orig'ly of
pen
;
"
etc.) ; day) ;
'
"
"
Lat.
penna suivre
E.
feather
F. penne
*
tail-feather/ E.
sue;
'
"
Lat.
sequere
follow
'
F.
E.
*
Lat.
scintilla
*
'spark':
F.
"lincelle
spark/
b.
Lat. words
petra
more
rock
F. pierre
stone/ E.
French E.
pier.
:
"
Anglo-French
F.
conservative
than
Lat.
"
pinna
usus
'wing':
pignon
'gable'
(Norm.
Fr.
'wing'),
pinion;
Lat.
442,443.]
'use':
ANGLO-FRENCH
AND
FRENCH
WORDS.
"
24d
'use';
F.
""cr
'wear
*
(ont)/
'
as
intr.
sevrer
also
*
'make
use'
(de 'of'), E.
"
"
Lat.
separate
separate
:
'
F.
wean
E. (a child),' sever;
low
Lat.
vivenda
c.
(fr.vivere
Anglo-French Lat.
'live
): F. viande
French
words
'
meat,'
E.
viand.
and
cara
'
both
'
deviating
from
their E.
etymologi"
cal
sense
"
face F. ^age
F.
chere
'
cheer ;
Lat.
continere
Lat.
'hold
stare
'
together':
'
contenance
*
air,' E. old
countenance;
stand
F.
story
floor,' E.
Grerm.
"
warjan
trabs
'defend':
F.
trave
gu^te
'sentry-box,
confine 49.
horses
watch-tower,' when
"E. garret; F.
Lat.
'beam,'
(to
shod):
travail
'work'
(pi
travails
'brakes,
traves,'
4), E,
travail, travel.
443.
LOST
Anqlo-French
IN
Words
whose
Originals
only
change
are
Modern
They
now
French.
also
"
Words
grow
not
and
meaning.
often
and
now
are
out
of
use,
in favor
; sometimes
of
some
other
without
to
such
substitute
and
has
enter
forever,
as
be
resuscitated
again
current
an
into
the
language. which
English
thus
lost
many
Anglo-French
sperance,
word
it
once
possessed
roy
(e.g.devoir,
Scotch,
also rivage,
egal,
misericorde,
penible,
petit,
yet
has
scrimer,
not
a
etc.).
few
out
On
the
other
once
hand,
English
preserved French,
to
words in
which,
borrowed
It
from
old
have
died
a
modem
should counting
be
French.
is not
always
easy
or
say
when
word
even
considered
as
obsolescent
such
of
once
abandoned. words
English
as
But
as
are
liberally
respect,
as
modern
French the
doubtful
in
this
to
the
vocabulary words
language
type-forms
is found
in old
or
contain
but
about
lost
or
300
present words
French,
replaced few
by
of the
other
common
(kindred
ones
are
not)
as
in
modern
French.^
given,
amount,
examples,
arson,
below.
avenge,
contemn,
Abeyance,
affiance,aggrieve,
canvass,
alas,
arraign,
barter, contend,
entreat,
benison,
bondage,
claim,
cloak,
enhance,
dainty,
deface, delight,
host,
encounter,
entice,
feature, genial,
plenty,
quaint,
involve,
rear,
obedient,
ointment,
remote,
peculiar,
pilfe
quiver,
relish, remain,
etc.
scorn,
solemn,
sullen, surrender,
vouch,
For
work
referred
to
foot-note,
p. 242.
EXERCISES
Exercises be omitted
cases
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
in fine print.
in fine print
correspond
to rules
They only
may
in less
then
in
first the
course.
Help
is given
the of
student
each key.
obvious
and
where
reference-paragraphs
not
exercise,
which
general
should
be
well
the
do
furnish
the
names
the
required
be
For
reference
and
proper
index
when
may
consulted.
Articles,
numerals,
are
pronouns,
not
identical
in French
and
lish, Eng-
repeated
in the
Vocabulary.
I. The
Definite
has
a
Article
(180-195).
and
small
A.
1. This
woman
little mouth
nose,
blue
ears.
eyes.
3.
2. The
wolf
a
has
good
long
heart
a
head, and
thin
and
F^nelon
has
a
had
mind.
4. This
tree
hard
bark,
high
sees
trunk,
him
hat
branches.
pen 7.
5. He
his
is always
seen
(tr.One
with
a
a.)
in his
in
That
hand.
costs
6. He
two
a
entered
his
hand.
sold
cloth
eighteen
a
dollars
yard.
8. Meat
bought
is
(refl.) at
at five francs
cents
pound.
9. I have has
yard.
10. The
A.
bookseller shown
a
sold
one
his B.
is
now
"
books. B.
a
11.
Greneral
Eome
has
to
Lieutenant
France
was
glorious
13. Europe.
Asia
is much
larger
15. The
on
France
from
Spain.
My
16.
The in
scenery
is magnificent.
These
17.
brother
from of
lives
(en)
am
Germany.
going
t
o
18.
emigrants
come
19. I the
(en) America.
Spain.
21.
20. The
The
empire Italy
kingdom
army,
so
of
army
in
of
the (i.e.
the
French
of the
have
called) accomplished
Europe
A.
work
French
beautiful
revolution.
necks.
2.
1. Those
horses
Their
minds
are
tired
BXBBOISBS
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
251
They (transl.
a
have
tired 5. I
has
headache.
alms.
3. He
has
lost
his
courage.
4. My
poor
not
a
sister
was
6.
man
The
has
man
asking
7. I wish
cries for
welcome.
"
8. This
poor
farthing.
Rousseau
was
9.
Somehody
help.
us
B.
10.
Locke, writings.
Montesquieu, 11.
and
have
enlightened
(141)
America. 14.
hy
their He
Washington
13.
the
Cincinnatus
Mont The
to
of
12. He
is in
Canada.
This
hold
man
ascen
Blanc. of
lives and
France
(in
Great
Britain).
16.
He
15.
emperor
France
of
Great
18.
Britain.
cheese
is
going
17.
He
comes
from
history
Mexico. of
France
English
much
is very
hut
good.
studied history
the
pleasure,
I have
not
was
the
a
of the merchant.
Netherlands.
21.
23.
amhascountry.
sador
German
Naples
wines
is
are
22.
The
Mississippi
is immense.
Rhine
II.
The
Generic
2. Men
Article
fade
away
(195-6).
1.
Man
man
is weak. has
4.
man's
a
(passent)like
he
can
flowers.
3. A
rights Life
is
(partitive) which
a
not
(ne saurait)
are
sacrifice.
continuous
.
combat. and
metal.
have
5. Moderation
is
necessary
the
wise
to
treasure.
6. Patience
prudence
general.
7. Iron
is
useful
8. Water
no
is the
rights
green.
most
healthful
poor
of drinks.
9. Rich Blue
people
you
other
than
than My
people.
10.
becomes
but
better
does
not
11.
sister
is learning
French,
she
yet
speak
French.
III. The
Partitive
Sign
and
meat.
(197-201).
2.
A.
1. I have
eaten
bread
courage
was
That and
man
has
courage
{co"ur)
.
3. With
4. Home
{courage)
at
perseverance
you
will
succeed.
not
first governed
too
by
of
and
kings.
5. Y
o u
must
(iZ ne
6. He you
much
(db) money
excellent
to
and
clothes.
I
beautiful
news.
pictures 8. He
2
books.
7.
bring
good
will
1
surely
rise
high
dignities.
9. 1 have
bought
2 1
some
black
silk.
man
10. Your
brother
devotes
himself
to deep
studies.
11. That
has
no
courage
252
SYNTAX.
(cceur) ;
drink the
any
that
woman
has
13. You
no
feelings.
not to
12. make
no
The
any
Turks remarks
mean
never o
n
wine.
ought
subject
15. I
{Id-desaus),
shall
not
14.
She
has
such
on
ings. feel-
make
useless
the
on
16.
That
meat.
is not 18.
wine,
it is water.
was
live
and
She
overwhelmed
20. This
flattery.
are
in need B.
21. A
of money.
great
work
"
number
of soldiers
through
city.
22. A
two
crowd
pounds
of curious
people
a
bought
of sugar,
man
pound
of coffee, and
of tea. It
24.
This
has
to
many
acquaintances
and many
27.
friends.
25.
is not
many my
polite
(de)
ask
of:
(faire) bien)
too
questions.
I have
more
26. I have
than Most
1. Has
(or plenty
brother.
are
books.
books
28. Many
(bien)persons
has he need
cloth
were
present.
29.
people
she
any
industrious.
?
(grandsons
?
2.
more
This
man
good
?
sense.
3. Has
showed 6. We
some
he
Dot
money
and
on
friends
What
5.
does
4.
He bad.
manliness
He
sells good
are
and
have
white
silk and
7. There
to
good
and
bad
were
people
in this world.
eight
8. I have
something
(a)
tell you.
0. There
(136)
himdred
killed
and
five hundred
wounded.
10. Which
(271)
is the
happier,
you
or
I ?
IV. Repetition
and
Omission
of (202-204"
and
man
Articles
and
Partitive
Sign
1. This
are
woman
sells apples
3. This
pears.
is hungry
2.
Good
and
candid
4. 1
am
friends
rare.
poor
(204. A. 1).
weather
7.
sleepy.
5. What
kind
6. It
of weather
is it ('What
weather 8.
He
makes
I have
it') to-day?
the
is very
fine
to-day.
said he
opened
windows
9.
purposely.
I
am
would
do has
He
it
with
pleasure.
a
an
Englishman.
was
a
10.
Charles
12.
from
come bewas
big
boy.
11.
made
My
father
physician.
He
a comes
made
city
(tr.One
in
him)
general.
14. The
13.
Miser,
Caen,
Moli^re,
(de) Normandy.
to-night.
comedy
by
is played
15. Children,
parents,
friends,
all bewailed
EXERCISES
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
258
1. He
was are
is hungry 4.
and
will
thirsty.
be
2.
am
cold
; I
am
not
warm.
3.
but
He you
afraid.
wrong. do
She
ashamed
are
of her
folly.
5. He
ask
is right,
6. The
not
children
sleepy.
7. I shall
9. She
enough
justice.
8. These
children
pay
excites
to
(Jait) envy.
10. He
fired
(tr. made
She
She
is homely
pleased. society.
(a) frighten
care.
people
{tr. make
15.
fright).
takes
part
12. He in
looks
our
13. Take
16. 1 shall
to
14. Take
breath.
(a)
I
do it.
him
19.
justice.
He
was
17.
I shall horseback.
lady.
I did
it
18.
on
shall
find
21.
as
means
do do
on
purpose.
her have
shall
a
it with 24. He
at
a
pleasure.
receives
cost. street.
22.
I
w
am
without
fear.
arms.
23. 1 take
25.
(pour)
He
model.
me
ith
(a)
open
bought
these
lives
books in
great
26.
First He
is
volume,
third
a
chapter.
27.
it
Washington
28.
(II est)
a
Frenchman;
is
(c*est)a
a
Frenchman.
29.
These
His
men
brother
is
merchant.
30.
men are
Emily
has
become
come
big from
girl.
tlie
31.
war.
are
soldiers;
these
soldiers
that
32.
They
are
(Us
poor,
sont)
high
English.
and low
were
33.
Augustus,
animated
the
nephew
of
same
Caesar.
ardor. money.
34.
Rich This
and
with and
(de)
she
the
"35.
poor
girl has
neither
father
nor
mother,
is without
V.
Nouns
(206-208).
captain
nuns.
1. His
brother
was
made
in
the
guards. uncle
2.
They been
an
became
(transl. made
minister
man.
themselves)
to
3. His consider
who gave
has
appointed
France.
4.
man
him
my
(to be)
child
some
honest
5. There made
is the
my
apples.
6. I have
friend
truth
read
your
letter
(208, note
1).
to
7. Make say
that
it
(208,note
and heard
1).
them of
8. I have
cause
men
made
him
(208, note
follies.
shown
2).
9. Pride
vanity say
commit He
many
10.
I have
these
words.
11.
has
seen
these
pictures. do
it.
12.
have
him
try
it.
make
them
VI.
Nouns 1. My father's
from
with
Prepositions
cojne
(209-217).
Paris.
2. He
books hunger.
have
from
has
: {est
142)
died
3. He
repents
254
SYNTAX.
4. She 6. They
is loved
by
everybody.
him
bought
7. Do
owes
English
not
steel.
overwhelmed
to
accustom
your
heart
to
envy
and
hatred.
us
obedience
(no
1
art,)
until
his
parents. 10.
9. Let He
that
to
off
sun.
{imp^ve,
His
11. Birds
pi,
to-morrow.
is exposed in the
the
brother fly in
a
lives in Boston
the air.
12. 13.
and
This
his sister
thing
country.
has lives
(est: 142)
in Great in
fallen and
into
my
deep
oblivion. in
was
as
My
14.
uncle
This
Britain,
the 16.
no
brother
15.
He
Germany.
here
last
a
happened in
year He
1850. defends
summer
man.
July.
was
himself
ne
(214)
brave
17. It
longer republic,
(Ce
but
furent
Sulla,
plus:
252,
300)
the and
soldiers
of
the
of
Marius,
Pompey,
Caesar.
1. I have
punished depends 5. 6.
her
on
for
her
fault.
2.
Thej 4.
were
armed
with
guns.
3. Your
success
your
wall
perseverance. is
She
high
has
many
(bien or
in
beaucoup) friends.
This
thirty long.
feet
(express
weight
three
box
different ways),
is twenty
am
This
table
7. The
of
that
kilogrammes.
8. The
than
?
of this
10. My
picture
watch the my
is three is
dollars.
minutes
9. slow.
treated
serves
three
inches play
taller
the
five
11.
Do
as as
you
a
violin
No, has
I play
abused
13.
I have 15.
He
him
friend.
16.
14.
This changes
man
me
model.
were
He
his
the
(omit)
city.
opinion.
enjoy
my
his favor.
18.
They
approaching her
over
19.
shall
redouble
treason.
efforts.
22.
20.
He
never
falseness.
a
21. without
He
suspected
this
Have
travels
you
grave
suspecting
23.
He
on
24.
They
the
speak
in
loud
25.
sore
She
arm.
does
it
on
purpose.
26.
My
sister has
to
headache. 29.
are
27. She
you him
28.
The
penknife
belongs of
her
to
my
brother.
always
thinking
(thinks
I advise
always)
30.
she
What
also
thinking
to do
of? 32.
He
31.
my
brother
advises her
it. his
reproaches
his
sister for
promised my take
her your
fault
(tr,reproaches
to
fault
?
to
sister).
borrowed
33.
Have
you
teacher
be
diligent
the
34. from
I have
the
from
friend.
35.
He
snatched from
man. a
knife
roan,
scamp.
can
(Ster) nothing
pardon of this 39.
wise 38.
because
it gives
a
him the
37.
I ask
There
dines
is not
in
town
see
man
in of in
knows
(subj.) it.
He
My
father
(or out
you
town)
eight
to-day.
40.
will leave
in two
hours.
41.
I shall
again
days
EXERCISES
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
255
(d*aujourd*huien hutt).
way,
42.
I suppose
two
he
has
a
done
day.
it from
fear.
was
this
please.
44.
46. He
come
dollars
45. Troy
by
the
Greeks.
you.
B.
is
respected
the
house.
by
everybody.
49. Be
47.
been
arrived
at
before
48.
60. I
before
your
the
judge.
51.
have
your the
father's.
52.
from
towards
charitable
towards
poor.
He
went
hill.
VII.
Agreement
1.
My
of Adjectives (219-220).
and
good the
father
rich
are
mother before
My
have
come.
2.
The
poor
(sing.) and
the
alike 4.
an
God.
and
3.
I found sister
the
are
door
very
and
window 5. This
a
shut.
man
brother
happy.
It is
has
or
astonishing
.my courage
and
6.
'ruined be
castle
house. of
7. Public
order
cannot
are
the
fruit
crime.
8.
The
polecat
the
weasel
1. I
equally
the
you
dangerous.
and
my
study
French
German
debt
aunts.
languages of
two
(express in
3. My look
three
ways).
speaks
2.
Enclosed much
will
find
dollars.
brother
with
kindness
stones
seem
of his
late
4. These 6. He
an
ladies
was
5. These
(to be)
come
very
hard.
or
bare-headed
a
barefooted.
except
7. I shall
in
an
hour sings
hour
and
half. paintings
8.
the
ladies
may
enter.
9.
She
false.
10. These
dear.
VIII.
Place
of Adjectives (221-223).
girl, and laborious lawyer
Henry
man.
1. Mary My
is
nice
is
a
is
pretty
little
a
boy.
2.
neighbor
4. This
3. I have
an
round
table.
famous the
is also
the
was
amiable
trees,
virtuous
the
as
man.
5. I 6.
like This
blue
high
green
are
fields.
virtuous 250,
much
beloved,
persons.
ever
(comme
is
le sont:
an
b)
is
(292)
virtuous
you and
7.
a
This
man
English 9. History
merchant.
an
8. Have
read
French
study. plain,
poem? An
interesting is
one
instructive 11. A
10.
affected
simplicity
is the only
delicate
to
deception.
natural
style
be
recommended.
12.
like
256
SYNTAX.
the
the
simple
greatest
and
cordial
of
manners
of the
Scotch.
the
13. Montaigne,
young
thinker of
his
time,
enriched his
and
unform
literature
essays.
1. That
is the
France
with
profound
and
brilliant
finest
was a
picture
truly
he
(add
that,
281)
haire
ever an
seen.
2.
Gus-
tavus
Adolphus
not
great
man.
3. Charles
boy.
man,
is
is
honest
poor
a
lad, but
actor,
I do
he
know
a
whether
man.
is
brave
a
4.
but
He he
but
man.
is not
poor
6.
a
He
is
tall
is not
great
6.
a
His
action
betrays
black
ingratitude.
7.
My
honored
brethren,
this
is
hard
necessity.
IX.
"
Comparison
as
(224-231).
as
1. France
as
is about
2. Th^
large
Germany,
but
a
it is not
so a
large
Eussia.
3.
He
is
is
more
witty
(II
than
de
esprit)
cat.
like
This
Frenchman.
man
dog
faithful inches
than
the
4.
young
is taller
by
5. He
two
his
brother,
more
who
is
two
three
years
older.
wine
has
worse
been
than
married
water.
than France
greatest
years.
6. This
than 500,000
is
7.
has and
my
man
more
soldiers.
8. America
in the
is the
9. is the
the
most
republic
faithful
world.
10. He
They
are
dearest
friends.
bravest
in
(de :
1. The
are,
d)
the
world.
a
more
difficult
fewer
thing
more
honorable
it is. speaks I
to
2. The
poorer than
people
the
cares
they
3. That
this flower,
girl
but
better
that
one
she
writes
(n*ecr{t: 386).
best thing
you
at
4. I like
can
like
yet
more.
6. The This
stream
can
do
is
: (c'est
266,
b)
fulfil your
duties.
least
6.
is deepest
its
outlet.
7. That
is certainly
the
(that) he
do.
X. Numerals
(233-237).
was
1. Louis
of
;
XVI,
king
1793.
quarter
of France,
2.
beheaded
time is it ?
at Paris
on
the three
21st
January,
it is
a
What
three
3.
It
is
o'clock
past
; it is half
past
three
; it is
EXERCISES
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
257
quarter
to
four
ten
it is ten
minutes
past
three day
it is twelve month
minutes it ?
before
; it is twelve.
4. What
of the
is of old.
only
5. It is the
7. How
been 2.
twentieth. old
here
6. To-day
(411. a) is
8.
but
the
fourth years
here
July.
is your
already
return
sister ?
half
in
a
a
She
is fifteen
have been
1. I have
a
year,
you
fortnight.
I shall
week.
XI. Personal
Review
Pronouns
carefully
(239-256).
100-106.
1. He
does 4.
knows
hear
gave
me
me,
and
he
hears
not
see
me.
2.
Does
he
know
hear
me
he
?
a
3. I do silver
him,
and I
and
gave
I do her
not
a
him.
She
me
thimble,
would
7.
work-box. told
me
5. I told
he
them
that
come
they
?
come.
6. Have will
to
you
her
to
a
that
would 8. They
rose.
They it to
(on)
us
tell it to
(or
have I
him).
will
grant
(or
her
them).
to
9. I
pretty give
shall
show
it to
(or
Hear
you),
:
but
shall
not
it to her
to
send
them
you Here
10. 11.
I have
his letters.
me
I shall
if that him.
tell
me
is true.
12.
her
inkstand
14.
; take
it and the
to
give
it to
13.
Send
to
this
;
needle.
do it and
not
Here
are
documents,
send
Here
them
a
them
send
not
them
return
them. him
15.
is
ruler,
keep
do
it to
(or
18.
to
her).
or
16. Where
she
or
is my
copy-book?
17.
He
Who
and I
has
have
19.
taken
seen
it, you
he
(or
they)?
you
to to
it.
shall
them. would self yourhas
introduce
her
(to him).
21. If
she
He
hastened it of
not
me,
to
20.
I appeal
you.
had
asked
22. Do
to
have
given
to
it to
her
with
Do
not
pleasure. repeat
discover 24.
him.
me
23.
a
that
her.
She
written
letter, and
;
we were
I shall
answer
her
(or it).
her,
a
is your When
of
friend
just
this
speaking
a
(spoke just)
from
have
26.
I have
(fut.) received
I admire
letter I
shall
of
tell
you
it,
27.
castle,
picture
it.
258
SYNTAX.
28. This
road
is very
cloth
dangerous
; give
me
; keep
some.
away
30.
from The
it.
29. You of
all
have
(got)fine
is most
to
science
devote
interesting
(229,note
ought in 33.
2)
; I shall
time
it.
31.
One
remorse
rarely its
to
speak
of 'drags
one's
=
32.
Crime
brings
train
for father,
(tr.
traXne
remorse
after
man,
itself
').
Everyone
himself.
is working
34. for
young
while
obeying
(d) his
1. / haye
yentured
it.
2.
He
will
do
it. belongs
3. You
to
may
act
thus, shall
bat
he
on
will act 6.
dififerentlj.
He
is always
4.
This
umbrella
her.
5. I
rely We
you.
thinking
of her.
to
.
7. I
this
a,
the
undersigned
(or
you
the heirs
undersigned)
deceased
?
giye
1
my
(our)
we
assent
contract.
8.
9. Are
Are
the
of the
Yes,
are
(cf
are.
250,
.
note).
I haye
these
a
gentlemen
such
as
brothers
I belieye
(that) they
10.
found
person
I desired.
XII.
Possessive
and
Demonstrative
from
her 3.
most
Pronouns
(267-270).
2.
me
1.
She
in his
took
room
her
; he
are
pencil
box.
He
Your
brother keys
is and
not
is in mine.
dearest and
gave
your friend.
his.
4. You
my large
act
faithful that
5. This
showed
to
carriage
is too
; it is larger
than you
(which) you
not
me.
6. If you
out
in that
manner
will is
be
allowed
go
with
us.
7. Your
greatest
fault
266, b) {chesty
your
idleness.
8. What
is false
to
is always
us
bad.
to
9. What what
come.
is is
of
consequence
(importe)
astonishes
me
is
you is to
do
not
right. 11.
T
o
is that
to
men
have render
do
(Faire
who
.
du
bien)
over
homage
to
God.
in
12.
He
(de)
love
himself
are
is happy
themselves
(render
two
ways)
Our
who
others
than
beloved.
I
saw
14.
engravings
better 15.
those
(which)
the the life of
greater
at
t (cJiez)he
and
bookseller's. of
better
I have
read
was
ton Wellingman,
that
Napoleon
citizen.
; the
latter
the
fine.
former
the
16. I love
Paris,
its streets
are
EXERCISES
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
259
1. This their
house
is mine.
4.
2. A
relation
of mine.
to-daj mine,
; it is
a
3.
My
children
received
of
yours
each
present.
have
found
of gold
handkerchief
say
; it is not
as
amongst
mine.
5. A
handkerchief
is not
a
you
mine,
it
me
is your
friend's.
6. That
York
is
copper,
I think
(ce
8.
aemUe),
a
7. New
great
beautiful
city
{express in
two
ways),
and
not
CsBsar
is not
was
captain
(two ways),
is impossible
12.
0. for
This
me.
that
me
beautiful. d
o
10.
That
please
that
you
t (subjunctive)hat.
Is that
your
work-box
XIII.
Interrogative
and
Relative
ride ?
are
Pronouns
(271-281).
is that
1. Which
horse is that
4.
will
you
2. Who talking
young
gentleman
you
?
a.
3. What
:
project you
one
of
(tr,of which
is your
t.
412) ?
ones
Which
of these
one
girls
sister
(or
Which
etc.)
you 8. Who
5. Which
?
(or Which
has
?
come
ones)
?
of these
engrav
do
?
prefer
are
6. Who
7. Whom
do
love What
you
most
are
expect your
these 10.
boys
do
of
comrades?
What
does
12.
customs
you
meddling
with? There
are
(412).
many
man
thinking
that
of
(d)?
13.
in these
provinces
are
ridiculous. mother,
14. A
who
is truthful
is always
respected.
16. He
a
16. His
to
for whom
the
he
works,
of his house
is old father,
and
infirm. is
I
tries
alleviate
not
position 17.
saw
which
painful
belongs
one
(one
my
transL),
whom have
you
The
in which
18.
19.
live
to
brother
you
yesterday.
passage.
Here
man
is the of
book whom
in which
read
this
The
gone
in (ea?pres"
three
ways)
is
is
you
speak
has
just
out.
20. That
The
man
news
of
which
speak
is false.
21.
whose
will
is strong
remedy I live.
to
succeed.
23.
This has of
cannot
22. Weariness
is
an
evil
whose
house
work.
He
is the
the
gentleman
to
in happy
whose
24.
alone
right
be
I
on
whose
life rests
the him.
happiness 26. 1
you
others.
25,
do
not
know
what
of.
troubles
27. Here
surmise for
what
he
is
thinking
is what
ask
260
1. What
men IB
STl^TAX.
that ?
2. What
is death
3. What
whatever
frightens
yon
4. These
do not husy
he expected
themselves
could
of
one
knows
nothing.
says
nothing,
consents.
7. I shall receive
half.
hundred
dollars, of which
amount
you
shall
have
one
XIV.
Pronouns Indefinite
(282-294).
2. Whatever
1. Have
you
you
some
may
possess
the poor.
4. However dull skilful you may be, try to be modest. be, he has always something a man good in his character. may 6. Charity is 5. Do not laugh at (de)other people's faults.
others
be
(suhj.) preferred.
person has
7. Nobody
forgotten. 10. He
has 9. Is left
8. One
who
been
anybody
paying
is
{suhj,) perfectly
11. I do not 12. She is
happy? think
no
error.
without any
man
anybody.
a
there
is
{mibj.)
of my
whole
fault.
man
had
to
knowledge
14. The
arrival.
subject
family
health. think
15. This
man
speaks 16. My
request.
of everything, sister
was
but he does
astonished, ought
not
of everything.
at
quite
quite
to speak
surprised,
your other.
17. We
deceive
20. Both
{on)
each the
these
ill of each
18. Men
gone.
other.
19. Both
{givem.
followed
or one
and
f.) are
(The two)
girls
:
consuls
his standard.
21. I know
have
for
andf.) justice.
twenty years
22. Neither the other will surely come. 23. Whoever you be, obtained the prize.
1. She
some
have
young
seen
heautiful
pretty. is in
an
heautiful ; I something old. 2. I have seen is not always 3. Rememher, my sister, one
rich you
a
and
are,
man
do
not
despise
6. All Paris
man
6. Such
is despicable.
poor. 7. Many a
the
8. One covets he does not understand. speaks what of things which 9. He had called on Mr. So and So. 10. There despises. {Vautre) another is not any one to help me. at all (287,
note)
EXERCISES
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
261
of Verb
the
and
Subject (296-302).
do
what
2.
others
(tr, will-do
honesty of
the
go
others:
together.
and
310,
416.
a).
arts,
Truthfulness literature
you
or
on
and
are
3.
Sciences,
and
sources
enjoyment
come.
happiness.
or
4.
(Either)
your his
:
brother
answer.
will
6.
5. His
or
ruin
his
safety
made
depends
Luck
7.
ness rash-
may
have
nor
{ont pu faire
is worthy
come a
317.
a)
8.
heroes.
Neither father
your
fate
mine
of
envy.
Neither
. . .
my
nor
my
mother
will
a
{for
look,
great
^neither
nor'
cf
The
390).
ness, gentle-
9. A
single
the
word,
smile, of the
is sufficient.
10.
kindness
211.
Henry
has
11. 12.
been
celebrated and
as
with
{de:
and
a)
none
thousand
can
praises. death.
its value. You
was
Great
Learning
My
small,
rich
poor,
m^me
to
well
and
I
as
{de
come
que)
see
valor
13.
he
brother be
will
you.
of
and
will
rewarded.
16.
15.
The
were
number there.
(the)
17. A
dead crowd
Many
in you.
men
of is
running
the
street.
18.
It
is they
(It
us.
we)
request
we
it of
want.
only
ones
19.
1.
It is vices
It
come.
that
degrade
20.
wants.
It is facts
2. We
are
is compliments 3. They
are
(that)
{On)
sir, and
made you
he up
the
were
that
will
(transl.agreed) and
are
good
friends.
4.
You
welcome,
also
welcome,
ladies.
XVI.
Indicative Tenses
(303-318).
living. 2.
to
{pour)
3.
two
earn
my
have
in
been
France?
here
I the
since
How years 5. I
long
have
you
4.
been
Have
at
have
here
(two days).
rose
you
six
met
inspector
to-day?
6. We
(or
got
up)
this
o'clock
this
morning.
have
had the
much
rain
year.
7. Alexander
was
the
Great in
one
destroyed
Persian
empire.
a
8. Eome from
not
built
day.
9.
received
letter
my
husband
262
SYNTAX.
yesterday.
conies
10.
to
I
see
was
us.
dressing
12. When I
when
I
was
you
young I
saw
came
in.
I liked him
11.
to
He
often He
play.
13.
had
left
his 16.
when
arrived. the
as
14.
yesterday.
15.
I received
letter
As
soon
day I had
before
left
I went he
(la veiUe
to
de
to^
mon
depart),
or
arrived,
17. When
(^go
aller chez
went
aller
trouver) my
If
friend.
come,
had
finished,,
it to you. have in
he
out.
18.
pay
I
you
if I
would had
I would
tell
19.
I would
you,
the
21.
money.
I
20.
I would
two
done
it, if
had my
been
able.
had
22.
been
I shall
we
years
when
America
have
when
seen
brother
23.
I.
arrived.
soon as are
write shall
him.
As
24.
it is dark going
out
to
go
out
together,
you
25. should
and
I
was
We
to
our
buy
Christmasentered.
and
men.
presents.
about
fulfil
to
go
when
the
clerk
26. We
always
duties
to
towards her
to her
God
27.
She
She
certainly ought
have
ought
guardian mother.
30.
about
it.
28.
to have
(317. b)
the
news
29. They
should
was
received
fortitude.
That
grace dis-
to
do
(317. c)
it, if he
happen
(was inevitable).
to-morrow.
1.
He
come
or
will
comes
2.
It is uncertain He
whether
she his
will
to-morrow.
3. I leave
not
to-night.
4.
has
do
prohably
it, but
found
they
watch,
it.
he
would
am
be
to
6. They
cannot
might
try
6.
not
able
(add
it:
260.
b).
"
XVII.
Subjunctive
A.
1.
in
Subordinate
him Romans that
Clauses
(320-337:
(tr.that
render
cf. also
382-7).
I
that
wish
to
come
he
him
c).
2. Caligula
wished
The
the requires
should
thieves will
divine
honors.
4.
not
one
3.
law
should they
be
punished. should
gustu Auseek
commanded extend 6.
in his
that
(on)
be
to
his
The
E
empire.
teacher
5. I will expects
leave.
9.
be
you
obeyed
to
obey
7. You
me).
must
(use
faut)
8.
It
is right
(juste)
that
you
he
should
be punished.
Itisimportant(/Z
importe)that
EXEKCISBS
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
263
should
know
11.
it to-day.
some
10.
shall has do
prevent
him
to
from
him. 13. longer it.
out.
I fear
misfortune
he hope
I will he
happened
wrong.
do
not
apprehend
come come.
that
anything
come
he
wiU
; do
you 14.
will
no
hope
The
were
he
will
doubt
that
not
whether
certain
he
knows and
15.
Egyptians
did
not
doubt do
plants
animals
divinities.
not
16.
think
it will
that
rain
he
to-day.
send
me
17.
It
is
probable
18.
He
{or
not
certain)
that
will
that
the
one
money.
denies
he
has
been
can
told
that (tr,
has
told
advice
friends
a
that
in
assist
I
you
with
their
retreat
can
which
he
may
be
quiet.
?
21.
Is there
mortal
home
that
say
that
happy
22.
Let
us
go
(Bentrons)
23.
I
before it
you
it grows
you with
('grow
know 26,
the
I
dark'
You
faire nuit),
will succeed,
on
say
that
act
it.
24.
provided promise,
vigor.
me
cannot
depend security.
your
unless rain
you is
over.
give
necessar
26. Wait
is the
B. C.
27.
He the
best
I know.
is the
You
are
only
thing
possession I have
to met
me.
which
is certain. 30.
are
the
in Paris.
This
men
is the
that
only
can
hope
remains
There
few
always
do I
the I
truth.
am
32.
It is surprising I
am
that you
a
he
has have
cared
come.
to
it.
33.
glad
have
not
(or
sorry)
earlier.
me
that
34.
cannot
succeeded.
35.
It is The
pity
that
you
come)
36.
it
:
come,
had
may
promised make,
(add
250.
b).
37. Whatever
efforts
their
nothingness
appears he
to
38.
cannot
His
mind 39.
he
is always
active,
Homer,
although
according
and
work.
at times,
Although
slumbers
is nevertheless
(iln^en
rich you
in
are,
est pas
moins)
despise
42. He
do not alone.
the
are,
trust
God word
complains
not
about
your
keeping
oba, 323.
your
(or
that
you
have
kept
your
word)
B.
264
SYNTAX.
{Indicativesand
it
subjunctives.)
'
1. Your
2. he
father
ordered
has
that
decided
he
you
should
that
the
do
('should
was
do
void. she
one
verb-form).
that it ; do
The
may
tribunal
come.
donation
3. I desire
4. will do
s o
I hope
it ?
a
may
come.
6. I believe that
he
will do
you
believe
she
6.
He
labors
in
order
may
be able
come
to live.
7. He
labors
t h
t
we
{defagon que")he
may speak
is
able
to live.
8. I have
come,
inorderthat(
had
pour
que)
comes.
of
our
affairs.
9. 1 shall
comes.
provided If he
you
(^pourvu que) he
listened
I
?
to
10. I shall
he
come
if
(si)he
I
write
me
11. 12.
(cru) me,
assurance
would
?
not
have
you does
us,
written
verses. can
Do
his
think
need
14. I
your
13.
since
Do
he
think
rely
me.
on
assurance
shall
not
one
come,
not
16.
Before
him.
he
is torn 16.
(tr.Before
you
tears
him)
he
you
from
come?
suffer
Do
to
conceal
Do
has
know
1
whether
will
17.
you
know
(the/act)
19.
that you
he
arrived that
18.
book
Do
forget
I in
that
Mary
is my
it.
sister ?
If
believe
one
this
you
is useful, spoken
shall
his the
buy
20.
If it
were
known would
22. the
(If
There
etc.) that
hated.
can
have
not
behalf
(pour lui),you
pleases
:
be
21. be
no
do
doubt
that
ne
marriage
you.
doubt
(On
saurait
douter
317.
b)
wives. that
that
Germans
me
a
purchase
leads
use
purchased: 24.
imp/.)
the
their way
23.
to
Show
Paris.
to
one
one
knowledge.
can
Show
me
leads
25.
make has
seen
of his mind
you
a as
is to distrust
it.
26. I know
(that) he
man
is the
first 28.
that you
here.
27.
He
is the
temper
most
learned
here
I
one.
know.
If
need
knife
I
am,
of
I do
me.
which
is good,
city.
is
29.. All
powerful that
you
(Tout) jaded
they may that be
traverse
all the
them.
that
30.
I
am
However
(or are)
of
He
not
fear
I
31.
delighted returned
him
have
two
opinion
32.
rejoice
that you
she
has
(render in
torn
have
beaten
and
his clothes
33.
complains
XVIII.
Subjunctive
1.
in
{qucisi)Independent
emperor
over
us.
Clauses
Heaven
she
(338-339).
blessed
for
(Long)
God
it 7.
were
!
4.
2.
be
it !
3. May
May
succefed.
5. Would
come
to
God
6.
Let
a
him
immediately,
who zeal.
will.
Let
or
Joad
put
check
(A)
have
his
savage
8. Any had
( Une
dared,
Toute)
he would
hesitation have
,
ruined 10.
,
all. I know
9. If
no
he
become
angry.
one
better
endowed.
EXERCISES
to
THE
SYNTAX.
266
XIX.
Infinitive (341-362).
1. To
and
hate
to
is
act
torment,
to
love I
is the
soul's
him fall.
need.
called 5.
to
2.
To
think
is to
live.
4.
3. You
shall
have
(tr,I
must
shall
make
call
him).
see
have
let him
{dais) go
They
me
and
7.
him
6.
to
She
come
intends this
leave
mor to-
The
gone
lawyer
to
afternoon.
come
8.
have
Paris. her
is the
9.
to
She
see
will his
need
to
visit
to-morrow.
10.
to
pleases
;
attentions.
to
11.
It
is
torment
not
it
love.
from
12.
It does
become books.
to
speak
seems
thus.
to
Abstain
reading
useless you
to
He
playing.
15.
forbid
behave
if you
thus
cannot
any
longer. 17.
16. He
Beware
does
to
as
of
not
falling like
into
the
water
to
swim.
(or
me.
He
hates)
Religion
He
study.
teaches
to
us
18.
to
You love
try
our
in
vain
deceive
19.
neighbors
21.
ourselves.
20.
aspires 22.
23.
1
win
my
approbation.
him
He
endeavors
to
study.
have
made
decide
(tr. decided
her.
24.
him)
I
come
to
to
leave.
I have
just seen
(cf
.
353,
to
venir)
die, what
begun
to
see
her.
1.
25.
If I should
you.
happen
2.
would
3.
beg
you
He
do
I begin
4.
to
to understand
It has
this
rain.
continues
reading. speak
go
I shall you.
continue I ask
to
read
afternoon.
to
5. 1
to
me.
(demande)
defy
him He
to
6.
{demande)
him
to
'
you
at
listen
7. I
to
there.
near
8. 1 challenge
play
manquer
billiards
or
{au billiard).9.
10.
He
came
{*come
'
near
'fail
falling. faillir)
failed
to
XX.
Participles
(364-371).
1. A
young
man
who
knows
knowing) {tr.
saw
his
interest going
wiU
to
as
not
neglect
his
studies.
3.
2. I
is
a
the
letter-carrier proof.
4.
the
post-office.
as
That
convincing
5.
She
is
pale
withered
flower.
This
school-boy's
letter
is well
266
SYNTAX.
written.
is
6.
Selfish
men
are
despised.
7.
Concealed
enmity
I
{pi)
dangerous.
9.
8. affairs
Here
is
have your
the
letter undertaken
(which)
are
have
a
received.
nature.
The
you
are
of
difficul
Where gloves.
your
gloves stood
? up
I have
lost them. of
11.
I have
12. relatives
She
(comp. t^nse
your
se
lever).
14.
The
have
rejoiced at
to
ness. happi-
presented
which
He they
flowers
each
to
other
other
(se).
were
15.
flowers 16.
is
a
presented his
That
each
exquisite.
1. This
died
seeing
2.
me
friends
was
a
around
fatiguing
4. The
him.
march. 3.
tiresome
All
were
welcome,
on
except work 6.
(two ways).
6. The flowers?
I hare
some.
years
she giyen
that has
me
I hare
labored
this her.
are
few.
some
three
leagues
walked
some
have
tired
Have the
you
Yes, already
he
has
(en).
I
am
7. You
fond
know
good
opinion
conceived
of
it
(en).
He
8.
of flowers
receire, has 12.
; I have
gathered
at
9. The I made
many her
letter
come. as
you
would
us
last.
10.
as
kept
written she
could. sister
on
18.
Even
scolding
loved
;
him.
he
met
He
met
returning
(=
on
home)
sister
while
his
way
home.
XXI. Negation
(372-^91).
No. 2. His ?
to to
more
1. Have
you
seen
him
mother, Not my
but
many.
not
his
He
sister, is here.
not
come.
3. Has 5. I
have
study
he
any
not
friends written
4.
has
banker
about
it.
6.
It is bad
never
not
to
; he
;
come
(or not
no
have
; he
studied).
will
7. He
come
will
come
will
hardly here.
than The
he
will
nowise
come.
8. I do
not
know
anybody
9. The
paper
about
11.
not not
it. I dare
cease
10. Nothing
not
is better
there. 12.
truth,
tunate unfor-
even
go
does
14.
weeping.
13.
could
(aaurais)
know do I
not
it.
the
am
able
(cannot)to
15.
do it, and
No
matter,
I don't
whether
girl
shall
it.
16. God
forbid
that
this
misfortune
should
happen.
17. I
EXERCISES
TO
THE
SYNTAX.
267
see
no
one
that
put
on
does
your
not
love
you.
?
18.
19.
If
you
few
not
are
cold
why
that of she 23.
don't
you
overcoat
a
I have does
friends complain
care
are
not
yours.
20.
Is there
man
that
his
fellow
not
creatures
(sembl"ibles).21.
I shall prevent I
Take
that
out.
does
fall.
22.
him
go
from
to
see
going
fear
this may
start
be
true.
24.
my
shall him.
that
him
not
(le trouver)
doubt 27. that
? I doubt
lest he
without
26.
Do
seeing doubt
not
25.
I do
this
is true.
you
this
is true this
that
this
deny
Do
is true.
that
not
28.
I do
deny 30.
that
I deny
?
is true.
29. is
Do
you
he deny
that
he
had
guilty.
seen
31.
you
32.
We
not
each 'be'
other
with
for
six
to
has
she
been
34. He
("e porter
is older
he
he
ref.
health)
35.
The
since
her?
quicker
than
thought. 36. My of
boat
than than
had
calcula
shoemaker
has
work
than
wants.
37.
state
my will
health
not
nor
is
worse
you write
sent.
imagine.
to
38.
39.
teacher
the
come,
unless
you
him.
This
can
seen
shoes
works write.
the
nor
boots plays.
He
have 41.
been
These
40.
idle
boy
neither
read that
yes
nor
laborers
I had
neither
nor
42.
knew
you.
believes
more
neither
that
you,
I have
spoken
to
2. He
1. I say
not?
you
(=
not.
no
3. You
more
will
come,
will
4. No
tears,
sorrows,
my
friend.
a
5. God
has
world
you
from do
nothing. it.
6.
She
did
is not
each
not
say
word.
7. I shall
three
not
8. That
hare
not
house
seen
far
other
from
for
being
many
miles
from He
me
city.
9. We
man
years.
10.
seen
is
different
spoken
yrom
me
what
(queje ne)
12.
.
I thought.
11.
He
has pay
not
nor nor
to
(two ways)
My
neighbors
will not
this expense,
I either.
XXII.
"
Otiier Indedmables
1. This
(391-406).
he
soldier
is
as
brave
3. That
as
is kind. fellow
2.
She
as
is not
much
so
wise
as
she
appears.
young
reads
a?
268
SYNTAX.
you,
but
he
does
not
work
so
much. 5. If
on
4.
The
contractor
made
rich,
(a gagn4)
at least
200
dollars.
to
my
tailor
is not
he
has
at least
something
live
course
is the
wisest
; besides
it is also
6. That
7.
This
storekeeper
so
is rich, but
than will
his
brother
for my
is yet
cousin, told
(or
not
is yet know
come
more
he).
come.
8. As
9.
he
me
does
he
when
he
The 10.
engineer
would when
not
come,
and
bring
came
his
to
plan.
see
me.
Scarcely
11.
12.
had
arrived
does poor
the
curate
If
the
doctor
it
die.
14.
is
because
Whether
he
he
is
sick.
or
Both
I
rich shall
and be
must
13.
comes
writes,
contented.
15. While 16.
willhaveitso
was
(Je
in Paris,
le
veux),
is pink.
since
through
it is right.
my
uncle
I travelled
Switzerland.
This
that
ADDITIONAL
(ADAPTXD,
IN THX MAIM, FOB
EXERCISES
SQUIYALEMT
TSAMBIATIOK).
XXIII.
A
child of six
years
was
of
age,
being
by
a
introduced
clergyman
answer
into
where
company
for
is, with
"
his
the
extraordinary
reward
abilities,
asked
God
proffered
of
boy,
an
**
orange,
if he
he
should
and
(308)
give
correctly.
two
"
Tell
me,"
replied
the
where
is not,
I will
you
(supply
en
*of
them').
XXIV.
Dumoulin,
(204. B. 2)
was
famous
by
he
to
physician, several
them,
"
was
sinking
('be
'
sinking
who
etre
Vagonie).
loss.
"
He
surrounded said
deplored
great
his
Gentlemen,"
Each
three:
are,"
one
three
to
physicians."
thought
was
he
was
(transl.thought
'one
be:
to
362)
name
one
of
the
he
urged
(transl.
urged
him*)
them.
"They
he
answered
(417),
XXV.
"
water
(196), exercise,
and
diet."
King
a
(187)
few
Xerxes,
astonished
to
at
the
tranquillity
of the
for
Lacedemonians, On the
waited
(282)
days
(pour')allow
them
time
reflection.
ADDITIONAL
EXERCISES.
269
fifth
day
(simply
give aimer the
!
"
"
Le
the
cinquieme)
empire dying
he
wrote
to Leonidas,
"If
thou
"
wilt submit,
I prefer
I shall
thee
of Greece/'
Leonidas
to
.
responded,
(*prefer,'
from
mieux)
king
for only
my
country
enslaving
it."
second
letter
contained
wrote
these
"
words,
"Surrender
and take
(Rends-moi)
them
1
"
thy
arras
Leonidas
below,
Come
(362)
XXVI.
Cornelia,
in
a
daughter
of the
great
Scipio,
who
were
and
wife
of Consul
Sempronius,
stones
was
company
of Roman
ladies
asked
displaying
to
their precious
hers.
and
jewels.
woman
Cornelia
Roman
(use on) also show her {one rvord) ordered (transl. made)
was
This
to
wise
children
proa ap-
These
she
she
had said
brought in showing
up
with them:
great
care
for is
the
glory
of
their
ornament,
country,
and
there my
"There
(voici) my
jewels."
XXVII.
There
was
a
:
time
when big
everybody
(=*8aid,*
big
impf.
a
306)
{gros) instead
etc.
to
say thing,
big
at
house, of
he did
big
reputation,
As
met
XIV
he
was
one
day
house
(chez)a
not
minister
this
where novel
he
indicated
to the
that that
like
expression.
"It
is surprising,"
for great. For and
said
"
people
is much
(jon) everywhere
(bien) difference
"
will
use
instance,
there
between
Great
Louis
the
Big"
(usually
Fat
"
=
Louis
VI)
XXVIII.
An
Arab,
having
saw
lost himself
where
his way
in the
to
come
desert,
die
to
had
not
eaten
anything
for
near
two
days,
and
compelled
caravans
from
water
hunger.
Passing
he
:
"
one
of
those
a
wells small
cries; he
their he
or
camels, it
sees
on
the
sand
leather-bag.
"These hastens
with
are,
He
picks
it up,
dates
; but
feels
Allah
be
blessed!"
sweet
he
I believe,
open
hazel-nuts."
the
Full
of
this
hope, he
to
the
bag
at
sight
of
what
it
contained it
exclaimed
at
disappointment
and it is only
(transl. pain),
pearls
!
"
"Alas,
thought
was
least hazel-nuts,
XXIX.
A
man
as arrows,
who
they
had
were
twelve
waiting
sons
made his
to
them
last
assemble
he them
around
his
death-bed,
a
and
for
each doit
blessing, break
showed
thus
them
bundle
of
and
sons
ordered
try
to
bound
them
together.
to make
None
of the
could
(y parvenir).
Then
he
told
the
270
SYNTAX.
same
attempt
them
by with
taking
ease.
sur,
the Then
or
arrows
one
after
the
other.
In
this
way
they
to
broke
the
father
called
their
this
to
attention
(attiraleur attention
concord.
remain
les rendit
a) attentifs
he
to
emblem
"that
of
the
as
power
of
''Observe,
united,
no
my
one
children/' eaid
will
be
them,
you.''
long
as
you
able
conquer
XXX.
When
the
Boabdil,
kingdom high
the
(204. B. 2)
of Grenada,
on
was
obliged of Mount
sea
to abandon
of his fathers,
place
monarch
was was
he
the
summit
one
Padul.
where
From
this
discovered
about
on
(transL
'
disc.) the
to embark
tents
the
unfortunate
('be
border
the
about
aller)
of this the
for Africa
also
Grenada
and
arose,
the
were
Xenil,
seen.
the
of which
the
of Ferdinand
country
Mussulmans, his mother, that
a
and
Isabella
cypresses
At
here
sight there
beautiful of the
A'ixa,
and
the
that
yet
to
marked
and
tombs sultana
Boabdil
began
(se mit a)
him
shed exile,
to
tears.
The
who
accompanied
in
his
together
with Weep
a
man."
the
now
lords
as
{grands)
woman
once
composed
his
court,
said
not
him
"
for
kingdom,
which and
thoupouldst Grenada
defend from
as
"
They
descended
the
mountain,
disappeared
their
eyes
forever.
XXXI.
Charles
1662.
years
XII,
He
old
king lost
when
of
Sweden,
mother
was
bom
in
Stockholm
year,
to
on
the
was
27th
hardly
of
June,
his
in died.
his
eleventh
and will
past
fifteen
his father
not
According before
on
the
was
of
the
late
king,
he
should
his
(317. c)
eighteenth
be
year;
the
of
age
he
(gu^apre
minister
as
avoir
pass^)
the
but
the
proposition
to
of
early
the
Piper,
diet
the
transferred 1700,
government
him
as
{d"ja)
king
"
1697.
In
year
Peter
I, emperor
of Russia, declared
gained
at
Frederick
war
IV, him.
of
Denmark,
and
them
others
August,
one
elector
the
of Saxony,
other, and with than only
six
against
He
attacked
after
first brilliant
victories, defeated
on
among
that
of Narva,
where
more
less than
twenty
8,000
Swedes
he
80,000
of
Hussians, battle,
into
of
while
whom
thousand
men.
remained But
the
he
was
field
he
lost
he
hundred
penetrated
to
Kussia,
lost
the
decisive
territory
battle with
a
of
Pultawa,
esQort
forced
take and
refuge
on
the
Turkish
feeble
of
two
hundred
fifty Swedes.
XXXII.
The
old
hunter
had learned
in
his
to
room
starling
some
which
he When
had
he
brought
up,
and
articulate
words.
ADDITIONAL
EXERCISES.
271
said
for
instance,
"Here
"Starling,
I
am"
where
are
70a
"
(2clsing.)'*
"
the
bird
always the
son
answered
a
of
neighbor,
liked day
he
the
came
Little
(def. art.)
often while
paid the and
this
Charley,
and
(transl. made)
was
it yisits. quickly
One
the
starling
hunter
absent
he
the away
bird,
with
put
his
it into larceny. he
are
his
pocket, But
at
would
moment
fain
the by cried
(transL
hunter
wished
to)
his
entered
as
He
thought
where
would you
1
"
amuse
"
"
the Here
little boy
I
am
(en) asking
with
usual
Starling,
bird
"
all
thus
his
might
(pi.) the
theft
was
that
was
concealed
in the
boy's
pocket.
And
the
Uttle
betrayed.
XXXIII.
One
came.
day
Frederick
He
the
the
Great
door
rang
the
bell
(simply, 'rang'),
asleep in
an
and
no
one
opened
and him
found
his page
about
arm-chair.
him, stuck it and
him in her
He
wentupto
(s*avancer a)
the
corner
and
a
was
to (jodler)
awaken
when
he
noticed pocket.
It
ce
of
letter
to
(un
know
bout
de
billet)hich w
it
was,
out
of his
it.
He
a
became
curious
what
mother,
read
was
letter
from
her saying
the
a
young
part
man's
who
console for
for
(de
love
qu*il)sending
She
ended
of
his
salary bless
pr.
to
poverty.
to
by
God
read
would
him
(a
cause
de)
took
a
his
her.
When
slipped
to his
the
king
(use
into
pple.) this
pocket
note,
he
purse
of ducats, softly
the
it with
letter
the
of
the
the
page,
so
and 1o
"*
returned
room.
Soon
awakened said
he
(Jort) that
in his
he
page well
was
he
came
rung
bell king.
to
to
the
You
( 7Vi) have
slept
!"
Frederick.
puts
tries
his
excuse
himself, feels
the
and
his hands
the
into climax
and
to
pocket.
He
au
purse,
and
reaches
; he
(se trouve
at
comble) of
shedding "What
astonishment
torrent
and of
tears,
confusion unable
grows
pale,
looks
a
the
king, word.
"
(sans pouvoir)
or
utter
single
is
the
matter?"
f (Qu'est-ce
"
Qu'as-tu f)
said
me,
says
the
man,
king,
"
What
is the
at
matter,
then?"
"Ah,
Sire,"
to
cet
the
young
himself
money
"
his
feet,
"They
(on)
que
c*e8t
wish
que
ruin
don't
know
means
(ce
said
are
argent) which
often
to your
I find
us
pocket."
"My
friend,"
we
Frederick,
sleeping and
"God
that
sends
good and
assure
things
her
(le bien)
that I shall
while
; send
mother,
take
care
of her
of you."
XXXIV.
Servilius defends himself beforethe people.
"
If y
(transl. one)
have
made
me
come
here
to demand
r o
(ive)
272
SYNTAX.
an
account
to
of what
inform
you
took
place
in the
last battle
where
a
I commanded,
to
I
me,
am
as
ready
about
it ; but
me
if it is only
words:
:
pretext
you
destroy
I suspect
useless
to you
here may
have
(voila)my
"
body
and
is my
I surrender
you
dispose
hitherto
of them.
?
What,
accused
then,
What
men
fault
have monde
I committed
am
of
haying
is the
many
(use
can
for
men
') in
blood bound
any
the
last
battle.
a
on
But
who
general
that
fight
(transl.deliver) battles
without has
against
warlike
nation
that
defends
part
et
itself courageously,
being
shed
both
sides
(de
d'autre)!
make
What
dirinity victories
that
itself to
loss ?
{envers) the
Whom
than
can
Roman
people
make
to
it gain
without
you
believe (Jera-t-on) I
glory
is to be
suis
to
me
wnu
gained
aux
otherwise
by
great
joined
than those
battle
you
{J*en
had
mains)
Who
with
more
numerous
confided for
me.
I routed
do?
their
among
legions,
you
the
which
fled. refused
came were
Wliat
to
remained
accept
me
to
could
[eHit pu
Was by
it their
a
(317,
in my
338.
B)
se
refuser a]
their
victory
to
meet
even
power
to restrain
your
soldiers,
who
carried
away
with
courage
(tr.whom
enemy
?
"
courage
carried
away)
and
pursued
ardor
terrified
XXXIV.
Snow
is the
product
of
thick
fog,
which
the
cold
changes
into
,
an
in" in
,
finitemultitude
for the
icicles that
which
coalescing,
part
cover
form
the
light
earth the
irregular
with
a
flakes
or
fall with
more
or
less abundance,
and
is to
more
less thick
those
layer,
the
effect
of which
It
protect
against
extremest
cold
when
plants
which
that
it conceals. particle
sometimes
happens,
has the
and of
chiefly
a
the
with
air
is calm,
six
every
of
snow
form
little star
(a)
to
rays
of
an
extreme
delicacy, hardens
and
at
which last In
resemble
little feathers.
even
The
snow
(a la longue); it
countries where
the
are
a
changes
ice, when
as
it is powerfully
there
are
pressed. mountains
where
snow
it falls
never
abundantly, and
in
Nevada,
melts,
masses
it is that
snow
which
snow
gives is amassed
rise to glaciers,
on
which
enormous
of ice.
when is
When
it cannot
the
very
steep
occurs
a
slopes,
moment
'
arrives
sustain
itself, and
that crushes is
then
('occur
kind
se
faire)
what
called
an
avalanche,
or
(c'esta dire)
of snow-slip,
which
carries
Blon^^
covers,
everything
in its path.
VOCABULARY
TO
THE
PRECEDING
EXERCISES.
Numerals, alike
ordinary
in
French
than
pronouns
or
pronominal
are
adjectives,and
in this
the
proper
names
spelled
and
those
English, given
omitted consult
vocabulary.
For Words
are
other
references
phrases
below, paragraphs
and
considered
under
:
in
the
heading paragraphs.
;
v.
=
to
be
studied
specially
their
noun
respective
;
Abbreviations
n.
adj.
that
adjective
'A=:A
verb
; irr.
irregular
Notice
also
aspirated
(23).
A.
tin
acquaintance,
connais-
alleviate, alike,
adoucir.
a,
distribVe
year'
(as
in
sance,
f.
egal,
permettre,
*a
etc.) par.
abandonner.
m.
act,
v.,
agir;
abandon,
action,
actor,
-ive, action, f.
m.
actif.
allow,
alone, already, also,
irr.
seul.
ability,
talent,
acteur,
d^ja.
able,
capable,
be
"
pou-
admire, advice,
admirer.
conseil,
m.
aussi.
voir
(irr.).
(=neaTly)
absent,
although,
quoique
(330).
about
environ.
conseiller.
always,
amass,
toujours.
amasser.
absent,
affaire,
:
f
.
abstain,
s*abstenir, irr.
abondance, f.
toucher. affecter,
be
"
America,
American,
Am"ique, Ame'ricain,
f.
m.
abundance,
afraid
Africa,
avoir peur.
abundant,
abondant.
en
Afrique, f.
apres-midi,
ra.
amiable,
m.
aimable.
parmi
abundantly,
abondance.
afternoon,
age,
age,
of
"
abuse,
v.,
abuser
de.
years
of
; total,
accompany, gner.
accompa-
of
ma,
m.
amuser
a.
amuse,
/aire
accomplish,
accomplir.
to, selon.
s*accorder.
m.
plaisir
ancient,
angry,
according
air, air,
ancien.
account,
compte,
accuser.
m.
alas, hda^.
fach";
"
be
(become
accuse,
Alexander,
all, tout
Alexandre.
etre
Jach4,
accustom,
accoutumer.
(292).
se
mettre
en
colhre.
274
VOCABULARY.
animal,
animal,
animer.
v.,
m.
(211.f);en(204.A.2);
pour;
bag,
sac,
m.
animate,
(= when) lorsque.
banker,
bare,
nu:
banquier,
m.
answer,
r"p"mdre.
r^ponse,
ascend, f.
answer,
n.,
monter,faireVas(rfc). cension
be
"
bare-headed.
or
nti-tete
tete
nue;
any
(45, 199).
en
ashamed:
honte.
avoir
barefoot
or
(ed)
nus.
nu-pieds
appeal,
appeler.
irr.
.
pieds
[219,
f
.
appear,
paraitre, pomme,
Asia,
Asie,
f.
"
note
a
4.]
n.,
n.,
apple,
ask, demander;
tion ques-
bark,
"corce,
appoint
mer;
yhirc
asleep,
une
question.
battle,
beat,
,
bataille, f.
encformi;
fall
"
battre
(134.3),
apprehend
(=fear),
ap-
s'endormir.
aspire,
frapper.
beautiful,
because,
m.
pr"hender,
tr., approcher
beau parce
(76).
que,
approach,
or
8*
assemble,
assent,
n.,
puis-
approcher
s*
(cf 211);
.
que.
[405.]
devenir,
intr.,
approcher.
n.,
assist,
assure, assurance,
assister.
assurer.
become,
irr. ;
approach,
approche,
f.
assurance.
irr. ;
en
"
angry,
approbation, f
.
tion, approba-
astonish,
astonishing,
Conner.
"tonnant.
etonne-
mettre
colere,
before,
avant,
devant,
Arab,
Arahe, ardeur,
se
m.
astonishment,
.
[216.]
beg,
ardor,
f
at,
ment,
a
m.
prier,
commencer. se
arise,
lever, s*eiever,
; en,
"
dans
house
"
de
; par
"
;
's,
begin,
arm,
n.
(weapon),
arme,
the
',
of,
behave, behead,
behind, believe,
conduire,
irr.
f ;
.
(limb), bras,
v.,
armer.
m.
chez')
"
all, du d'abord
"
tout ;
"
d^capiter. derriere,
apres.
arm,
first,
arm-chair,
yaufeui?,m,
f
.
last,
army,
arm"e,
autour
moins
least, du
:
394)
belong, below,
irr.
au^
around,
de.
[f.
"
times,
parfois.
essai,
dessous,
arrive,arriuer;
-B\,arriv"e,
attack,
aitaquer,
n.,
dessous
m.
de. le meiUeur;
mieux
or
a.TToyr,Jleche^
art,
m.
f.
attempt, attentive,
best,
-
adj.,
le
art,
attentif,
attention,
adv.,
thing,
"
articulate,
adv.
articvler.
attention, August
aunt,
f.
mieux chose.
la
as,
aussi,
much
autant
as,
(us), Auguste.
tante,
meilleure
betray,
f
.
trahir;
montrer.
(show)
or
many
"
(as)
long
que
;
avalanche,
awaken,
avalanche, r^eiller.
B.
f
.
r^v^er,
between,
(jque") ;
entre,
aussi
soon
longtemps
as,
bewail,
plaindre,
irr. ;
"
aussitdt
back:
retour,
be
"
itre
,
de
d^plorer.
beware,
que,
des
que.
comme;
prendre
**
garde
as,
conj.,
de
bad,
mauvaig.
(of "/")"
garder.
VOCABULAKY.
275
big, gros
(74), grand.
Her ;
s^en-
buy,
acheter.
character,
a.
caractere,
m.
bind bind
(together),
one's
by, par,
de,
charitable, charity,
charitable. charitie, f.
-ey,
self,
C.
gager. oiseau,
amer.
Charles,
check,
compter.
Charles.
bird,
m.
Caesar,
calculate,
Cesar.
calculer,
bitter,
cheese,
n.f/rein,m. yroma"76, m.
principalement,
black,
noir.
chiefly,
call,
nommer,
bless,
b^nir.
benediction,
sang,
m.
appeler
aller
"
surtout.
blessing,
f.
upon,
(irr., with
child,
enfant,m.
Noel,
cadeau
*
blood,
etre) voir.
calm,
Christmas,
tranquille.
m.
m.
blue,
bleu.
corps,
m.
calme,
present,
de
new-
body,
camel,
can,
chameau, pouvoir,
Noel
can
(etrennes,
bold,
irr. ; I
ne
year's
gift').
citoyen,
.
book,
not,
m.
je
saurais
citizen,
m.
bookseller,
libraire,
(317, b).
Canada, Canada,
m.
boot,
botte, f.
smjecclesiastique
;
border,
6orc?,
n^;
m.
candid,
"
y"*anc (76.1).
capitaine,
caravane,
ministre
tre.
(priest) pre-
born,
be
^,
naitre
captain,
caravan,
m.
f.
m.
clerk, cloth,
clothes,
commis, drap,
m.
m.
borrow,
emprunter
m.
(of, a).
care,
n.,
soin,
; take
boy,
gargon,
6otfe, f.
"
prendre
(or avoir)
habits,
se
m.
pi.
box,
soin.
coalesce,
se
reunir.
branch,
branche,
brave
f.
care,
v.,
soucier.
coffee,
.
cafe,ra.
brave,
(222),
courageux.carriage,
voiture,
porter;
;
"
"
f
along,
em-
cold,
"
carry,
bread,
pain,
cosset^,
m.
entrainer
away,
break,
rompre.
porter. castle,
cat,
froid,
f
.
m.;
froi
breath,
haleine, f.
cf. brother.
chateau,
m.
cause,
m.
deur,
colleague,
brethren,
chat,
n.,
coUegue,
m.
brilliant,
tant.
brillant,
"cla-
cause,
i. ;
f
.
tive) (mo-
collection, combat,
come, n.,
collection, f.
combat,
"
raison,
m.
bring,
amener
apporter
;
"
(lead),
dever.
cease,
cesser.
venir ;
to
up,
celebrate,
=
ceUbrer.
m.
"
meet,
brother,
yrerg,
m.;
cent,
cent,
(Am.
devant; de.
comedy,
aller
devant
colleague,
pi.
brethren),
Fr.
sou).
certain. certainement.
confrere, m.
batir.
certain,
certainly,
comedie,
f.
build,
command,
commit, company,
commander.
commettre,
bundle
(of
twigs,
m.
etc.), challenge,
change, chapter,
defter.
changer. chapitre,
m.
irr.
.
faisceaUy
one's
societe, f
busy
self, s'occuper.
compel,
contraindre,
irr.
276
VOCABULARY.
complain,
irr.
se
plaindre,
f.; f. ;
patrie,
to
decide, intr.
'cause
decider,
tr.
or
=
the
(as
to
tr.
also
compliment,
m.
compliment,
city) campagne,
courage, courage,
f.
m.
coura-
decide,
induce
').
decision, declare, decision, declarer. i.
compose,
composer.
courageously,
m.
comrade,
camarade,
cacher,
geusement.
;
course,
cours,
cour,
conceal,
celer
m.
deep,
dissimuler.
concevoir, concorde,
v.,
court,
f.
m.
defeat,
;
cou-
conceive,
irr.
cousin,
cousin,
defend, defy,
concord,
f. irr.
sine, f.
cover,
conduct,
conduire,
couvrir,
irr.
conduct,
n.,
conduite,
i.
covet,
create,
rechercher.
cr^er.
confide,
confier. confusiorif
vaincrey consentir, irr.
irr.
d"licieux,
d^t-
confusion,
f.
crime, croYfd,
crime,
m.
cat.
conquer,
/oule,f.
^eraser.
"
delighted,
delightful, s'"crier; crier
au
charm^,
consent,
crush,
ddicieux.
consider,
consid"rer,
cry, crier,
"
out,
deliver,
livrer;
ddivrer,
m.
(think) r"fl^chir.
conside'rable.
for
help,
Denmark, deny,
Danemark,
considerable,
secours.
curate,
cur^,
m.
depend,
deplore,
m.
(on,c?c)
console,
soulager.
consul,
m.
curious,
custom,
consul,
descend,
m.
contain,
contenir,
content.
irr.
cypress,
desert, desire,
dtfsert,
m.
content,
d^sirer.
continue,
continuer.
despicable,
dangerous,
m"prisahle.
continuous,
continu.
contrat,
m.
dangereux.
despise, destroy,
m"priser.
contract,
dare, dark,
oser.
d^truire,
irr. ;
contractor,
m.
contractant,
m.
obscure;
be
"
; entrepreneur,
/aire
irr.
nuit. datte, f
.
conyince,
convaincre,
date
copper,
cuivre,
m. m.
daughter,
^//c, f.
.
(regulated food),
.
copy-book,
cahier,
day,
dead,
;
diete, f ;
riture, f.
2.
(food)
nour-
cordial,
cordial.
correctement
correctly,
dear, death,
cher.
mort,
diet
(legislativeassem
m.
f.
[^mort.
cost,
couter.
death-bed, debt,
lit
.
(m.)
de
pi. f. difference,
cost,
m.
(expense) frais,
(value)
prix. pays,
dette, f
difference,
deceased,
deceive,
dtfunt.
v.,
different, differently,
diff"ent, diff^remment^
country,
Hi'j
(gen'ly)
(region)
tromper,
contr"e,
deception,
deception,
i.
diversement.
VOCABULARY.
277
difficult,
difficile,
dignity, f.
early,
earth,
esLBe,
de bonne
terre,
heure.
enrich,
enslave,
enter,
enrichir, cuseruir,
entrer,
envte,
dignity,
f
.
irr.
diligent,
diligent.
f facility,,
manger.
m, effet,
dine,
diner,
eat,
envy,
f
.
disappear,
disparaitre,
effect,
envy,
v.,
"ni;i"r.
irr.
discover,
effort,
m. effort,
equally,
;
error,
e'galement,
d^couvrir,
n.,
irr.
Egyptian,
n.,
disgrace,
m.;
d^ahonneur,
adj.,"gyptien ^ggptien, m,
"lecteur,
m.
errcur,
f.;^ute,
f.
a;
escape,
tr., "chapper
honte, f.
y.,
elector,
intr., s'^chapper.
escort,
em-
disgrace,
dishonorer,
embark,
s*embarquer,
escorte,
f,
m.
avilir.
^aler, disposer.
v.,
se
embarrassment,
barrow,
m.
essay,
essai,
display,
Europe,
m.
Europe,
adv.,
meme.
f,
dispose,
emblem,
emigrant,
embleme,
Emigrant,
even,
m.
distrust,
d^fier de.
ever,
divine,
divin.
divinity.
Emily,
emperor,
Emilie.
empereur,
m.
divinity,
every
cAacun.
tout
do,
empire, enclosed,
m,
empire,
m.
everybody,
le monde.
doctor,
inclus,
f.;
document, cAt'en,
document,
m. m.
end,
n.,fin,
6ouf,
partout.
excellent.
dog,
m.
excepts
(219. 4).
t.
dollar,
dollar,
end, f
,
.
Y.fjinir.
exclaim,
excuse,
s*"crier.
excuse, v.,
donation,
donation
endeavor, endowed
door,
porte,
n.,
v.,
f
.
s'efforcer. (favored),/wr^nergie,
excuse,
excuser.
doubt,
doute,
m.
tag^,
energy,
engagement,
exercise,
exercice,
a m.
m.
doubt,
douter,
f
.
[m.
(tranl'ninto
lang.)
exile,
foreign
draw
(out), tirer.
engagement,
ing^nieur,
m. or
theme,
dress
engineer, English,
exil. attendre.
de'pense,
m.
adj., anglais
;
n.,
expect,
expense,
drink,
n.
bois-
d^ Angleterre
-4n-
f ;
.
ducat,
^/ats,
m.
pi.
d^pens,
m.
pi.
dull, yeux;
(tedious)
Englishman, engraving,
Anglais,
gravure,
expose,
exposer.
(stupid)sfujotWe;
e'mousse.
f
.
expression,
expression,
exquis.
i.
(blunt)
exquisite,
extend,
duty,
devoir,
m.
XT.,"tendre;
intr.,
s*"tendre.
each,
one,
adj., ckaque;
n.,
"
m.
extraordinary,
naire. extraordi-
chacun
"
illuminer.
inimiti^,
"norme.
extreme,
extreme,
le plus
other,rttn
S0
autre
(294) ;
t,
grand,
eye,
(160).
ail,
m.
(pi.yeux).
278
VOCABtTLARY.
P.
follow, folly,
jJCMscr.
suivre.
Germany,
sottise, f.
Allemagne,
f.
f Act,
/ait
m.
/olie,f. ;
:
fade
(away),
fond
be
"
of, aimer.
m.
irr.; it is
(when
f.
expletire
faithful,
^c?"/".
foot, piecf,
untranslated).
fall, tomber.
for, pour;
(during)
pendant;
girl,^//c,
give,
false,
yaujT.
(since) depuis.
f
.
donner. glacier,
very
m.
falseness,
,
iKtaWy
perfidies familUf f.
yhmeuT,
sou,
forbid,
force, forget,
dtfendre,
Jbrcer,contraindre.
ouhlier.
Ti.,
glacier,
glad
or
glad,
hien
famous,
c"lebre.
m. m.
aise.
farthing,'
form, form,
forme,
f.
glorieux.
.
fate,
destin,
pere,
sort,
m.
y,,
former.
,
gloire, f
gant,
m.
father,
fox\S\.\iAc
f. fortitude,
fatiguing,
fatigant.
.
fortune,
;
fortune,f.
France, f.
aller,
sortir;
"
irr.;
"
out,
s'en
fault,
(mi8take)yau/6, f
France,
away,
(defect) dtfaut,m.
v.,
frsinc,
irr. ;
franc,
m.
aller.
gold, de good,
or,
fear,
craindre,
Frederick, French,
Fr"d^ic.
m.
appr"hender.
n.,
[f.
f ; pewr,
.
frangais,
bon.
fear,
crainte,
Iterance.
Frenchman, Fi'angais,
ra. m
.
good-natured,
b^nin
(f.
feather,
plume,
f
.
70), affable.
govern,
government,
ment,
m.
m. petit-fits, (admit) accorder;
feeble,
faible.
sentir;
friend, frighten,
from,
m.
ami,
gouverner.
gouveme*
feel,
(touch)
foMcAcr.
sentiment,
de;
feeling,
peu
depuis.
fruit,
grandson,
grant,
avouer.
few,
(c?");-er,
mo/ws
fruit,m.
(rf").
"
field, cAam;),m.;
champ
a
grave, grave,
n.,
tombeau,
m.
de hataille.
B,Ay,grave,s"rieux.
finally,
la
Jin, enjin.
gain,
great,
grand.
Britain,
find, trouver.
gagner,
acqu"rir
Great
Grand*-
fine, fteau
(75).
(a victory)
gather, general,
remporter.
Bretagne, Greek,
green,
f.
finish,
Jinir.
m.
cueillir, irr.
g^e'ral,
m.
grec
vert.
(76.1).
i.
"
'
fire, yen,
:
first
at
"
d*ahord.
,
gentleman,
monsieur
(pi.
of
Grenada,
grow,
Grenade,
croitre,
fiake,
flocon,m.
i flattere, f.
; iR""sieurs) (man
irr.;
flattery,
rank)
gentilhomme
(pi.
f.
pale, guard,
palir. garde, t. ;
m.
flee,
fuir, prendre
(irr.),
man) (watch-
la
fuite.
y?eMr,f.
douceur,
garde,
guardian
flower,
adj., allemand,
n.,
(of
an
orphan,
fly, voler.
d*Allemagne;
m.
mand, Alle-
fog,
brouillard,
f.
VOCABOLAKY.
279
guilty,
coupcMe.
23,
hat, high,
chapeau,
m.
guilt
fusil(Jsilent:
-i7),
canon.
'haut, grand,
paresse,
f
.
m.;
(cannon)
and
cf
ill, adv.,
imagine,
maL
imaginer,
toM^
[^iner
s'ima-
Gustavus
Adolphus,
Gustave
Adolphe,
histoire, f.
immediately,
immense,
m.
de suite.
jusguHd.
hommage,
immense.
H.
homage,
home,
impossible,
in,
en,
impossible.
a.
half,adj.,(/e7nt; s.fdemief
moiti".
main,
used
adverhially,
dans,
pouce,
chez moi
f.
mouchoivy
to
{toi, etc.
home
a
acc'g
inch,
m.
hand,
whose
is
India,
Indes,
f. pi.
handkerchief,
m.
meant);
homely,
Homer,
la
maison, laid.
indicate,
t^moigner.
simple,
industrious,
industrieux.
happen,
arriver.
Homere.
honnete.
n., v.,
infinite, infirm,
m.
injini.
happiness,
bonheur,
m.
honest, honor,
infirme.
instruire, irr.
happy,
heureux. dur.
durcir.
a
honneur,
honorer,
inform,
hard,
honor,
ingratitu.de,
ingratitude,
harden,
honorable,
honorable,
d'honneur. esp"rer.
esp^rance,
m. m.
f.
inkstand, inspector, encrier,
m.
hardly,
peine.
digne
hope, hope,
y.,
harp,
'harpe.
tr., 'hater, acc"l"-
inspecteur,
:
m.
hasten,
rer;
n.,
f ;
.
instance
for
"
par
intr.,
se
'hater,
se
espoir,
horse,
exemple.
instruction,
"
depecher, 'hair
8*empresser.
cheval,
instruction,!.
hate,
(132.3).
noisette, f.
horseback:
on
a
,
intend,
interest,
compter.
hatred,
'haine, f.
cheval.
hour, house,
int"ret,
m.
hazel-nut,
tete,
heure,
f.
interesting,
irU"essant.
head,
f.
maison,
i. ; at my
"
introduce,
introduire,
head-ache,
m.
mal
de
tete,
chez
irr.; presenter.
m. iTOTi,fer,
health,
sant^,
sain,
f
.
adv.,
.
. .
quelque
irregular,
irr^gulier,
healthful,
salubre.
outr,
{or tout)
cependant,
hunger,
que;
conj.,
Isabella, Italy,
Isabelle.
.
hear,
irr.
pourtant.
Italic, f
J.
heaven,
/aim,
be
f.
"
heir,
hungry:
avoir
jaded,
January,
lasse'.
help,
/aim.
hunter,
Janvier, m.
]ielp,
chasseur,
mari,
m,
m.
jewel, bijou,m.
judge, yu^", m.
m. Ju\y,juillet,
Henry,
husband,
there,
here,
id;
"
and
fa et la.
*h"ro8,
m.
I. ice,
.
June,yMin,
just,juste,
m.
m.
hero,
glace,
f.
hesitation,
hesitation, f
icicle, glagon,
f. justice,justice,
280
VOCABtJLAR^.
\^peti
learn,
apprendre,
savant
irr.
low, h"u;
luck,
in
"
tone,
m.,
has,
bonne
bonheur,
keep,
learning,
science,
at
i.
"
fortune, t.;
,
chance,
f.
away,
se
least, /e moins;
moin"
e/u
M.
.
s'itoigner.
(au
7R0tn"
.*
394)
key,
clef,
f.
leather-bag,
m.
sac
de
cuir,
magnificent,
make,
kill, tuer,
kilogram,
Icilogrammey
hont".
m.
m.
m.
leave,
tr.,
man,
homme,
kindness,
roi,
laisser ;
quitter;
manliness,
manner,
yerme^^,
maniere;
mcsurs,
.
f.
king,
partir, irr.
kingdom,
royaume,
couteauy
m.
irr.; disparaitre,
legion,
knife,
Ugion,
preter.
f
.
that many,
"
de la
,
know,
savoir,
irr. ;
(be
con-
lend,
less,
beaucoup
de,
bien
acquainted
naitre,
with)
motn",
des
.
(198).
v., n.,
irr. conrMiaMi,ncej
letter, Zcffrg, f
letter-carrier,
march,
march,
marcher.
knowledge, f.
/icfewr,m.
marche,
f.
life, vie, f L.
v.,
mark,
marquer.
light,
adj.,
le'ger.
marriage,
marry,
maner
hymen,
m.
labor,
travailUr. laborieux.
m.
comme.
laborious,
gargoUf
aimer.
lad,
listen,
"
"couter.
self) "pouser
marier;
intr.,
se
lady,
flfame, f ; young
.
literature,
,
litt^rature, f. ;
be
married,
se
demoiselle,
f
.
lettres, f. pi.
f
.
tnarier.
Mary,
m.
language,
langue,
larcin,
m.
little, adv.,
lieutenant,
live
peu,
Marie,
masse,
f.
f. ;
amas,
larceny,
lieutenant,
mass,
m.
large,
^os,
grand,
at
"
may,
peux
irr.
etc.,
of
pou-
leistfdernier;
late
(of
the
(dwell)
living,
voir,
mean means,
f.
pi.
;
"
(low), bas.
moyen,
m.
(210, note
plus
3).
cunia (pe-
later,
tard.
long;
-er,
longtemps 388.
v.,
moyeris,
meat,
m.pl.
Lacedemonian,
"
viande,
se
f.
monien,
m.
look
(appear),
avoir
at,
re-
meddle,
meet,
meler.
laugh,
rire, irr.
rair
(220. 3);"
"
rencontrer.
law,
loi, f
.
garder;
m.
for, chercher.
m. one's
melt,
fondre.
marchand, m"al,
m. m.
lawyer,
avocat,
look,
lose,
way,
n.,
regard,
;
"
merchant,
layer,
couche,
f.
m.
perdre
lead,
plomh,
8*"garer.
f
.
Meiique,
lead,conc?utre,
irr.; mener.
ybrce, f.
esprit,
m. m.
league
ab.
miles),
aimer.
amour,
[ (62. a)
m.
mind,
lieue, f.
n.,
or
f.
minister,
ministre,
VOCABTTLABY.
28t
minute,
minvte,
avare,
neighbor,
neither,
m.
voisin, cf 390.
.
m.
only,
adj.,seul,
adv.,
nc
.
unique.
.
.
miser,
m.
only,
m.
^we
misfortune,
malheur,
m.
nephew,
neveu,
(388), seulement.
open, open,
v.,
model,
modele,
Netherlands,
m. never,
m. m.
Pays-Bas,
ottunV,
irr.
moderation,woe?^ra^ion,f.
modeste.
moment,
pi.
ne
. . .
adj., ouvert.
opinion,
modest,
jamais
opinion,
or,
ou.
f.
moment,
(388).
new,
nouveau
monarch,
monarquef
(76, 222),
order,
ornament,
ordre,
m.
m
Monday,
lundi,
argent, matin,
m. m.
m.
new/ (69).
news,
D[.,omemenf,
v.,
omer,
money,
nouvelle, f .,
or
-s.
ornament,
eare dr-
morning,
nice,
no
yo/i
.
mortal,
mortel.
longer,
ne
plus.
i.
ornamental,
beau. other,
autre.
d'omement,
most,
la
plupart
(198,
Normandy,
nose,
nez,
Normandie,
m.
ne,
299.
b).
inere,
mother,
f
.
not,
cf.
index,
...
otherwise,
autrement.
mount,
mon^,
m.
nothing,
ne
rien
n^ant,
(390)
m.
ought
{devrais
devoir, hors
,
etc.
"
mountain,
montagne,
f
.
nothingness,
notice,
of)
out
irr.
mouth,
houche,
beaucoup
f
.
apercevoir,
nouveau
irr.
of
de.
f
.
much,
de, bien
"
novel,
now,
(76, 222).
outlet,
over,
embouchure,
sur,
du
(etc.);
(Jaut
too
trop.
maintenant.
nombre,
m.
au-dessus
de',
mu8sulman,musu/man,m.
etc.
number,
numerous,
nun,
nonne,
(passed) pass^.
overcoat,
surtout,
m.
must
of) fal-
nombreux. f.
loir, irr.
N.
nom,
v.,
overwhelm,
accabler,
combler.
name,
m.
nommer.
O.
obedience, obey,
oblige,
P. f.
page pain,
name,
ob^issance,
(boy), page,
peine, f
.
m.
Napoleon,
Napoleon.
nation,
f
.
ofte'iV.
nation,
obliger.
observer.
painful,
rfouZowrcwx;
p"nible.
(toil some)
f
.
national,
national.
nature,
observe,
obtain,
nature,
f.
obtenir, irr.
heure,
*
painting,
peinture,
near,
pres
de,
o'clock,
f.
(deux
'
palace,
palais,
m.
necessary,
n"cessaire.
n"cessit",
m.
heures
.
two
o'clock
pale,/)a/6 ; grow
paper
"
pdlir,
necessity,
cou,
etc.).
of, c?" / think
"
"
(news-) ,yourna/,m.
n.,
v.,
neck,
,penser
pardon,
pardon,
pardonner.
m.
m.
need,
m.
n.,
n^cessit^, besoin, in
"
it(etc.),cn(101,244). pardon,
souvent.
; be
of, avoir
often, old,
[(211).
dg"
parents, part,
parents,
pi.
besoin
v.,
vieux
sur
(75),
"
de
part, the
f
.,
partie,
"
f
.
need,
on,
; live
vivre
de.
for
most
pour
needle,
aiguille, f. n"gliger.
once,
neglect,
la
plupart,
le plus
ordi-
nairement.
^8^
VOCABULARY.
particle,
particulcy
f.
plan,
plan,
m.,
projet,m.
f ; plants,
.
probable,
product,
proffer,
probable.
produit,
m.
pass,
passer.
plant,
m.
plante,
passage,
passage,
m.
plantes,
play,
ve'ge'taux,
m.
pi.
offrir,
irr.
path,
passage,
patience,
v., n.,
patience,
pai/er. gages,
m.
f
.
play, player,
profound,
profond,
v.,
m. project,projet,
pay,
promise,
; if
promettre,
pay,
pi.
please, you
a (irr.)
irr.
promise,
n.,
pear,
poire,
f
. .
s'il vous
plait.
m.
promesse,
f.
pearl,
perle, f
pleasure, pocket,
m.
plaisir,
proof,
preuve,
f.
proposition,
pen,
plume,
f
.
poche,
poeme,
f
.
["f".
-et, ;jo-
proposition,
pencil,
crayon,
poem,
m.;
f.
protect,
server.
penetrate,
p^netrer. penetrant.
polecat,^uine,
polite, Pompey,
m.,
f.
proteger,
pr"'
penetrating,
poli.
penknife,
canif,m.
docteur,
m.
Pompe'e.
pauvre
provided,
.
pourvu
province,
que.
physician,
poor,
(222)
f
f
.
m"decin,
position, possess,
;
,
position,
prudence,
Prusse,
f.
people
(nation), peuple,
poss"der.
possession, poste,
f
.
possession,
public,
public
punir.
(f.76).
(indef.)on;
autrui
other
;
"
post-office, pound,
poverty,
f
.
punish, purchase,
f. purpose
(289)
rich
"
/iVre, f.
pauvrete',
acheter.
: on
"
a
,
dessein.
perceive,
misere,
power,
f
.
purposely,
m.
dessein. f
.
(become
s'
cognizant)
de.
pouvoir,
purse, pursue,
.
bourse,
apercevoir
powerful,
puissant.
poursuivre, irr.;
"
irr.
perfectly,
parfaitement.
rance, perseve-
powerfully,
prai
se,
ybrtemenf
n
put,
m
.
mettre,
off,
peril,
p^?'i7, m.
louer;
louange,
.
remettre.
perseverance,
precious
stones,
pierre-
Pyrenees,
pi.
Pyrenees,
m.
f.
de Perse,
personne,
ries, f. pi.
persan.
Persian,
prefer,
present,
present,
pref"er. adj.,present.
n.,
person,
f
.
queen,
m.
reine,
f.
-ly, -ment.
Peter,
Pierre.
up,
ramasser,
present,
quick,
quiet,
rapide;
pick
[f.
m.,
present, press
v.,
presenter.
com-
tranquille.
R.
picture,
tableau,
copie,
(together),
pink,
:
m. cei'Z/e^,
primer.
,
rain,
pretexte,
m.
pleuvoir,
n.,
irr.
pity
it's
"
c*est
dom-
pretext, pretty,
rain,
rare,
pluie, t.
mage,
jdi,
beau.
rare.
place, take
place,
"
m.
empecher.
m. m.
rarely, rashness,
rarement.
se
prix,
te'mtfrite, f
m.
plain,
adj.,j^/azn, simple.
n.,
orgueil,
prix,
m.
ray,
rayon,
plain,
plaine,
f.
read,
lire, irr.
VOCABULAET.
283
Tesidy,
pret
(with a),
irr.
recomman-
respect, respect,
v.,
respecter,
respect,
m.
ruler,
gouverneur,
m.,
"
m.
;
.
receive,
recevoir,
n.,
souverain,
run,
regie, f
recommend,
respond,
re-
r"pondre.
courir,
irr. f.
der;
to
be
"
ed,
rest,
reposer.
Russia, Russian,
n.,
Russie,
russe,
commandable.
rouge.
restrain,
retreat,
de Russie
red,
Russe.
redouble,
redoubler.
return,
retourner
;
retour
be
;
reflection,
riflexioriy
.
"
ed,
to,
etre
de
S.
sacrifice,
m. sacrifice,
refuge,
"
m. refuge,
; take
"
rentrer.
n.,
se
r"fugier.
"gardf
tr.,
m.
return,
retour,
m.
safety,
surete,
f.
m.
regard,
revolution,
intr.,
revolution, f.
f.
salary,
same,
salaire,
meme.
rejoice,
se
; r"jouir
reward,
Rhine, rich,
recompense,
Rhin,
riche.
m.
sand,
savage,
sable,
m.
sauvage.
(reference)
;
ride
ter.
(on
horse),
mon-
Saxony,
say,
Saxe,
f.
(kindred)
dire, irr.
coquin,
scenes,
ridiculous,
m.
ridicule.
droit,
m.
scamp, scenery,
m.
relative,
parent,
right,
,
n.,
f.
pL,
religion,
religion, f
right,
rely,
remain
etre
f. pi.
Scipion.
"colier, f.
m.
persons), avoir
to
raison
school-boy,
science,
the
.,
""
droite
being
science,
ecossais,
n.,
remark,
remarque,
f.
m.
(main, f
*hand,'
.
Scotch,
se
remedy,
remede,
se
understood)
ring, rise,
sonner.
d*^cos^cossais.
remember,
rappeler.
m.
scold,
se
bldmer.
f.
garantie,
remorse,
remords, rendre.
r"p"ler.
se
v.,
(get up)
naissance,
m.
lever,
sea,
mer,
render,
monter.
security,
i.
repeat,
rise,
n.,
f.
f
.
see,
repent,
repentir
(irr.) road,
Roman,
chemin,
; route,
n.,
again,
revoir,
de.
romain;
Ro-
irr.
seek,
reply,
r"pondre.
v., n.,
main.
room, m. rose,
reproach,
reprocher. reproche,
chambre,
rose,
f.
seem,
irr.
cfe,
reproach,
f.
seize,
republic,
republique,
reputation,
v.,
f
.
round,
adj.,rond.
adv.,
mettre
=
self,
(107.3).
reputation,
t.
round,
rout,
around,
en (irr.')
selfish,
egoXste.
request,
prier,
de-
sell, vendre.
mander.
n.,
deroute. demande,
send,
envoy
"ens,
er,
irr.
request,
i.
ruin,
ruin,
n.,
ruine,
f. perdre
sense,
m.
require,
exiger,
v.,
ruiner,
"
separate,
separer.
resemble,
ressemMer
a.
(tr.) ;
ed,
ruine'
284
VOCABULARY.
seryant-girl,
bonne
^
f.,
society,
soever,
sociit", i.
study,
ce
v.,
iHudier,
domestique,
serve,
servirf
f.
irr.
qui
:
(jquoi) que
note,
stuff,
f. ^ojffe,
soit softly,
287,
style,"^^/e, m.;
maniere,
on
f.
the
several,
severe,
plusieurs.
severe.
doucement.
scldat, du
etc.
m.
soldier,
verser.
la dessus.
,
shed,
r^pandre,
some,
(de) ; (a (of
it
submit, irr.
succeed,
in tr., se soumettre,
shoe,
Soulier,
m.
[m.
few)
quelques;
shoemaker,
montrer.
cordonnier,
etc.)en.
somebody,
something, sometimes,
r^ussir, parvenir,
show,
quelqu*un. quelque
chose.
irr.
success,
succes,
shut,
fermer.
malade,
vue,
m.
sick,
qudque/ois.
as
as,
suffer,
souffrir,
irr.
irr. be
sight,
f.
Bon,Jils,m.
soon, m. sore
sufficient,
" "
; suffisant
bientot;
que.
suffire,
Sucre,
silver,
aussitdt
:
sugar,
"
m.
simple,
simple.
simplicity,
have
a.
(a)
avoir
sultana,
summer,
stdtane, f
simplicity,
f
.
mal
sorrow,
m. m.
since,
chagrin,
m.
summit,
sun,
sommct,
m.
sing,
soleil,
single,
dme,
f.
suppose,
supposer,
sir, monsieur,
sosur,
source,
f
.
sure,
sur.
[in"nt
certaine-
sister,
f.
southern,
m^idional. Espagne,
surely,
surmise,
surement,
skilful,
habile.
m.
Spain,
spare, irr.
"
f.
soup^onner,
surpris. surprenant.
sky,
cte/,
"pargner.
surprised, surprising,
m.
sleep,
dormir,
:
speak,
avoir
parler.
"tendard,
sleepy
be
standard,
star,
surrender,
surround,
sommeil.
"toile, f.
sansonnet,
m.
slender
(thin),
mince;
starling,
start,
suspect,
(graceful) svelte.
f.
partir,
^at,
m.
irr.
douter.
sustain, soutenir.
slip, glisser.
pente,
state,
slope,
steal
minutes
away,
s*esquiver.
m.
Swede, Sweden,
sweet,
Sue'dois. Suede,
doux.
nager.
slow,
lent; be
(5
steel, acier,
f
.
de
steep,
rapide.
out,
stick
stone,
sortir, irr.
.
swim,
slumber,
pierre, f
8*arreter.
Switzerland,
Suisse,
f
.
smile,
sourire, irr.
sourire,
m.
stop,
smile,
n.,
T.
store-keeper,
m.
marchand,
table,
snatch,
arracher,
neige, f. "boulement de
table, f
snow,
stream, street,
^6ut;",m.
rue,
m.
snow-slip,
f
.
prendre,
place,
se
irr.
neige.
study,
n.,
"tude.
passer.
VOCABTJIiAEY.
285
take
from
f
(away),
haul,
6ter.
to,
dans
,en,
; with
inf.,
umbrella,
;
"
U.
tall, grand
a,
de, pour.
ensemble
avec.
parapluie,
incertain.
m.
m.
tea,
tk^,
m.
together, appreri'
uncertain,
teach,
enseigneTy
with, to-day,
uncle,
oncle,
dre, irr.
maitrey
m.
aujourd'hui.
demain.
tombeau,
ce
undersigned,
soussign^. comprendre^
teacher,
n.,
v.,
to-morrow,
understand,
tomb,
arra-
tear,
larme,
f.
m.
irr.
tear,
(away)
to-night, tooth-ache,
torment, torment,
soir. mal
aux
undertake, dents.
m.
entreprendre,
cher ;
chirer.
(asunder)
d"-
irr.
n., v.,
tourment, tourmenter.
unformed,
unfortunate,
naissant.
infortune
temper,
f
.
torrent,
torrent,
vers,
m.
malheureux.
tOMrards,
town,
m.
envers.
tent,
f.
united,
until,
uni.
terrify,
effrayer,
territoire, de
ville, f.
tranquillite',
jusqu'a ce
rumeur,
que.
territory,
quBy
tranquility,
uproar,
f
.
than,
(225).
f.
urge, transfer, presser. usage,
m.
thank,
remercier,
then,
d"f"rer.
voyager. courir.
use,
a/or5.
travel,
traverse,
useful,
utile.
thick,
usefulness, f. useless,
m.
utilite\f.
thief,
volenr,
m.
treason,
treasure,
trahison,
tr"sor,
inutile.
as
"
thimhle,
de', m,
usual
utter,
de
,
coutume
thin,
mince. chose
treat,
traiter,
articuler.
V.
thing,
f.
t
tree,
arbre,
m. m.
think,
penser;
(believe)
tribunal,
tribunal,
m.
croire, irr.
penseur,
m.
trifle, rien,
vain
in
"
en
vain.
thinker,
triumph,
triumph,
troop,
n.,
v.,
triomphe, triompher. f.
m.
valor,
vaillance, valeur,
f
. .
f.
third,
one
troisieme
(trois) ;
"
value,
vanity,
venture,
verse,
(a, the)
le tiers.
troupe,
vanity, f
risquer.
vers,
trouble,
Troy,
true,
troubler.
thought,
f.
Troie.
vrai;
tronc,
m.
through,
par.
-ly, waiment,
m.
very,
meme.
adv.,
ires;
adj.,
throw,
pr"cipiter, ainsi.
trunk,
trust,
thus,
sejier a.
v^rit", f
.
vice,
vice,
m.
truth, the
victory, vigor,
victoire, f vigueur,
truthful,
f.
m.
f ;
.
village, violin,
village,
violon, f
.
/ow,
tire,
Jatiguer,
fatigue.
ennuyeux;
try, essayer,
chercher.
virtuous,
vertueux.
tired,
[gant.
fati-
Turk, Turkish,
Turc.
turc.
visit,
v.,
cUler rendre
(or venir
visitC'
tiresome,
voir,
286
VOCABtTLARY.
Tisit,
n.,
visitef f
welcome,
n.,
adj., hienvenu;
f
.
woman,
femme,
(written
f
.
voice,
voix, f.
bienvenue,
word
or
utter*
Toid,
vide. volumef
m.
well,
well,
what,
adv.,
n.,
ce
bien,
m.
ed),mo{, m.;
and us'ly f
.
(uttered,
Yolume,
puits, qui
significant
(or que),
212.
a,
parole,
work, work,
m.;
v.,
W. whatever:
283,
trauailler.
wait,
attendre.
mur,
286,
when,
where,
.
287, quandf
ou.
330. lorsque,
n.,
(labor)
travail,
wall,
want,
m.
(performance)
f.
d"sirer.
guerre,
ouvrage,m.;
si;
"
(literary
(f.)a
war,
whether,
...
or,
ceuvre,
warlike,
helliqueux.
chaud; be
soit
soit,
.
work-box, ouvrage
;
corbeilie
boite, f.
m.
warm,
(feel)
(subj.)
"
avoir
chaud,
yfYi\\e,pendantque,
que
tandis
tout
world,
worse,
monde,
warn,
avertir.
v.,
(whilst,406),
Uanc.
212.
adj., pire;
digne.
blesser.
"crire, irr. ^criture, f
tort;
.
adv.,
watch,
veiller
(^sur).
en.
pis.
watch
montre,
(timekeeper),
f
.
white,
[287,330.
b,
worthy,
whoever:
286,
wound,
write,
water,
n., v.,
eau,
f.
why,
pourquoi.
veuve,
water,
abreuver.
m.
widow,
this
"
f
.
writing,
wrong,
[tort
,
way,
"
chemin,
,
etc.;
wife,
,
ycmmc,
volont^,
f.
f.:
be
"
avoir
par
cette
"
id;
in this
will,
Hast)
X. Xerxes,
de
one's
maniere;
,
lose
testament,
m.
Xerxes,
Y.
8*"garer,
win,
gagner.
vrindow,
t. Jenetre,
m.
wine,
vin,
yard
f.
m.
(measure),
f ;
.
metre^
wisdom,
refl.
s'en-
sagesse,
we"Tyffaiiguer ;
nuir
wise,
sage,
year,
armie,
an,
m.
(19. 2).
belette, f
.
wish,
with,
souhaiter,
avec,
d"sirer,
yes,
a.
oui,
si.
weasel,
de, par,
yesterday,
yet, young,
sans
hier,
weather,
temps, of
f
m.
What
wither,
se
intr., XT.,Jl"trir;
encore,
kind
temps
"1
Quel
flitrir.
prep.,
que,
a
jeune;
homme.
"
fellow.
without,
jeune
week,
semaine,
f.
conj.,sans
que; adv.,
mains Z.
weep,
pleurer, poidi,
m.
weight,
wolf,
ADDITIONS
loup,
TO
m.
THE
ambassa-
imperceptible,
orange,
m"decin,
content.
m.
besides,
lieu.
m.
pleased, walk,
depart,
irr
travaiUeur, ovUi,
m.
marcher.
earn,
INDEX.
References
Irregular
353,
are
are
are
to
paragraphs repeated.
(when
The
not
exceptionally
marked
p.
page)
All
the
verba
here
alphabetical
reference
lists 324-330,
344,
347, 351,
omitted.
(d, ^):
U;
"a ;
hist., elided,
1;
27. 212-13
"
pron'n,
aller:
irr., 161
"
(8*en
161);
with
uses,
"
nonns,
cial (spe,
as
alter, 142;
"
41;
au aucun:
"
au
mains,
395. 112.4, alone,
394;
290; 388.
ne,
"
reste,
use,
"
213) ;
217:
"
with d, travers,
almanach:
alphabet:
am"mr
:
{ch).
with alone,
ne,
388,
:
i.
aucunement 430-
with
388 ;
388.1.
Anglo-French
43.
"ant
ao
: :
aussi,
automne:
si
:
393.
m
in pi.
a
-ans,
autre
with 5.
:
de^ 211.
10 ;
cotirtr,
"
d.
ace-
pron'n,
:
17.
silent: 386.
19.3.
i
"
for
stress,
aorUte:
aoUt
marks,
silent, 17 pron'n,
:
17 i"u"). (aoU).
autrement
autrui
:
:
use,
with 289.
ne,
386.
i.
cf.
see
161.
161.
croire^
aperceooir 161.
cf
recevoiry
aval
avarU que
avec
"
avant
cf. croitre, 161. (u:(nieillir: see CK"t22"r, 161. iicheier : with (k, 213. d.
:
apparaitre:
161.
cf.
:
pai'aitre,
with
: :
use,
883.
i.
216.
b.
apparoir
161.
:
avoir
161.
"
iicqtUrir:
accute
161.
a;
"
appartenir
85, 126.
cf. tenir,
noun
: no
/aim
(without
A.
1;
ar-
ticl
appoeitional 204. B. 1.
article,
204.
"avair
I'air, 220.3.
cf. prendre, 23 avril : pron'n, 15. ay : pron'n,
adjectives:
64;
66;
"
history
(pron'n,
apprendre:
161.
(U).
81-5
200,
synt., 218); "plural, fern., 67-8 (one gender, 79) ; comparison, as nouns, ; 224-230 ;
"
"
211. g. : constr., approcher 216. a ; aprks : witli nouns, with infinit., 357.
"
not
linked,
33.
166;
"
or
as adverbs, 219-20; agreem't, de with place, 221-3; from df 361 ; pres. 366.
"
" " "
231;
archange arracher
arrangement history, 12;
: :
with
com-
407 ;
direct,
409-
f(nndre: dpples,
mettre:
"
cf.peincfre,
161.
161. cf. mettrey history, 162, 372; adverbs: 164-5 (in -ment, single, 167 ; 165) ; phrases, 168; of comparison,
"
"
beaucoup
corapar. bel : 75.
-
with 168.
de,
44 ;
"
"
definite, definite,
se
"
se
le;
"
"
in
seun; partitive
partitive, sign:
art.
;
"
generic,
omission, " heard,
"
411;
244.
c,
ai("^):
for
23 ("). as: position, version, in218 AB o%9 "requiring 416. b ; : 161. minal pronoassaillir 161. : cf (use of), 101, 244, serUir, assentir 259. : 161. asseoir hi8t.,l; 15; : pron'n, astreindre cf. peindre,
"
rehiring 1;
"
de,
44,
"
se gen. 203-4.
with
:
du,
198 ;
"
com
par., 168.
bifou b%s:
"
"
blanc bleu
boire
6oe!^;/in,23(/).
: :
161.
82.
ne
oi, 17
:
(ot,2)
161.
ban
161. cf. peindre, infl. or not, 219.4. 161. cf. traire,
aXeul
-aU: ail:
-al:
atteindre: attendu
attraire:
au:
alone,
376
braire: brave
:
161.
pron'n,
15;
"
for d
le,
posit'n, 222.
288
INDEX.
hrin
bruire:
pn8: 161.
389.
cf
ne,
with with
"
gue 386.
comparide, or
81-^;
dative
243. 396.
de
as
part,
;
"
sign,
"
c:
pron'n,
"
23;
"
linking, qu
or
to
^,
comparison: 224-30;
of
"of
:
adj.,
168.
adv. cf
.
sign 210-11;
346-9,
with
with
"
Infinit.,
complaire
complement: 207. compounds: 4;
"
plaire,
or
161.
ga
use,
268.
subj.
nouns
obj.,
caesura:
422.
caillan:
cap
:
capitals:
(pl.)i ^^
"
363; repeated, 217 ; names, with geogr'l 192. b; to denote acter, char* 199.3 ;"cfe, in,' 211.
"
"
adj.,
80;
tenses,
d ;
'
as,'
211. 211.
f;
"
in
com-
cardinals: 90.
for
ord'ls,
139 ; 9.3.
"
compounds
spelled, prendre,
mettre,
d,
(for que,
198. 142. 161.
s. 3.
pi., 50.3.
107.3;
or
"
comprendre 161.
"
cf
:
with
Hre,
pronoun, 265; ce
"
i2, 252;
with
ce
comprometire 161.
concevoir: concZure.*
161. 161.
:
cf.
with
de,
211. 161.
g.
ezplet.,
300;
266;
diclore
cot/rtr,
cf
:
: :
clore,
.
sembler,
267;
"
"
aont
diconfire
161.
314-16
cf
suffire,161.
161.
.
(edc.)
273.3;
:
cc
que
(,que),
concourir
conditional:
cf.
use,
280.
268.
(of
cf. coudre,
cf
.
ceci
use,
pouvoir,
161.
savoir,
cf
:
cedilla:
: use,
7.
cf. peindrCt 268. 260
ceindre:
conduire:
cf
:
:
cela
colore
(omitted,
comoindre
cf.
:
sufflre,161.
cf
.
cf
conduire,
161.
celui:
use,
269.3).
269. 1; 269. 1;
conjunctions:
peindre, 173-4;
161
.
"
cUfaillir
:
celui-d:
:
270.
270.
23 330.
Bubjunct.,
conndttre:
16.
r
."
cf./aUlir,
cf.
an
161.
161
(all
celui-ld:
8
cens
heard,
(").
222.
marked definite
.
with
article:
cf.
asterisk), le (this
161.
cer:
verbs
:
in, 129.
con^Wrt
161.
cf
acgtierir,
index).
certain
:
posit'n,
with
ne,
dSfoindre:
:
:
cf
or
joindre,
f., 62.
a.
cesser
376. A.
eonseiller
consentir
with
di, 213.
d.
delice
demander
m.
cet
:
for
ce:
107.
1.
cf. sentir,
161.
:
:
:
d, 213.
d. 161.
ch
pronnnc'n,
with
:
23,
24.
consonants:
chacal:
pi., 50.9.
son
or
(see
leur^
each,
.
dSmentir
cf. sentir,
dhnettre
demi
:
chacun: 260.
order)
construire 161.
con^entr
cf
conduire,
161.
demonstratives:
107, ct.mouvoir,
264-70.
161. 161.
changer
de^
112.
211.
23
9.
dimouvoir:
."
ckaque:
cJUnU:
:
2 silent,
:
(il).
contraction
ch^-d'ceuvre
: use,
/sil't, 23 (/).
cher
chez
contraindre 161.
cf. peindre,
161. 161.
plaire,
cf
.
voir,
ne,
con^roltre
."
cf. dire,
:
d^rendre
depuis
que
:
:
cf. prendre,
with
choir:
:
161.
m. or
contrefaire
f., 62. b.
contrevenir convenir
:
cf,
/aire,
385.
chose
chou: Christ:
chut:
:
(t). 23 (t).
coudre: courir:
denier
des,
dks
a.
1.
desapprendre
161.
23
cf
prendre,
161.
ciel
coutcJiouc:
cottcrtr
."
silent,
(c).
: :
:
161.
."
cf
crot'nrfrc
88.
"
ctng'
pron'n,
:
circoncire
161.
161.
:
1.
with 383.
: c
subj.
silent, 161.
161.
:
cf. conduire,
a.
161.
avant,
cf. rcwir, cf b.
.
161. 161.
"
circonscrire
cf
^crir",
.
croc
23
(c)
d^v^tir
devoir:
317.
a.
croire:
161. cf. venir, 5. b; in use,
conj.,
c.
rgtir, 161;
use,
drconvenir:
124.
croitre:
circumflex: verbs,
cueillir CttfWcr
."
161.
r
.
diaeresis: 23
6, 77.
:
heard,
(r).
161.
different
/silent, cZ"j/"..'
23
cZerc
ciore.*
c silent, 161.
or
(/). 23 (c).
CM"rc
cf
.*
conduire,
23
decile
dw-e:
cu2=
d
161.
:
cu
(p. 21).
33.
diphthongs:
161.
:
:
comfn"
que,
:
400.
linking,
:
:
30,
m
disconvenir
19.3.
cf. venir,
161. 161.
commettre:
cf. mcMrc,
cf
.
damner dans
comparaitre 161.
parattre,
use,
silent, 214.
disjoindre
disparattre:
161.
cf.
Joindre,
cf.
paraitre,
date:
90,287.
INDEX.
289
diasoudre
:
diasons
250.
particle, c, 259.
ct. peindre, f., 78.
101,
faisait
(ai).
etc.
fai-
"=
/e-,
15
dUtraire:
diesyllabics:
:
161.
161.
divers
place,
cf
:
clore,
161. 161.
161. 161.
dix : doigt
pronunc'n,
: :
:
88.
23
gt
c
use, :
done
{t).
23
endormir:
not,
(c).
enduire
cf
dont
276.
b.
dortnir
enfant: m. enfreindre
161.
cf
peindre,
161
rfo/.-
(f).
d'oit.."
enfuir
23
cf.fuir,
:
dotu;
f., 76.3.
:
eryambement
427.
161.
drctchme dU:
du
du,
"
ch =" a, distihc^n,
(eft)
.
enjoindre
enlever
enn."
6.
b.
"
1;
as
"
d, 213.
cf. peindre, d.
19.".
.
falloir: 161. 17 (ao). /aon=/an.* " heard, 23 {t) /a* il. faut : see under fatJtx: f., 76.1. f., 78.3. favori: 161. /cin"frc cf peindre, 63. see : feminine gender, 19.a. : femme =f9,m firir : 161. fil8=Ji88: p. 21. fleurir : irr., 133. 23 ("). forceps : s heard,
." .
."
of
de,
6,
41;
sign;
"
pron'n,
:
part, 394;
enqitMr
cf
ac^t"^rtr,
161.
/orctore.forfaire :
foreign 24; fortnight:
cf. cZore,
161.
cf.
faire,
161.
reste,
395.
:
duquel
for
"2onf, lll.i.
14;
161. : cf. suivre, eriAuivre 66.3. in pi., -ens, -en* 216. d, 358. use, : entre
.""
pronunc,
e:
"
pron'n, to ^, 36, 74, 126; change lost in 128; fat. cond., in, 27; nouns elided,
"
hist.,
1;
entremettre 161.
cf
mettre,
76.
or
f., 62.
c.
"
cn^rg?ren"frc
161. en^rcr
."
."
cf
prendre,
142.
coi*rtr,
94.
"
with
^tre,
."
57.
b,
"
59,
60,
63.
a,
b,
64;
67,
"
78.a;
e
."
fr.
'
Lat.
verse,
en^re"cctwrir 161.
cf.
^
^
mute hist.
"
'
in
"
423.
entresuivre
4.
"
cf
wtiwe,
161.
161.
frais : f 72. f., 76.i; franc: place, frire: 161. fair: 161. /u"i7.- 2 silent, 23 (l).
future:
formation,
310;
"
222.
1;
pron'n,
to
-o'C,
a,
161.
113.
A;
14;
or
change ^ before
^, 36;
35.
entretenir
i,
cf. ^cmr,
"
use,
of
probability,
151.
-je,
cf
:
roir,
313.
cf.
couvrir,
k:
hist.,
14;"
"
1;
"
fore
(^)
g:
161.
."
pron'n,
30;
"
23;
"
linking, gu,
"
change
to
w, :
:
to
37,
=
or
before
-ge,
35.1,
.*
151. hist.,
:
-je, ^rcnrfre
"?rendre
14.
cf
i?c"ndrc,
prendre,
.
161.
161.
ge,
437.
37,
129;
."
cf
."
hist.,
:
eau
1, 4. a; 1 ;
.
pron'n,
egtttraZoir
cf
vtdoir,
161.
place,
.
222.
ibouillir
: i^chapper ^choir : 161. iclore: cf. claret gfre, 142. with icrire: 161.
cf A, 213.
^".'
et
"
use,
41.1.
:
geindre
.
estomtic
:
d.
23 (c) silent, pr. ^, 14. e. 2 (end p. 11) ; linked, 33; not etne,
c
"
gender:
161.
"
mxisc.
(nouns),
425;
63;
ma^c.
"
fem.
rhyme,
or
(nouns),
426; 60-62.
use,
rhyme, 57"
161;
*
"
nor,'
390.1
"
et
et,
"
401.
fem.,
:
Heindre
?"re
."
cf
ei
(cf): pron'n,
:
15.
conj.,
generic 195-6.
article
40, 40.i
6lire
cf.
lire, 161.
a,
elision:
26.
27.
19,
:
"
em:
pronunc'n,
19.2.
138;
avoir, 300;
"
142-3;
genou:
Ure
d,
gens
m. :
d.
23
gentil
33;
(il),
embcMsadeur imettre : cf
:
f., 78.i.
161. 19.3.
Hreindre:
mettre,
eu(eil):
15.
12,
-eur:
f.,74.
:
gisir
gn
:
emm-
pronunc'n,
pron'n,
=
-emment: note
pronunc'n,
4.
:
:
p.
f., 67. b,
:
78.
325
goutte
pa8:
\n
6viter
cf
.
4moudre
moudre,
161.
and
ne,
: :
subjunct.,
or
grand:
64. 6.
grave
grand*
mkre
etc.,
"
^mouvoir
382.
emp^cher:
ne,
161. and
excepts
eclure extraire ey
not,
220.4.
accent
222. place, : 6. a.
i.
"
subj.,
grec:
gros: gu
=
f. 76.
f., 75;
retained Engl, w,
place,
a,
o,
222. 129.
empereur:
161.
."
f., 78.i.
:
."
pron'n,
pron'n, 30, 69.
15.
b ;
empreindre
cf.
peindre,
437.
23 ; in
/."
A, 213.
192.
23;
"
change
to
cmprwnicr
nouns,
d.
with
V,
h
or
en.*
prepos'n;
214,
a
pres.
r"
partic,
I
101,
de
A, 361.
353. 161;
i,
"
pron'n, 9.1.
: :
"
spelling,
161, irr.,
hmr
with
irr., 133.
8
hilas
heard,
p. 22.
repeated
217 ;
"
o-
infinit., 208.
h"roeXc:
A in, 23
{h).
290
INDEX.
hibou:
pi. 50.1.
:
irregular
222. 161;
verbs all
161.
155-61 in
(list,
in-
m:
pron'n,
names,
23,
19;
24.
in
eign for"
honii^te
place,
repeated
A,
25 ;
'
hiatus:
424.
dex).
:
linlsiug, mais
:
:
33.
hiBtorical
:
infinitive
53;
349.
issir
heard,
:
.
23
(s).
161.
huit
pronunc'n,
noans,
88.
numerals,
maintenir
and
hyphen:
jadis : jamais
388.1.
a
:
heard,
with
ne,
23
(").
388
mtU
comp.,
; alone,
fM^faire:
maXhonnJ^te
malin
'
/aire,
place,
161.
161.
je : for moi, 246. 161. joindre : cf peindre, 27. s. a; 23 {g). "fory, joug : g heard, 19. i. pron'n, -ten: jouer : de or A, 211. c, 212. U : pronoun, 100 ; as impers. jouir : de, 211. g. il or ce with sub., 251-2; joujou : pi., 50.1. gfrc, 262; 136; "ilya, juger : de, 211. g. (for il y g,)^ jusque : 17 estt 252 elis'n, 27.4. 424.3 ; il faut (constr. 331 ; s'en faut with) "U
pron'n, 14;
"
:
'
f
.,
70.
i (f)
many
*
:
a,'
rendered,
293. 23
23
85 ;
many
:
:
a.
marc mars
c
s
silent, heard,
:
(c). (").
161.
"
maudire
masculine:
cf. dtre,
nee
gender.
82
;
"
mauvais
place,
measure
compar'n, how
"
221.
:
with
:
ne,
k:
expressed
3.2,
20.
"
211.
-il
pronunc'n,
:
mSconnattre
I:
"
cf
conncUtre,
35,
to
u,
73-5,
1,
126;
47. b, in
161.
m^chant midire
:
pers. by cepr.
pron.,
b;
308,
49;
in
Engl.,
lost
cf
subjnnct.
135;
Fr.,
308.1.
dist'n,
5.
a.
1 ;
Ut,
mS/aire:
mime
mentir
:
imperfect:
use,
107.
306;
laisser
for
miprendre
mettre:
=
cf.prendre,
m^i
161.
161.
impersonal form,
inoeclinables
history, 163-75;
372;
synt.,
le (/a, les) : history, 38, 179; form, 40; not elided, 27.1 ; def or gener. article,
"
mie
a.
"
mien
: :
ror
mil
mille
*
for
etc.
*
miUe,
:
le mien, 89.
pron.,
:
263.
i.
373-406.
.
40,
:
40.
"
note; gen'l
use,
"
contr'n,
23
(tZZ).
.
indef
article
112;
cf
un.
41;
180-196;
mine
etc.
:
s
indefinites
form,
(pr.
indicative:
tenses.
:
for
nouns
poss.
adj.,
182-4;
etc.,
names,
different
with
with 188;
189-90
of weight, fractional
mceurs
mol
;
mon
forms,
:
73.
ma,
for
1,
106.
(hist.
"
titles, 187 ; in
idioms,
nouns. nouns,
note
parenth.);
262.
in
induire
infinitive:
340;
"
with
; with
as names
proper
geogr.
address, monsieur:
orig.,
*
pron'n,
262.
*
19. a;
"
sign
correspond'g and
ger.,
"
191-4; with
"
gener.
art.,
195;
inf.
of
the
200
lang., de,
as
"
196;
43,
more,
=
most
: pas forms, :
341 ; 343-4,
353,
45,
with 199,
part,
mot
mou
: rendered, 389.
85.
361;
d,
terminat.,
250.
; "le 107.*;
"
de-
73.
finit., 349;
250.
b;
"
"
frequent
as adv., 231.1.
a. 1 ; le moins, 230; as
161.
irr., 161;
with
^re,
leplus,
noun,
142.
motivoir
161.
23
:
lequel:
relat.,
inter., 110,
108,
110,271;
.mpt-= multiplicatives
n:
mt:
(p).
95.
276
or
; as
adj
.,
278.
100,
leur:
106; linking
:
pers.
use, :
poss.,
pron'n,
names,
23,
19;
24.
in
25;
eign for"
interjections:
175.
244.
A,
interrogative 108;
verbs 971.
151-2.
26.
b, 2"-33.
linking,
35,
31; 126.
"
doubled,
interrogatlves
(pr. and
cf. venir,
adj.)
161.
lire: lis:
Von
161.
"in, for
73-5,
23
on:
:
(").
112.3. 27.4
naitre: Hre, ;
"
conj.,
142.
161;
"
w.
ijitroduire:
413
cf.
conduire,
lorsque
404.
elis'n,
use,
nasal 31.
n'
vowels:
19;
linking,
inversion
414;
; in questions,
or
lui:
242.1
opt. cond. in 415; phrases, clauses headed by the not subject, in 416; interjected
in
pers. ; 244;
cf
.
pr., for
100;
son,
use,
avoir
"
."
garde
376.
258.
161.
ne
(a)
:
i th
luire
Vun
Vautre
conduire, : 294.
etc.)
153,
aucun,
history,
169,
374,
phrases,
417.
112.4;
(b)
t"e
INDEX.
291
alone,
voir
375-80
etc.,
ott
{oU,
pron'n,
OU
:
oU):
15.
hist.,
5.
1;
"
"
plupart:
plural:
of
nouns,
with history,
du
47.
{de, la,
B;
"
376;
des), 198.
a.i
qui, 377; with plaise, 376. i; negat. verbs, after 378; of expressions after eflfort, 379
"
oU,
OU,
distinc'n, after,
-*
verbs
297.
a;
"
; after
si, 380)
oil, 276.
otiir
ours
:
pron. b.
161. sin, 23
particle,
111,
(comm.
nouns,
51;
"
comp. of
or
nouns,
53-4);
396;
(c)
ne
expletive,
adjecl'B,
ne,
66.
381-7
etc.,
(after
382;
emp"cher
(s).
plus:
"
davantage,
388
fear que,
outil:
^silent,
:
23(t0161.
with
(alone,
i.
ouvrir
not
cf
couvrir,
388.1).
plutbt
:
with
t
ne,
386. 17
faut,
que after depuis 385; coiuor after que, 386 ; autre after parat., 386.1 ; after d moins etc.,
que,
linked,
161.
o
S3.
pro^le: poign-:
pron'n,
in, 23 161.
: :
{ok).
{gn).
{ao).
27;
use,
poindre:
point
pore
cf
c
ne.
387).
cf. ne, /in, 23 (/).
23
parceque:
401.1.
elided,
silent,
23
(c).
negation:
:
nery.-
paraiire parcourir
cf. connaitre,
:
161.
net
" heard,
(t).
297.
i.
88.
390.3,
parfaire
parmi
:
repeated,
pou pour
:
261).
216.
nHmporte
376,
376. 47,
participles: for
cf.
with
history,
363 365-
poursuivre
pourvoir
:
cf
suivre,
161.
161
non
(pets) : 373.
history, gend., topics;
209-17.
246. 205;
etc.,
"
(141) ; "present,
141, 368-71. "past. partir: conj. of sentir; Hre, 142.
cf. voir,
nouns:
7;
w.
^touvoir 317.
376.
conj.,
b;
with
161;
ne
use,
a,
alone,
partitive
75;
"
nous
forje.
ent, (a) dependpridire sign: 43-4, 198; dependent, prHx (b) in"
: : :
161,
nouveau:
forms,
199-
prilire
prendre:
nu
omitted,
ne; cf. 373.
:
46,
parvenir:
pas:
verb,
cf. venir,
"
prepositions
nouns,
171-2;
"
nuire
209
(cf.
prep'n)
prescrire
113. a;
pcusi
388;
infl. 220.4.
voice: 140.
nuUement
alone,
with
86-95
ne,
passive past
history,
present:
presque presaentir
:
;
:
compound,
388.1.
conj'n,
(cf. cardinals,
305.
numerals:
part' pie:
:
cf.
ples. partici-
elis'n,
:
:
27.
synt.,
etc.) ;
"
pauvre pays
14.
etc.:
.
pr^venir
15
{ay,
preterit:
306.
: :
(d)
oMir
pron'n, d, 213.
note)
pendant
peindre, 161.
prevaloir
que 161.
406.
d.
410.
object: place,
:
privoir principal
135.
cf
161.
parts:
of
verbs.
161. 161.
obtenir
:
cf
tenir,
15.
penser percevoir
d, 213.
:
d.
oe
pron'n,
:
:
cf
recevoir,
23
161.
161.
produire
cf
:
conduire,
cbU
piiril
pron'n,
:
(ii).
elision
"
promettre promouvoir
161.
cf. mettre,
:
aeu
permettre
161.
"
cf. mettre,
ma,
cf.
mouvoirt
class;
OBUj' (Buf:fm,2Z{f).
oji ojfrtr:
oi
(of):
17,
at,
personal 27. 2 ;
pronouns:
"
for 102,
100 ;
tion, posi-
23
17
oignon:
pron'n, for ;
254-6;
relat'n,
en,
243
"
"dative by replaced
cf. each
96.
"
y,
101,
;
"
244
(by
two
adv.,
244. 256;
c)
"
oindre:
cf.peindre.Ul.
-air: 121.1.
verbs
:
in,
113.
C,
116.
i,
personne:
use,
with
24 ;
articl
propre:
place,
:
222.
161.
161.
proscrire
provenir
:
cf. icrire,
cf
.
112.4,
:
290,
388.
168;
"
omettre
cf. mettre,
161.
peu
de,
on:
112
302.
'
{Pon,
112.3), 288,
237.
i
with place,
161.
puisque:
punctuation:
petit
:
compar'n,
82;
pupille
pur
:
ill in, 23
222.
{ill),
'
one
not
"oDly":
transl., 388.3.
91.
222.
.
place,
plaindre: plaire:
a.
cf. peindre,
ordinals: orgue:
: :
conj., 161;
d.
:
"
with
d,
q qu
pron'n,
:
23, 17
{u
votoel)
a, o,
m.
or
f., 62. d.
213.
oter
ne,
876.
piaisant
place,
l(n.
222.
retained 129. b.
or
before
6ter
d, 213.
pleuvoir
quand:
quant,
398;
"
292
INDEX.
or
torsquCt
404;"
conditM,
401.1.
riduire r^Mre
quantity:
:
"
11-12,14.
92.
s.
161.
aaOUr:
SaJbne
:
161.
a
silent,
aaint: 17
189.
i.
acUia/aire:
253;
"
quart
reflexive: interr.,
109, constr'n,
que : 108,
100, 144-9;
161;
"
276,
In in-
partic'ple
"
145.s,
368. g.
c;
aavoir 317.
376.
:
a,
use,
b ;
with
ne
alone,
280-1;
273;
"
verbs
de, 211.
def.,
224-5; in
287;
refuir:
cf.
verba
:
/iiir, 161.
:
.
aculpt
ac: ae:
regal:
regular
(p).
exclam'n,
^;
333,
and
9U"n,
sabj.,
373.1;
403.
rdoindre
relatives:
aec:
f., 76.
:
i.
=
(and
for b;
compound
of
each)
:
aecond aecourir
c
:
g, 23
(c).
161.
161.
cf.
courir,
conj'n,
403.
:
quel
repeated, 403. b.
112.
relire
rehire
remettre
a,
cf
:
mettre,
aentir:
aena
:
161.
a
quelconque: 283.
que
: :
use,
remoudre renaitre
:
heard,
accent,
23
(").
"
cf
."
sentence:
quel
287.
elia'n, 27 ; use, 282. i;
"
"
rcTidormtr
renoncer
.*
161.
161. 161.
161.
quelque 282-3;
with
d, 213.
."
d.
rangem't 409;
ar-
rect di-
inverted, 88.
413).
rcniroire
re"roycr
."
cf. traire,
cf. envoyer,
aeoir
: a^t aervir
161.
pron'n,
:
quelque
:
chose
161.
gender,
284.
cf. i"ol*re,
:
cf
qu"Hr
cf
paraHre,
161. 161.
161.
aerviteur:
: aeulement i elided, ai:
(qtie)^ 273.
108,
1.
272;
"
relat., repartir
"
: ;
."
cf. sentir, cf
.
27.6. 314;
c;
" "
a;
"
"
with
109-10, in
276,
280-1; 287.
peindre,
cond'l,
pres't,
295,
indef.,
:
277,
112,
283, 286.
quiconque
Quint:
relat.,
90.i.
r^on"2re
"
304.
perf.,
161.
308;
"
cf
."
prendre, cf
.
311;
quoi:
interr.,
109,
108,274; 279;
"
rg"rodtttre
161.
conduire,
161.
ai ai
or
or
in
def., in-
replac
287. elia'n, 23 ;
reqtUrir
27. linked,
:
:
quoique:
pron'n, 33.
:
"
."
not
oui:
:
:
397.
aignet
aimple
d.
161. 161.
singular
ign).
184.
1.
d, 213.
cf. aentir,
.*
aoi:
aoit
.
radoub
161.
b heard,
cf.
23
(6).
cf.
"cn"r,
aoit
401.
rapprendre:
prendre^
161.
re"^raindre
161.
."
of.
peindre,
161. 161.
con]., cf.
g"re, with : 161.
142.
aentir,
rctsseoir
:
ravir
: cf aaseoir, d, 213. d.
.
reteindre:
riteindre
161.
rcUteindre rebouillir
:
:
cf.
peindre,
retenir
retraire
161.
receomr
161. 161.
rev"Uoir
rcrenir
uaZotr,
t;en"r,
reciprocal
verba:
:
161.
161.
aourcil
aourdre: aouacrire
I silent,
161.
: :
recVure
161.
reconduire:
rev"tir
revivre rhyme:
:
:
:
cf cf 425.
"e"tr,
.
riwe,
290,
161.
cf
^crtre,
.
161.
aouatraire
388, 388.i.
reconnattre
161.
cf.
naitre,
rien rire:
112.4, 161.
aoutenir
aoutirer
"ouventr
-Me
.'
:
:
."
reconquirir
161.
cf. acquiriVt
:
rouvrir
roux
:
.*
161.
reconstruire
cf
con-
rum"
a
:
b heard,
23-4
23
(6)
"at:
atruire^
:
161.
subjunctive:
161.
fem.
"
recoudre:
:
cf. coudre, cf
.
pron'n,
(prop.
30,
nouns,
recourir
:
courir,
.
161.
24);
"
recouvrir
ricrire
recueUlir
161.
161.
32-3;
49;
"
47.
B,
CLAUSB8
: n.
"
classif
recroitre
cf. cr"ntre,
to
s.
323; words
"
b,
govern'g
reference-lists the
of
sabj.
cf
redSfaire:
redevenir
redire
:
cf.
.
/aire,
(pers. end.),
in
verse,
127; lost
0/
uncertain and
conmletion
verb-pnrases,
"
omitted
426.2;
(verbs
325-327;
redoubler
161.
"
in
Engl.,
3S9.
and
relat.
aache
irr.
use,
etnotion
IKDEX,
293
phrases.
reserve
ieindre: tel:
tenir
-teur "teuse
161.
297-8;
ce,
w.
329;
coujuuct.
330)
special
oi
pron.
161.
nouns :
phrases, 332;
"
after
cases,
si,
334;
"
in, 63.
b, 78.
299;
qui,
on,
and
tenses,
63.
92.
a.
b, 78.
90,
142.
see
"
use
tenses,
replaced
IN
by
33iS; infinit.,331.
CLAUSES
tiers:
time:
:
vers
each. 216.
:
f
.
expressed,
:
234,
verse
general,
421
csesura,
"
syl.
422; 424; words
"
IMDBPBND.
"
237.
338;
seiche,
:
33ld.
tomber
tous: tout:
8
Hre,
mute,
"
and 323;
subvenir
sud:
(/heard,
161. 161.
(s).
112.
B,
rhyme,
"hiatus, 426;
"
112.
292;
"
and
constr'ns,
426;
en-
sujpre:
d
"
coup
en,
{(Tun
367.1
;
.
""
coup),
que,
309;
Jambement,
vitir:
vieux of, 428. 161.
:
427;
"
kinds
suivre:
292.3.
superlative: de, 211. d; 86; "with 229; no repet'n, article, 229.1; 229.3; absolute,
" " " "
forra'n,
81-2,
traduire traire:
cf 161.
:
conauire, in, 23
.
161.
forms,
76.
tranquille: transcrire
transmettre
161.
:
iU
cf
:
({").
161.
vUle:
UHD,2S(iU).
:
^crire,
m^tre,
vingt
vis:
vivre:
Invariable,
:
230.
cf.
"
supposS surcrottre
161.
infl., 220.4.
:
cf.
crottre,
161.
travail
161.
pi., 60.4.
:
voir:
tressaUlir
cf. /aire, cf.
cf
tusaillir,
63. b, 78.
vouloir
vous:
surfaire:
161.
use,
surprendre:
prendre,
161. 161. 161. 161.
-trice tu :
: use
fern,
"
verbs
8urse""ir:
:
cf. asseoir,
cf. venir, cf. v^tir,
cf
.
vowels: 14-19
"
after, history,
220.4.
302. 2;
pron'n,
(see each).
survenir
:
u(1l):
14;
+
hist.,
vow.,
pron'n,
vu
infl'n,
surv^tir
17
(and
16,
cf.
to
survivre
syllabication:
vivre, 9.
qu).
ue:
hist.,
1;
pron'n, form,
17
("
26; pron'n, 33; doubled,
"
vow.).
38;
42;
use,
"whose':
111.
i,
276.
c.
t:
"
linking,
35,
un:
hist., 197;
74-6,
27.5.
126;
b; 161.
added 113. b;
"
in
a
verbs, p. 66
23
user
x:
(pers.
lost,
"
161
161.
(131).
cf. 142.
23; linking, pron'n, 30; sign, 47. B; "spurious 47. B, 49; sign, plur. to s, 76. change
" "
134.
c
:
to"oc;
silent,
(c).
161.
conj.
ttre,
tenir,
113,
"
161;
y:
y:
taire
406.
pron'n, 131.
18;
"or
i, 36,
taiidis
elis'n,
27 ;
use,
verbs:
history,
296;
"
tant
mieux
393.
{pis),
s.
393. i;
claaslf'n, 112-164;
"
116-17;
emphat., taon : oo
reg., 156-161;
w.
pron'n,
:
23.
in, 17.
one
of
several
subjects.
zigzag
g heard,
23
{g).
French.
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French^
Dickinson
Shore
It is admirable.
with
it and
introduce
it in my
completing
pronounce
for
Maria
Upton, Baihy
y
Teacher
Me.:
It that
of
French^ best
seen.
High
School
is the
I have
which
designed
book
I have
had
the
opportunity
of
using
Livre
By
de Lecture
C.
Fontaine,
D.
et
de
Conversation.
in
the 90
Director Cloth.
ington,
C.
255
High
cents.
Schools By
of Washmail,
price,
no
]^z.oo
THIS
on
book
in
French
and
has
vocabulary.
where the
on
It is intend
in
it
can
schools
and
colleges
to
work alternate
is
carried
in French, classes
but
also
be
used
advantage
days
with
pursuing
that
other
each
once
methods.
lesson
It will be
noticed
/.
e.,
contains and
Reading,
Conversation The
lessons,
and
Grammar,
are
is at
and
on
practical fi*equent
theoretical.
too,
progressive, in review
a
Ricapitulations
points
not
give
up.
to
exhaustive
questions
It is
all the
taken
book
work
on
to
be
the
studied,
part
pretend
teach
French
without
of
the
pupil.
FRENCH.
47
Preparatory
By
French
Ph.D.,
Reader.
Languages, of Modern Price by mail, 90 cents.
0.
B.
Super,
241
Professor
leather. */^
Dickinson Introduction
College, price,
Carlisle, Pa.
pages.
80 cents.
MANY
and intended consisting
teachers
of
French
have
complained
of
the and
lack
this
of
book
easy
Interesting
to
reading
this want. in prose
some
suitable
It is not
for beginners,
a
is
supply of
"Classic
French easy
extracts
and
"
poetry,
but enough
The
contains
to
entert
a
stories
to
of
length, in
not
long
give
aims
the
to
chance
become
"
interested
to
them. literature
book
iacility in reading,
teach
but
The
language,
text,
so
and
prepare
for the
that
appreciation
of literature. be
a
therefore, arranged
simple
translation
will
will not
burden,
seen,
and
that
vocabulary
be
fixed,
progress
and
moderate
facility
in
i'eading
The
easily
acquired.
are
selections
progressive
in
tales,
character,
beginning
with
one
short the
translations Grimm
from
Andersen's
continuing
de
or
Brothers is
more
and
another
from
Mme. tales
Girardin. from
Foa,
"
second
part
advanced,
A.
containing
A.
selections
Erckmannaveraging Prisonniers
Chatrian,
Dumas,
Daudet,
The
M^ry,
part
and
consists The
Mme.
some
eight
Caucase,"
pages by
chosen
are
each.
Xavier
third
Maistre.
account
of
Les
are
du
de
on
poems
pleasing,
Notes
and
and
have
been
chiefly
of
their
simplicity.
one
vocabulary
be
new;
added.
the
The showing,
vocabulary
as
contains
as
feature
in
the
believed would
to
viz.,
far
difference
to
type
permit,
Our
the
indebtedness
on
of the
this
English
shows
language
that
French. received
its in
special circular
book
the
it. has
to
been
which
all
parts
of
The
the
country
with
appreciation
that
the
merits
entitle it.
than
circular
also shows
schools
book
is
in
successfuluse
in
more
four
hundred
Ph.D.,
State
and
colleges.
French^
Swain Free
Thos.
McCabe, Ind.
^
Prof, of
Univ.: This
and
to
School^
excellent
New
tant
Bed'
pour
Mod.
Langs.
ford:
Jel'aitrouv6
traduction
et
book,
which
is
admirably
printed
la parfaite
des
meilleures
pieces
exceedingly
wants
convenient,
is well
adapted
la
mati^re
plan
extremement
the
of
strictly been
junior
students,
for
pour
le
entier
qui
est
whom
it has
produced.
conforme
modeme.
ce
k toutes
les
lois de V
instruction
Certainement
je me
Hermann
Sohoenfeld,
Prof,
of
servirai
de
donn^e.
48
FRENCH.
French
By Mrs.
by
Louise
Reading.
S. Houghton
Mary Miss Houghton, and Introduction ]^i.i2. Price price,
New
York
City.
348
pages.
Half
leather.
by
mail, $1.2^,
a
THE
are
method
and the
of
this book
is based of
a
upon
reading
with
view
to
the
rapid given be
as
easy need
acquisition
for them
vocabulary.
such rules they
Grammatical
arrives,
being
have form
than study
the
more
to
understood charming
giving
words.
B.
and
French
remembered
stories
a
because
modern
been
the
Four
by
authors
basis
of the
method, French
Charles
altogether
vocabulary
of
more
three
thousand
Especially
Fay,
Mass.y
recommended
French^
before
I have
the g^ge
for home
in
and
with
instruction.
extracts
Prof, of
(in address
connection
making
for
tion rela-
Tufts
the
College^
reading,
to
thus the
evident instead
their
Mass.
Teachers'
seen
"
Association):
book
''
living
whole,
that
recently Reading
called
to
French
a
impression
set
grammar
to
by
which
I believe
the
be
good lanmust
of
forms
to
which
thing.
It
presents
facts of
the
be made
conform.
Materials
By
for
H. and
26 Le
on
French
Director Schools.
Part Berlin.
de In
Composition.
Language of Modem I. five parts. Part Based Peppino. on 26
IV.
Charles
High
Grandgent,
Instruction
Based
on
in the L'Abb6
III. Part
Boston
Latin
pages.
Constantin. Based
V.
By
on
Si^ge
La
de
Pipe
Based
on
La
Based
Miss A.
Jean
C.
Kimball, 26
Teacher pages.
cents.
on
Based
La
Belle-Nivernais?.
Paper.
cents.
use
THESE
were
exercises,
composed
originally
made
for
that
in the Boston
can
High
Schools, in writing
in the
only
belief
pupils
succeed
and
taken
idiomatic
French
models.
through each
the
careful
the
study has
imitation
as a
of
French
a
For
exercise
author
basis
about
page
of
the
French
book
words
The the
a
used and
by
the
class,
and
has
a
construct
in
English,
or
from
the
phrases
first
it contains,
thoroughly
new
conversation
narrative.
then,
pupil help
studies
text
the
original
page,
and
with
of
this
and
the the
of
his
but
without The
on
consulting
pamphlets
Belle
are
dictionary,
graded.
the
most
to
translates V.
English easiest,
French.
one
No.
being
the
La
Nivernaise
difficult.
composition
disappointed
I have
me.
Emile
Achert, College^
Prof,
Grandgent's
have All
of
French^
N,
Y.:
French I
tried
hitherto
is the
Vassar
PoughkeepsiCy
have
This
first
must
am
delighted
with and
use.
step prove
in
a
the boon
right
to
direction,
both
students
and
and
Composition,
class
already the
ordered
aids
stru in-
it for
so"alled
FRENCH,
49
Heath^s
In
two
New
parts
:
French
and
De
Lorme
Dictionary.
English-French.
Wallace, and from latest the
E.
French-English
Compiled
and edition
pages. Henry of
from
the
best
by
Bridgeman.
Enlarged
by Prof.
the
Dictionary
Retail
Roubaiid.
price,
French-Engliah
portion
alone.
1152 606
Cloth. Cloth.
pages.
Retail
THIS (1877)
the the
has
been
made
to
conform
to
the 7th
Academy.
and
of the
Dictionary of nearly
of the
3000
French
invol
introduction
additional of
of
nouns
words many
and
others.
in
spelling,
accentuation
are
and
;
hyphens
the
now
obsolete,
designated
and
a
plural
list of
foreign of
The
and
nouns
is indicated,
complete
has
double
dictionary
togeth
with
their
meanings
been
Names,
added.
"
also
of Proper
with
a
historical,
French
mythological,
measures
geographical,
with short,
table
of
coins,
weights
In
equivalents.
expense
nor
neither
pains
have
been
way
spared
to
to
make
it
thoroughly
our
accurate,
and
once
to
adapt
cheap
it in every
and
complete,
the
requirements
to
of
time.
many
It is at
and other
it is believed
French-English
contain
useful
features
which
exist
in
no
Dictionary.
Specimen
R.
pages
Head School^
as
sent
Master
on
application.
William
^
M.
Jones,
Edward
It
S. Joynes,
Univ.
Prof, of
C.
:
Mod.
Penn
Charter
seem
Philadelphia
you
now
Langs.
J
of
S.
In
all points,
any
though
have
including book
use
/r/V^,
its class
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I have
ever
fitted than
seen
got
r
fc
beyond
competition.
I ask
of of
for
or
the
students
generally
in
school
lege. col-
Prof.
E., Snyder,
Univ.f
Champaigne^
find
it the
A.
R.
Hohlfeld, Vanderbilt
I
best G.
dictionary
Prof, of
like it
Romance
Nashville^ much.
Languages, Master^
have Tenn.:
University,
W.
De
French
Eng,:
I
it
very
Marlborough
your
Coll.,
French
I have
as
been like it
to
Within
dictionary
my
its
limits
is the
best
use
French
using
Dictionary
given
the
and
I know
of.
I shall
it in all
very
much.
directions
classes.
order
it henceforth
school
ary. Diction-
B.
F.
Sledd,
Prof
College,
of
N.
Mod,
C.
:
Langs.,
Your
every
new
Wake
New
Forest
York
World:
of
this
The
wonder^
to
dictionaries
My
prove students
excellent
are
in
respec
ful
popularity
when
work
ceases
be
with
entirely
satisfied
wonderful
it is examined.
them.
Modern
"
Languages.
Sheldon^
who
5
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FOR
BEGINNERS.
GERMAN.
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other
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Harris*
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s
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essentials
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yoynes*
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Daudefs
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of
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de
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Vol.
I.
eTun
Erckmann-Chatriah's
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e
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Very
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yensen's Die
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s
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Harris's
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Die
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us
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at
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dem
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Holberg's
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Lessin^s
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HeatfCs
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Reader. Reader.
yoynes*
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Schiller's Schiller's
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s
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