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Alcoholic beverage - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Alcoholic beverage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing the psychoactive drug ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and small quantities of other alcohols. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes for taxation and regulation of production: beers, wines, and spirits (or distilled beverage). They are legally consumed in most countries with over 100 countries having laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption.[2] In particular, such laws specify the minimum age at which a person may legally buy or drink them. This minimum age varies between 16 and 25 years, depending upon the country and the type of drink. Most nations set the age at 18 years.[2] The production and consumption of alcohol occurs in most cultures of the world, from hunter-gatherer peoples to nation-states.[3][4] Alcoholic beverages are often an important part of social events in these cultures.
These flaming cocktails illustrate that a distilled beverage may be ignited. The term ethanol is derived from ether from aithein "to burn, shine". [1]

Contents
1 Alcoholic beverages 1.1 Distilled beverage 1.2 Fermented beverages 1.3 Fortified beverages 2 Standards 2.1 Alcohol concentration 2.2 Standard drinks 2.3 Serving sizes 3 Alcohol consumption 3.1 History 3.2 Applications 3.3 Alcohol consumption by country 4 Alcohol and health 5 Alcohol laws 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

Alcoholic beverages
See also: Template:Alcoholic beverages and List of alcoholic beverages
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Distilled beverage
See also: Distilled beverage A distilled beverage, spirit, or liquor is an alcoholic beverage produced by distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation) ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables.[5] The term hard liquor is used in North America to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones (implicitly weaker). Vodka, gin, baijiu, tequila, whisky, brandy, and soju are examples of distilled beverages. Undistilled fermented beverages include beer, wine, and cider. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along with methanol and fusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed by distillation) in applejack. Rectified spirit See also: Rectified spirit A rectified spirit, rectified alcohol, or neutral spirit is highly concentrated ethanol which has been purified by means of repeated distillation, a process that is called rectification. It typically contains 95% alcohol by volume. Rectified spirits are used in mixed drinks, in the production of liqueurs, for medicinal purposes, and as a household solvent. In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as its solvent. Neutral grain spirit See also: Neutral grain spirit Neutral grain spirit (also called pure grain alcohol (PGA) or grain neutral spirit (GNS)) is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that has been distilled from a grain-based mash to a very high level of ethanol content. The term Rectified spirit made by Polmos. neutral refers to the spirit's lacking the flavor that would have been present if the mash ingredients were distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity, and also lacking any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such as whisky, are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage in order to preserve the flavor of the mash.

An old whiskey still.

Fermented beverages
Beer and wine are produced by fermentation of sugar- or starch-containing plant material. Beverages produced by fermentation followed by distillation have a higher alcohol content and are known as liquor or spirits. Chemical composition
Alcohols

Main article: Alcohol

The interior of a liquor store in the United States that sells alcoholic beverages

Alcohol is a general term for any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-O H) is bound to a carbon atom, which in turn may be bound to other carbon atoms. Alcohols other than ethanol are found in trace quantities in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol is the active ingredient in alcoholic
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beverages and is produced by fermentation.

Congeners

See also: congener (alcohol), wine chemistry, and hangover Congeners are biologically active chemicals (chemicals which exert an effect on the body or brain) found in fermenation ethanol in trace quantities. Bourbon has a higher congener concentration than vodka.[6] It has been suggested that some of these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover.[7] Congeners include:
Furfural

Furfural is a congener that inhibits yeast metabolism. It may be added to alcoholic beverages during the fermentation stage. Although it occurs in many foods and flavorants, furfural is toxic with an LD50 of 65 mg/kg (oral, rat).[8]
Tannins

Tannins are congeners found in wine. Tannins contain powerful antioxidants such as polyphenols.
Fuse l alcohol

Main article: Fusel alcohol Fusel alcohols, also sometimes called fusel oils, or potato oil in Europe, are a mixture of several alcohols (chiefly 2methyl-1-butanol) produced as a by-product of ethanol fermentation.[9] The term fusel is German for "bad liquor".[10] Fusel alcohols may contain up to 50 different components, where the chief constituents are isobutanol (2-methyl-1propanol), propanol, and above all, the pair of isoamylalkohols: 2-methyl-1-butanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol.[11] [12] Occurrence of flavor compounds and some other compounds in alcoholic beverages for beer, wine, and spirits, are listed in hundreds in a document.[13] Methanol is a toxic alcohol also found in trace quantities. Excessive concentrations of these fractions may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as "spicy", "hot", or "solventlike". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of fusel alcohols as part of their flavor profile. In other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of fusel alcohols is considered a fault.[14] Beverages by fermentation ingredients

The names of some alcoholic beverages are determined by their base material. Beer: In general, a beverage fermented from a grain mash will be called a beer. Beer is made from barley or a blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the beverage is a spirit. Wine and brandy are usually made from grapes but when they are made from another kind of fruit, they are distinguished as fruit wine or fruit brandy. The kind of fruit must be specified, such as "cherry brandy" or "plum wine." Whiskey (or whisky) is made from grain or a blend of several grains. The type of whiskey (scotch, rye, bourbon, or corn) is determined by the primary grain. Vodka: Vodka is distilled from fermented grain. It is highly distilled so that it will contain less of the flavor of its base material. Gin is a similar distillate but it is flavored by juniper berries and sometimes by other herbs as well.
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Applejack is sometimes made by means of freeze distillation. Cider: In the United States and Canada, cider often means unfermented apple juice (sometimes called sweet cider), and fermented apple juice is called hard cider. In the United Kingdom and Australia, cider refers to the alcoholic beverage. Grains barley rye corn sorghum wheat Name of fermented beverage beer, ale, barley wine rye beer, kvass chicha, corn beer, tesguino Name of distilled beverage Scotch whisky, Irish whiskey, shch (mugijch) (Japan) rye whiskey, vodka (Poland), Korn (Germany) Bourbon whiskey; and vodka (rarely)

burukutu (Nigeria), pito (Ghana), merisa (southern Sudan), bilibili (Chad, Central African maotai, gaoliang, certain other types of baijiu (China). Republic, Cameroon) wheat beer horilka (Ukraine), vodka, wheat whisky, weizenkorn (Germany)

rice

beer, brem (Bali), huangjiu and choujiu (China), Ruou gao (Vietnam), sake (Japan), sonti aila (Nepal), rice baijiu (China), shch (komejch) (India), makgeolli (Korea), tuak (Borneo and awamori (Japan), soju (Korea) Island), thwon (Nepal) millet beer (Sub-Saharan Africa), tongba (Nepal, Tibet), boza (the Balkans, Turkey) Name of fermented beverage Name of distilled beverage brandy, Cognac (France), Vermouth, Armagnac (France), Branntwein (Germany), pisco (Peru, Chile), (Grozdova) Rakia (The Balkans, Turkey), singani (Bolivia), Arak (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan), trklyplinka (Hungary) applejack (or apple brandy), calvados, cider Poire Williams, pear brandy, Eau-de-vie (France), plinka (Hungary), Krushova rakia / Krushevitsa (Bulgaria) slivovitz, uic, umeshu, plinka, Slivova rakia / Slivovitsa (Bulgaria) Kaisieva rakia (Bulgaria) tepache (Mexico), Pineapple Wine (Hawaii) borovika (Slovakia)

millet

buckwheat shch (sobajch) (Japan) Fruit juice juice of grapes, juice of apples juice of pears juice of plums juice of apricots juice of pineapples junipers Chuoi hot (Vietnam), urgwagwa (Uganda, bananas or Rwanda), mbege (with millet malt; Tanzania), plantains kasikisi (with sorghum malt; Democratic Republic of the Congo) gouqi gouqi jiu (China) gouqi jiu (China)
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wine

cider (U.S.: "hard cider"), Apfelwein perry, or pear cider; poir (France) plum wine

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coconut ginger with sugar, ginger with raisins Myrica rubra

Toddy (Sri Lanka, India) ginger ale, ginger beer, ginger wine

arrack, lambanog (Sri Lanka, India, Philippines)

yangmei jiu (China)

yangmei jiu (China) Raki/Ouzo/Pastis/Sambuca (Turkey/Greece/France/Italy), tsipouro/tsikoudia (Greece), grappa (Italy), Trester (Germany), marc (France), orujo (Spain), zivania (Cyprus), aguardente (Portugal), tescovin (Romania), Arak (Iraq) Name of distilled beverage

pomace

pomace wine

Vegetables

Name of fermented beverage Cauim and tiquira (Brazil), kasiri (Sub-Saharan Africa), masato (Peruvian Amazonia chicha), parakari (Guyana), nihamanchi (South America) aka nijimanche (Ecuador and Peru), sakur (Brazil, Surinam) ginger beer (Botswana) potato beer shch (imojch) (Japan), soju (Korea)

cassava

juice of ginger root potato sweet potato

horilka (Ukraine), vodka (Poland and Germany), akvavit (Scandinavia), poitn (poteen) (Ireland)

juice of sugarcane, basi, betsa-betsa (regional) or molasses juice of agave Other ingredients sap of palm sap of Arenga pinnata, Coconut, Borassus flabellifer honey milk sugar
Flavoring
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rum (Caribbean), pinga or cachaa (Brasil), aguardiente, guaro tequila, mezcal, raicilla

pulque Name of fermented beverage coyol wine (Central America), tembo (SubSaharan Africa), toddy (Indian subcontinent)

Name of distilled beverage

Tuak (Indonesia)

Arrack

mead, horilka (Ukraine), tej (Ethiopia) kumis, kefir, blaand kilju and mead or sima (Finland)

distilled mead (mead brandy or honey brandy) arkhi (Mongolia) shch (kokut shch): made from brown sugar (Japan)

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Alcohol is a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This attribute facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic beverages, especially distilled beverages. Flavors may be naturally present in the beverages base material. Beer and wine may be flavored before fermentation. Spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually American or French oak. A few brands of spirits have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling. Tax regulated classes
Beer

Main article: Beer Beer is one of the world's oldest[3][15] and most widely consumed[4] alcoholic beverages, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea.[16] It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches which are mainly derived from cereal grains most commonly malted barley although wheat, maize (corn), and rice are also used. Alcoholic beverages that are distilled after fermentation, or are fermented from non-cereal sources (such as grapes or honey), or are fermented from unmalted cereal grain are not classified as beer. The two main types of beer are lager and ale. Ale is further classified into varieties such as pale ale, stout, and brown ale, whereas different types of lager include black lager, pilsener, and bock. Most beer is flavored with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative. Other flavorings, such as fruits or herbs, may also be used. The alcoholic strength of beer is usually 46% alcohol by volume (ABV), but it may be less than 2% or greater than 25%. Beers having an ABV of 60% (120 proof)[citation needed] have been produced by freezing brewed beer and removing water in the form of ice, a process referred to as "ice distilling". Beer is part of the drinking culture of various nations and has acquired social traditions such as beer festivals, pub games, and pub crawling (sometimes known as bar hopping). The basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. The beer-brewing industry is global in scope, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and thousands of smaller producers, which range from regional breweries to microbreweries.
Wine

Main article: Wine Wine is produced from grapes, and from fruits such as plums, cherries, or apples. Wine involves a longer fermentation process than beer and also a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 916% ABV. Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation. Fortified wine is wine (such as port or sherry), to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added.
Spirits

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Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic beverages that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits.[17] Spirits are produced by the distillation of a fermented base product. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminates some of the congeners. For the most common distilled beverages, such as whiskey and vodka, the alcohol content is around 40%. Spirits can be added to wines to create fortified wines, such as port and sherry. Distilled alcoholic beverages were first recorded in Europe in the mid-12th century. By the early 14th century, they had spread throughout the European continent.[18] They also spread eastward from Europe, mainly due to the Mongols, and began to be seen in China no later than the 14th century.[citation needed] Paracelsus gave alcohol its modern name, which is derived from an Arabic word that means finely divided (a reference to distillation).

Fortified beverages
Fortified wine See also: Fortified wine Fortified wine is wine with an added distilled beverage (usually brandy).[19] Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is simply wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including Port, Sherry, Madeira, Marsala, Commandaria wine and the aromatized wine Vermouth.[20] Mixed drinks See also: Mixed drinks
A glass of port, a fortified wine.

Mixed drinks include alcoholic mixed drinks (cocktails, beer cocktails, flaming beverages, fortified wines, mixed drink shooters and drink shots, wine cocktails) and non-alcoholic mixed drinks (including punches). Blending and caffeinated alcoholic drinks may also be called mixed drinks. Ready to drink See also: Ready to drink Alcopops

Standards
Alcohol concentration
Main articles: Alcohol by volume and alcohol proof The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV) or as proof. In the United States, proof is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80 proof = 40% ABV). Degrees proof were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.
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Ordinary distillation cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% ABV (191.2 proof) because at that point alcohol is an azeotrope with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and does not contain any added flavoring is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 proof or higher is considered to be a neutral spirit.[21] Most yeasts cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the practical limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as wine, beer, and sake. However, some strains of yeast have been developed that can reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.[citation needed] Alcohol-free beverage definition controversy The term alcohol-free (e.g. alcohol-free beer) is often used to describe a product that contains 0% ABV; As such, it is permitted by Islam, and they are also popular in countries that enforce alcohol prohibition, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iran. However, alcohol is legal in most countries of the world where alcohol culture also is prevalent. Laws vary in countries when beverages must indicate the strength but also what they define as alcohol-free; Experts calling the label misleading and a threat to recovering alcoholics.[22] In the EU the labeling of beverages containing more than 1.2% by volume of alcohol must indicate the actual alcoholic strength by volume, i.e. showing the word "alcohol" or the abbreviation "alc." followed by the symbol "% vol."[23] Most of the alcohol-free drinks sold in Swedens state-run liquor store monopoly Systembolaget actually contain alcohol, with experts calling the label misleading and a threat to recovering alcoholics.[22] Systembolaget define alcohol-free as a drink that contains a maximum of 0.5 percent alcohol by volume.[24] Interestingly, the drug policy of Sweden is based on zero tolerance.

Standard drinks
Main articles: Standard drink#Pure alcohol measure, Alcohol equivalence, and Unit of alcohol A standard drink is a notional drink that contains a specified amount of pure alcohol. The standard drink is used in many countries to quantify alcohol intake. It is usually expressed as a measure of beer, wine, or spirits. One standard drink always contains the same amount of alcohol regardless of serving size or the type of alcoholic beverage. The standard drink varies significantly from country to country. For example, it is 7.62 ml (6 grams) of alcohol in Austria, but in Japan it is 25 ml (19.75 grams). In the United Kingdom, there is a system of units of alcohol which serves as a guideline for alcohol consumption. A single unit of alcohol is defined as 10 ml. The number of units present in a typical drink is printed on bottles. The system is intended as an aid to people who are regulating the amount of alcohol they drink; it is not used to determine serving sizes.

A "standard drink" does not necessarily reflect a typical serving size, such as seen here

In the United States, the standard drink contains 0.6 US fluid ounces (18 ml) of alcohol. This is approximately the amount of alcohol in a 12-US-fluid-ounce (350 ml) glass of beer, a 5-US-fluidounce (150 ml) glass of wine, or a 1.5-US-fluid-ounce (44 ml) glass of a 40% ABV (80 proof) spirit.

Serving sizes
See also: Shot glass#Sizes
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In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985). Spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) are sold in 25 ml or 35 ml quantities or multiples thereof.[25] Beer is typically served in pints (568 ml), but is also served in half-pints or third-pints. In Ireland, the serving size of spirits is 35.5 ml or 71 ml. Beer is usually served in pints or half-pints ("glasses"). In the Netherlands and Belgium, standard servings are 250 and 500 ml for pilsner; 300 and 330 ml for ales. The shape of a glass can have a significant effect on how much one pours. A Cornell University study of students and bartenders' pouring showed both groups pour more into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender glasses.[26] Aiming to pour one shot of alcohol (1.5 ounces or 44.3 ml), students on average poured 45.5 ml & 59.6 ml (30% more) respectively into the tall and short glasses. The bartenders scored similarly, on average pouring 20.5% more into the short glasses. More experienced bartenders were more accurate, pouring 10.3% less alcohol than less experienced bartenders. Practice reduced the tendency of both groups to over pour for tall, slender glasses but not for short, wide glasses. These misperceptions are attributed to two perceptual biases: (1) Estimating that tall, slender glasses have more volume than shorter, wider glasses; and (2) Over focusing on the height of the liquid and disregarding the width.

Alcohol consumption
History
Main articles: History of alcoholic beverages and drinking culture Alcoholic beverages have been drunk by people around the world since ancient times. Reasons that have been proposed for drinking them include: They are part of a people's standard diet They are drunk for medical reasons For their relaxant effects For their euphoric effects For recreational purposes For artistic inspiration For their putative aphrodisiac effects Archaeological record Chemical analysis of traces absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the neolithic village of Jiahu in Henan province in northern China has revealed that a mixed fermented beverage made from rice, honey, and fruit was being produced as early as 9,000 years ago. This is approximately the time when barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East. Recipes have been found on clay tablets and art in Mesopotamia that show people using straws to drink beer from large vats and pots. The Hindu ayurvedic texts describe both the beneficial effects of alcoholic beverages and the consequences of intoxication and alcoholic diseases. The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dating from about 2100 BC. The Hebrew Bible recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery (Proverbs 31:6-7). Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, and in the 1st century BC it was part of the diet of most Roman citizens. Both the Greeks and the Romans generally drank diluted wine (the strength varying from 1 part wine and 1 part water, to 1 part wine and 4 parts water).
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In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer, often of very low strength, was an everyday drink for all classes and ages of people. A document from that time mentions nuns having an allowance of six pints of ale each day. Cider and pomace wine were also widely available; grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes. By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, several native civilizations had developed alcoholic beverages. According to a post-conquest Aztec document, consumption of the local "wine" (pulque) was generally restricted to religious ceremonies but was freely allowed to those who were older than 70 years. The natives of South America produced a beer-like beverage from cassava or maize, which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the starch into sugar. (Beverages of this kind are known today as cauim or chicha.) This chewing technique was also used in ancient Japan to make sake from rice and other starchy crops.

Applications
In many countries, people drink alcoholic beverages at lunch and dinner. Studies have found that when food is eaten before drinking alcohol, alcohol absorption is reduced[27] and the rate at which alcohol is eliminated from the blood is increased. The mechanism for the faster alcohol elimination appears to be unrelated to the type of food. The likely mechanism is food-induced increases in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and liver blood flow.[27] At times and places of poor public sanitation (such as Medieval Europe), the consumption of alcoholic drinks was a way of avoiding water-borne diseases such as cholera. Small beer and faux wine, in particular, were used for this purpose. Although alcohol kills bacteria, its low concentration in these beverages would have had only a limited effect. More important was that the boiling of water (required for the brewing of beer) and the growth of yeast (required for fermentation of beer and wine) would tend to kill dangerous microorganisms. The alcohol content of these beverages allowed them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling. For this reason, they were commonly kept aboard sailing vessels as an important (or even the sole) source of hydration for the crew, especially during the long voyages of the early modern period. In cold climates, potent alcoholic beverages such as vodka are popularly seen as a way to warm up the body, possibly because alcohol is a quickly absorbed source of food energy and because it dilates peripheral blood vessels (peripherovascular dilation). This is a misconception because the warmth is actually caused by a transfer of heat from the bodys core to its extremities, where it is quickly lost to the environment. However, the perception alone may be welcomed when only comfort, rather than hypothermia, is a concern.

Alcohol consumption by country

Main article: List of countries by alcohol consumption

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2004 data of alcohol consumption per capita (age 15 or older), per year, by country, in liters of pure alcohol. [28]

Alcohol and health

Main pages: Template:Psychoactive substance use and Template:Alcohol and health Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain and alcoholism (addiction to alcohol).

Alcohol laws
Main article: Alcohol laws

A row of alcoholic beverages in this case, spirits in a bar

Alcohol laws are laws in relation to the manufacture, use, influence and sale of ethanol or alcoholic beverages that contains ethanol. Alcohol laws often seek to reduce the availability of alcoholic beverages, often with the stated purpose of reducing the health and social side effect of their consumption. This can take the form of age limits for alcohol consumption, and distribution only in licensed stores or in monopoly stores. Often, this is combined with some form of alcohol taxation.

See also
Chinese alcoholic beverages Alcohol and Drugs History Society Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives Cooking with alcohol Liquor store Drinking establishments Moonshine

References
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1. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ether&allowed_in_frame=0) . Etymonline.com. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ether&allowed_in_frame=0. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 2. ^ a b "Minimum Age Limits Worldwide" (http://icap.org/table/Worldwide) . International Center for Alcohol Policies. http://icap.org/table/Worldwide. Retrieved 2009-09-20. 3. ^ a b Arnold, John P (2005). Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology. Cleveland, Ohio: Reprint Edition by BeerBooks. ISBN 0-9662084-1-2. 4. ^ a b "Volume of World Beer Production" (http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production) . European Beer Guide. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20061028165040/http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm) from the original on 28 October 2006. http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production. Retrieved 2006-1017. 5. ^ "Distilled spirit/distilled liquor" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit) . Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 6. ^ "Avoid hangover with white spirits" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-10/drinkscorner/28373462_1_congeners-hangover-alcoholic-beverages) . timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 2013-01-10. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-10/drinks-corner/28373462_1_congeners-hangover-alcoholicbeverages. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 7. ^ Whisky hangover 'worse than vodka, a study suggests' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8416431.stm) , BBC News. Accessed 2009-12-19 8. ^ "ChemIDplus Advanced" (http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/) . Chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov. http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 9. ^ "Definition of fusel oil" (http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fusel%2Boil) . Oxforddictionaries.com. 2013-01-30. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fusel%2Boil. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 10. ^ Hazelwood, Lucie A.; Daran, Jean-Marc; van Maris, Antonius J. A.; Pronk, Jack T.; Dickinson, J. Richard (2008). "The Ehrlich pathway for fusel alcohol production: a century of research on Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolism" (http://aem.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18281432) . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74 (8): 225966. doi:10.1128/AEM.02625-07 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.02625-07) . PMC 2293160 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2293160) . PMID 18281432 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18281432) . http://aem.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18281432. 11. ^ "Chemistry of a Hangover Alcohol and its Consequences Part 3" (http://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/1080019/Chemistry_of_a_Hangover__Alcohol_and_its_Consequences_ Part_3.html) . ChemistryViews.org. 2011-07-06. http://www.chemistryviews.org/details/ezine/1080019/Chemistry_of_a_Hangover__Alcohol_and_its_Consequences_P art_3.html. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 12. ^ L. Nyknen, H. Suomalainen (1983-05-31). Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages (http://books.google.com/books?id=allg4XxlOM4C&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=2-Methyl-2butanol+occurrence&source=bl&ots=Ped5CJ8BgX&sig=118Rxwke4Tvwh724RxCFmW4tKwU&hl=en&redir_esc=y #v=onepage&q=2-Methyl-2-butanol%20occurrence&f=false) . books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books? id=allg4XxlOM4C&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=2-Methyl-2butanol+occurrence&source=bl&ots=Ped5CJ8BgX&sig=118Rxwke4Tvwh724RxCFmW4tKwU&hl=en&redir_esc=y #v=onepage&q=2-Methyl-2-butanol%20occurrence&f=false. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 13. ^ Nyknen & Suomalainen (1983), monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol44/mono44-12.pdf 14. ^ Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages 15. ^ "Stone Age Had Booze" (http://books.google.com/books? id=1ScDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=Popular+Science+1931+plane&hl=en&ei=b0IkTfqeCoKBnAfUbWiAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwATgo#v=onepage&q=Popular%20Science %201931%20plane&f=true) Popular Science, May 1932 16. ^ Nelson, Max (2005). The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe (http://books.google.com/? id=6xul0O_SI1MC&pg=PA1&dq=most+consumed+beverage) . books.google.com. ISBN 978-0-415-31121-2. http://books.google.com/?id=6xul0O_SI1MC&pg=PA1&dq=most+consumed+beverage. Retrieved 2009-02-22. 17. ^ Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichines New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 707709. 18. ^ Forbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal (http://books.google.com/?id=XeqWOkKYn28C) . BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1. http://books.google.com/?id=XeqWOkKYn28C. Retrieved 28 June 2010. 19. ^ Lichine, Alexis (1987). Alexis Lichines New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (5th ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 236. ISBN 0-394-56262-3. 20. ^ Robinson, J., ed. (2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 279. ISBN 0-19-860990-6. 21. ^ Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichines New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,

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21. ^ Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichines New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits (5th edition) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 365. 22. ^ a b "Sweden's alcohol-free drink label 'misleading'" (http://www.thelocal.se/44108/20121029/#.UPKD1hipNok) . Thelocal.se. http://www.thelocal.se/44108/20121029/#.UPKD1hipNok. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 23. ^ ">Beverage Alcohol Labeling Requirements by Country" (http://www.icap.org/table/alcoholbeveragelabeling) . Icap.org. http://www.icap.org/table/alcoholbeveragelabeling. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 24. ^ "Alcohol-free products" (https://www.systembolaget.se/English/Product-range/Alcohol-free-products/) . Systembolaget.se. 2011-03-11. https://www.systembolaget.se/English/Product-range/Alcohol-free-products/. Retrieved 2013-02-05. 25. ^ "fifedirect - Licensing & Regulations - Calling Time on Short Measures!" (http://www.fifefire.gov.uk/topics/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.display&subjectid=8133D50D-A872-4A5B9C65EE07BBF04E7E&objectid=6DDC0AD4-C85A-2F07-BE70B5A0D64D0A58) . Fifefire.gov.uk. 2008-07-29. http://www.fifefire.gov.uk/topics/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.display&subjectid=8133D50D-A872-4A5B9C65EE07BBF04E7E&objectid=6DDC0AD4-C85A-2F07-BE70B5A0D64D0A58. Retrieved 2010-02-11. 26. ^ Wansink, Brian; van Ittersum, Koert (2005). "Shape of glass and amount of alcohol poured: comparative study of effect of practice and concentration" (http://www.bmj.com/content/331/7531/1512) . BMJ 331 (7531): 151214. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1512 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1512) . http://www.bmj.com/content/331/7531/1512. 27. ^ a b Ramchandani, V.A.; Kwo, P.Y.; Li, T-K. (2001). "Effect of Food and Food Composition on Alcohol Elimination Rates in Healthy Men and Women" (http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/022F3832-2071-409B-BFC8BF7C272F24AE/0/2001Effectoffoodandfoodcomposition.pdf) . Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 41 (12): 134550. doi:10.1177/00912700122012814 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F00912700122012814) . PMID 11762562 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11762562) . http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/022F3832-2071-409B-BFC8BF7C272F24AE/0/2001Effectoffoodandfoodcomposition.pdf. 28. ^ "Microsoft Word - global_alcohol_overview_260105.doc" (http://www.who.int/entity/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf) (PDF). http://www.who.int/entity/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf. Retrieved 2010-0211.

Alcoholic beverage - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

External links
Alcohol, Health-EU Portal (http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/my_lifestyle/alcohol/index_en.htm) BBC Headroom: Drinking too much? (http://www.bbc.co.uk/headroom/emotional_health/alcohol.shtml) International Center for Alcohol Policies Website (http://www.icap.org/) International Center for Alcohol Policies List of Tables (http://www.icap.org/table) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism - What Is a Standard Drink? (http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/pocketguide/pocket_guide2.htm) Most Widely Consumed Alcoholic Beverages (http://todaynewsgazette.com/most-widely-consumed-alcoholicbeverages/) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcoholic_beverage&oldid=542140731" Categories: Alcoholic beverages Fermented beverages Alcohol Alcohol abuse Drug culture IARC Group 1 carcinogens This page was last modified on 5 March 2013 at 02:27. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage

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