CLASSES VI I TO X
CONTENTS
Page No.
1. Class X 2
2. Class IX 25
3. Class VIII 43
4. Class VII 57
The publisher has taken all possible precautions in preparing the C.D. yet if any mistakaes
has crept in, the publisher shall not be responsible for the same.
Re-production of the whole or any part of the contents in English or any other language
without the written permission of the publisher is prohibited.
CLASS - X
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Screw Gauge :
A screw gauge is used to measure the thickness of a thin glass plate
and the diameter of a thin wire or a small sphere. It works on the
principle of a screw in a nut and hence it is called screw gauge.
The distance travelled by the tip of a screw for one complete rotation
of its head is called the pitch of the screw.
Pitch of the screw,
P =
made rotations complete of . No
screw the by travelled ce tan Dis
Pitch of the screw, P =
n
x
Least Count, L.C.
=
divisions scale head of . No
screw the of Pitch
=
N
P
Diameter of a wire or thickness of an object =P.S.R +H.S.R. x L.C.
If the zeroth division of the head scale does not coincide with the
index line the screw gauge has zero error.
Positive zero Error : If the zeroth division of the head scale is below
the index line of the pitch scale, the error is said to be positive and
the correction is negative.
Negative zero Error: If the zeroth division of the head scale is above
the index line of the pitch scale, the error is said to be negative and
the correction is positive.
OUR UNIVERSE : GRAVITATION
F =
2
2 1
r
m m
G
where G is the Universal Gravitational Constant.
NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION:
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The force acts along the line joining the two bodies.
2 2 2 2
2
Kg Nm or Kg / Nm
or
) kg ( x ) kg (
) metre ( x newton
G of Units
or 180
0
.
Stationary Wave : Stationary wave is defined as a resultant wave
formed when two waves of equal frequency and amplitude travel in
opposite directions along the same path.
Stationary waves are characterized by nodes and antinodes.
The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to
2
.
In a stationary wave, energy remains trapped in a fixed region.
Velocity of sound in air is given by
V =
P
Where is the density and P is the pressure of the air. is the ratio
of specific heat of air at constant pressure, C
P
, and the specific heat
at constant volume, C
V.
Velocity of sound is given by v =
v
Where v is the frequency and
=4 x 10
-7
Henry/ metre.
Relative permeability r
: The ratio of the magnetic force in a medium
to the magnetic force in free space is defined as relative permeability
r
of the medium.
The rel ati on between absol ute permeabi l i ty ) ( and rel ati ve
permeability r
of a medium is = r 0
The unit magnetic pole is that pole which repels with a force of
7
10
N/ A-
m
Magnetic field induction on the equatorial line is given by
3
d
M 2
4
B
0
N/ A-m
Mapping of Magnetic Lines of Force due to a Bar Magnet :
Neutral Point : A point where the magnetic field induction (B) due
to a bar-magnet is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the horizontal component of earths magnetic field induction (B
0
) is
called a neutral point.
When neutral points are at a point on equatorial line of a bar-
magnet, the relation between magnetic moment of the magnet and
the distance of the neutral point is M =390 d
3
A-m
2
When neutral points are at a point on axial line of a bar-magnet, the
relation between magnetic moment of the magnet and the distance
of the neutral point is M =195 d
3
A-m
2
Magnetic Properties of Materials :
Intensity of magnetisation : The magnetic moment acquired by a
substance per unit volume is defined intensity of magnetisation.
Magnetic susceptibility ( ) : Magnetic susceptibility of substance
is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation (I) and the
intensity of applied magnetic field (H).
Retentivity : Retentivity of a magnetic material is the property by
virtue of which it retains certain amount of intensity of magnetization
when the applied magnetic field is made zero.
All materials can be classified into dia, para and ferromagnetic
materials.
Diamagnetic substances are those in which the resultant magnetic
moment of individual atoms is zero.
Ferromagnetic substances are those in which the resultant magnetic
moments of individual atoms align themselves in parallel because of
a special effect in them giving rise to spontaneous magnetisation.
The relative permeability ( r ): The relative permeability for a
diamagnetic substance is approximately equal to1, for a paramagnetic
substance it is more than 1 while for a ferromagnetic substance it is
very high.
The magnetic susceptibility ( ) : The magnetic susceptibility of a
diamagnetic substance is small and negative, and it is small and
positive for a paramagnetic substance while it is a very large and
positive for ferromagnetic substance.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Ampere : Ampere is an amount of current in a conductor when the
net flow of charges per second through its cross-section is one
coulomb.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) : The electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
defined as the amount of work done by the seat (cell) on charge
carriers to force them to go to the point of higher potential.
Simple Electric Circuits :
Static Electricity : The study of electric charges at rest is called
static electricity.
Current electricity : The study of various effects of electric charges
in motion is called current electricity.
Current : The net charge flowing through a cross-section of a
conductor in unit time is called current. Its unit is ampere i =
t
q
coulombs / second or ampere.
Current in a conductor is said to be one ampere, if the rate of flow of
charge through a conductor is one coulomb.
Electric potential : Electric potential at a point is defined as the
work done in moving a single positive charge from infinity to that
point. It s measured in volts. V =
q
w
Potential difference : Electric Potential difference between two points
is said to be one volt, when one joule of work is done in carrying one
coulomb of positive charge from one point to the other.
When negative terminal of a cell is connected to the positive terminal
of the next cell and soon, then the cells are said to be connected in
series.
When all positive terminals of two or more cells are connected to a
common point and similarly all the negative terminals to another
common point, then the cells are said to be connected in parallel.
When cells are connected in series, the total p.d. applied by them
will be equal to the sum of the e.m.f.s of individual cells. i.e., E =E
1
+
E
2
+E
3
+ .
Electrical Resistance - Ohms Law and its Verification :
Electric resistance : The electric property of a conductor which
opposes the flow of electrons through it is called electric resistance.
Ohms Law : At constant temperature, the potential difference (V)
across a conductor is directly proportional to current (i) through it.
V=iR.
The unit of resistance is Ohm and is denoted by the symbol
(Omega)
Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1
, if a potential difference
of one volt between its ends causes a current of 1 ampere in it.
Law of Resistance :
The resistance of a conductor depends on material and dimensions
such as length, area of cross-section and temperature.
Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-
section.
Resi stance of ohmi c- conductor i ncreases wi th i ncrease i n
temperature.
Resistance of a conductor, R =
a
l
2
0
Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in an external
magnetic field is given by F =i/ B.
Flemings Left Hand Rule : Stretch the thumb, forefinger and central
finger of left hand perpendicular to each other such that if the
forefinger is in the direction of the magnetic field and the central
finger in the direction of the current then the thumb represents the
direction of force on the conductor.
Principle of Working of an Electric Motor:
Electric motor converts electrical energy into, mechanical energy.
Principle of an electric motor : When a current carrying rectangular
coil is placed in an uniform magnetic field, it is acted upon by a
torque which rotates the coil continuously.
Electro-Magnetic Induction :
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the prodution of
electricity by a changing magnetic field associated with an electric
circuit containing no sources.
Electromagnetic induction : The setting up of an induced e.m.f. in
a coil in a closed circuit by a relative motion of a magnet and the coil
is called the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction : The Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction states that the induced e.m.f. in a closed
circuit (coil) is equal to the negative rate at which the magnetic flux
through it changes
i.e., . dt / ) N ( d
B
Lenzs law : The induced current will appear in such a direction
that it opposes the charge that produced it.
Flemmings Right Hand Rule : When the thumb, the fore finger
and the central finger of the right hand are stretched mutually
perpendicular to each other and are held such that the Forefinger
is along he direction of magnetic Field (B) and the thuMb is along
the direction of Motion (M) of the linear conductor, then the Central
finger points along the direction of the induced Current (i) or e.m.f.
Dynamo : A dynamo is an electrical device which converts mechanical
energy i nto el ectri cal energy uti l i si ng the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction.
The principle of working of a dynamo is the law of electromagnetic
induction.
Self induction : The production of an induced e.m.f. in an isolated
coil due to a change in the current in the same coil is called self
induction.
dt
di
L
Mutual induction : The production of an induced e.m.f. in one coil
due to changes in current in another close by coil is known as mutual
induction.
Transformer : A transformer is an electrical device which either
increases or decreases the magnitude of an alternating voltage by
utilising the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction
using mutual inductance of two coils.
MODERN PHYSICS
Atomic Model : The description of the distribution of mass and
positive and negative charges in an atom is called an atomic model.
First Postulate of Bohr : The electrons in an atom revolve around
the nucleus in circular orbits just like planets revolve around the
sun.
Second Postulate : The electrons revolve only in certain permitted
orbits called Stationary Orbits and do not radiate energy while in
such orbits.
Third Postulate : The electron has a definite energy in a stationary
orbit. Whenever an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to
another. absorption or emission of energy takes place. The energy
absorbed or released is equal to the difference in the energy of the
two stationary orbits involved.
The smallest unit of an element is called an atom.
According to Thomsons atomic model, positive charge is distributed
uniformly over the entire body of the atom while the electrons are
embedded in it.
Thomson model failed to explain observed spectra emitted by an
atom.
According to Lenard, a lot of empty space exists in an atom.
Lenard atomic model could not explain the stability and mass of an
atom.
Rutherfords atomic model consists of positively charged massive
nucleus at the centre with electrons revolving around it.
Rutherfords atomic model failed to explain the stability of an atom.
Bohrs atomic model assumes stationary circular orbits of definite
energy for electrons with nucleus at the centre.
Atomic Number, Atomic Mass and Mass Defect :
Atomic Number (Z) : The number of protons in an atom is defined
as Atomic number.
The total number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N) in an atom is defined
as its (Atomic Mass Number) or Mass Number (A). A =
Z+N.
Mass defect : Mass defect is the difference between the sum of the
individual masses of constituents in a nucleus and the mass of the
nucleus itself.
Mass defect = sum of individual mases of constituents of the nucleus
- actual mass of the nucleus.
Mass and Energy are mutually convertible. The principle of mass-
energy equivalence is given by E=
mc
2
.
1 MeV =1.6 x 10
-12
J oules
1 amu =931.5 MeV.
Radioactivity :
Natural Radi acti vi ty i s the phenomenon of spontaneous
disintegration of an unstable heavy nuclei of Z>83.
The , and radiations are emitted by radioactive nuclei.
particle is a doubly ionoised helium atom identified as He
4
2
.
-particules are electrons originating in the nucleus.
rays are electromagnetic radiations.
When particle is emitted, the atomic number of the atom increases
by 1 unit and the mass number remains unchanged.
The emission of ray does not alter either the atomic number or
mass number.
The Thorium, Uranium and Actinium series are represented by 4n,
4n+2 and 4n+3 series respectively.
Law of Radioactive Disintegration : In any radioactive substance,
the number of atoms disintegrating per second is directly proportional
to the number of atoms present.
The half-life period (T) of a radioactive substance is defined as the
time required for half of its atoms to disintegrate.
Isotopes :Isotopes are the atoms of the element having same mass
number but different mass number.
Isobars : Isobars are the atoms of different elements having same
mass number but different atomic number.
Isotones : Isotones are the atoms having same number of neutrons
but different number of protons.
Aritificial Transmutation :
Aritificial Transmutation : The process of transformation of one
element into another by bombarding it with high energy particles is
known as artificial transmutation.
Artificial radioactivity : Artificial radioactivity is the process of
converting a stable element into an unstable one with radioactive
nature.
Nuclear fission : Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy
nucleus, when bombarded with neutrons, splits into two nuclei of
nearly equal mass with the release of enormous amount of energy.
Chain Reaction : A chain reaction is a series of nuclear fissions
caused by neutrons released in each fission.
Moderator : Moderator is a substance that slows down the neutrons
in a nuclear reactor.
Fusion : Fusion is a reaction in which light nuclei are combined
together to form a heavier product nucleus with the release of
enormous amount of energy.
ELECTRONICS
An extrinsic semiconductor is one which contains small quantities
of selected impurities introduced into an intrisnsic semiconductor.
Doping : The process of introducing impurities in small quantities
into a material is called doping.
P-type : A p-type semiconductor is formed when a small quantity of
acceptor impurity is added to the pure semiconductor.
N-type : A n-type semiconductor is formed when a small quantity of
donor impurity is added to a pure semiconductor.
J unction Diode - Properties and Uses :
p-n junction : A contact surface between p-type and n-type
semiconductors in a diode is called a p-n junction.
The depletion region in a junction diode is free from charge carriers
(holes or electrons).
The p-n junction consisting of -p-type and n-type semiconductors
provided with two terminals is called a junction diode.
A p-n junction diode conducts in forward bias condition.
In reverse bias condition diode does not conduct.
A p-n junction diode offers a high resistance under reverse bias
condition.
Diodes are used in rectifier circuits.
Transistors - Properties and Uses :
Transistors : A transistor consists of two p-n junctions formed by
sandwiching either a p-type semiconductor or a n-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite type semiconductors.
A transistor consists of 2 p-n junctions.
A transistor consists of 3 terminals namely, emitter, base and
collector.
The two types of transistors are : p-n-p and n-p-n.
Transistor acts as an amplifier.
Radio and Television - Basic Principles of Working :
Modulation : The process of fixing messages to r.f. carrier waves is
called modulation.
Demodulation : The process of extracting information from the
modulated r.f. carrier waves is called demodulation.
Scanning by a TV camera is a process of dividing an image on the
screen into a very large number of squares formed by sets of horizontal
and vertical straight lines.
Electromagnetic waves in radio frequency (r.f.) range are used for
Raido and TV communication.
Radio waves travel through space over long distances.
The frequencies used in radio communications are in the range of
300KHz to 30MHz.
The frequencies used in TV communications are in the range of 30
MHz to 300 MHz.
Modulation is of two types (i) Amplitude Modulation (AM) (ii)
Frequency Modulation (FM).
Iconscope is a camera consisting of a cathode ray beam and a Photo-
Cell.
Computer - Basic Principles of Working:
A semiconductor consisting of combinations of large number of diodes
and transistors in it is an intergrated circuit (IC) or CHIP.
A microprocessor is a combination of ICs.
Data and instructions are supplied to the computer through an input
device.
Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) and MEMORY
constitute a Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer.
The digit 0 or the digit I is called a BIT.
A group of 8- bits is called a BYTE.
A group of instructions is called a program.
A machine language depends on the hardware of a computer.
CLASS - IX
OUR UNIVERSE
Light year : Light year is a unit of distance for expressing astronomical
distances. It is the distance travelled by light in one year. i.e.
ly =9.46 x 10
12
km.
Rocky portion of the earth is composed of three layers-the crust, the
mantle and the core.
Crust contains three types of rocks-igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
Mantle is made up of iron and magnesium silicates.
Core is of two layers - the outer liquid core and the inner solid core.
Inner core comprises mostly of iron and nickel.
Volcanoes and gysers are the evidence of internal heat.
Earthquakes are the result of strain in the rocks of crust and mantle.
A volcano is vent or opening in the earths surface to let out the hot
molten liquid, gases and pieces of rock with pressure.
Magma : Molten rock is called Magma.
Lava : When magma comes out of the vent onto the surface it is
called lava.
Igneous rocks : Igneous rocks formed from the soldification of lava
are called Igneous rocks.
Life began on earth first in water about 3.5 billion years ago.
Evolution : Evolution is the process of gradual change in the forms
of life from the simplest organism in the past to the highly evolved
man of the present day.
MEASUREMENT
Least Count : The smallest length that can be measured by the use
of a vernier scale along with a given main scale is called the least
count (L.C.) of the vernier.
s ' D . S . V of . No
D . S . M 1
N
S
. C . L
Vernier Callipers : A mechanical device which combines a main scale
and a vernier scale whose least count is much smaller than that of a
main scale is called a Venier Callipers.
The main scale reading (M.S.R) is always smaller of the two values
between which the zero of venier scale lies.
The diameter of the cylinder =M.S.R +V.C.D X L.C.
Positive Zero Error : If the zeroth division of the vernier scale is to
the right of the zeroth division of the main scale, the error is said to
be positive and the correction is negative.
Negative Zero Error : If the zeroth division of vernier scale is to the
left of the zeroth division of the main scale, the error is said to be
negative and correction is positive.
Time : Time is the interval between two events.
The unit of time is second
One Second is defined to be
400 , 86
1
of a mean solar day.
Second is the time taken for completing 9,192,631,770 vibrations of
a cesium atom of atomic mass number 133.
Length of the simple pendulum : The distance from the point of
suspension to the centre of the bob is called the Length of the simple
pendulum.
Period of Oscillation : The time taken by the pendulum for one
complete oscillation is called the Period of Oscillation(T) of the
pendulum. The number of oscillations (n) the bob makes per second
is called its Frequency.
Amplitude of Oscillation : The length of the arc from the equilibrium
position of the bob to its extreme position of oscillations on either
side is called the Amplitude of Oscillation.
1st Law of simple pendulum : The period of oscillation of a simple
pendulum, of constant length, is independent of the the amplitude,
provided the amplitude is small. (angular amplitude does not exceed
5
0
).
2nd Law of simple pendulum : The period of oscillation of simple
pendulum of constant length is independent of the size, shape, mass,
and material of the bob (provided it is not very light such as a cork).
3rd Law of simple pendulum : The time period of oscillation of a
simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of the
length of the pendulum, or
T
L
is a constant, for a given place.
The actual length of the object using vernier callipers = M.S.R +
V.C.D. x L.C.
Zero Error : If the zero of the main scale does not coincide with the
zero of the vernier scale, then the vernier is said to have zero error.
Beam balance : A beam balance is used to measure the mass of a
substance.
Physical balance : A physical balance is used in the laboratory to
find out the mass of a substance correct to a milligram.
We use clocks to measure time.
Atomic clocks measure time most accurately.
The time period for a seconds pendulum is 2 seconds.
KINEMATICS
Uniform acceleration : A body moves with uniform acceleration when
it undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal successive intervals
of time, however short these intervals may be.
We use the folowing symbols :
initial velocity - u m/ s
time - t s
final velocity - v m/ s
uniform acceleration - a m/ s
2
and distance travelled -
s m
The three equations of motion are
1. v =u +at 2. s =ut + at
2
3. v
2
=u
2
+2as
DYNAMICS
Definition of Work : Work is said to be done when a force (F), acting
on a body moves it through a distance (S) in the direction of the
force.
i.e., W =F.S.
Unit work =Unit Force x Unit displacement.
The unit of work in the C.G.S. system is erg & and M.K. system is
J oule(J ).
Erg : It is the amount of work done when a force of one dyne moves
a body through one centimetre, from its point of application and
along the direction of the force.
1 erg = 1 dyne cm.
J oule : It is the amount of work done when a force of one newton
moves a body through one metre from its point of application and
along the direction of the force.
1 J = 1Nm.
The unit of work in S.I. system is newton-metre.
1 kg.wt =9.8 newtons, 1kg.m. =9.8 J
The equation of work, W =F X S cos
Force and displacement are vector quantities, work is a scalar
quantity.
Definition of Power :
Power is the rate of doing work.
Power =
t
W
P ,
time
work
=
screw the of pitch
screw the of nce circumfere
Applications : This principle of screw is used in wood and metal
workshops, in book binding and cutting press, in microscopes, in
telescopes, in nut and bolt and in carpenters gimlet.
Gear : A gear is a toothed wheel that transmits motion and power.
The teeth are called cogs. The principle of wheel and axle is used in
gears.
Gears are also used to increase or decrease the number of rotations
or to change the direction of rotation of motion.
Arm of couple : The perpendicular distance between the parallel
lines along which the forces act is called the arm of the couple.
Moment of the couple : Arm of the couple x one force is called the
moment of the couple.
The principle of moments is applied in the construction of a beam
balance, in steelyard balances and in many other instruments.
The mechanical advantage of the wheel and axle is R/ r.
Mechanical advantage =
r 2
R 2
=
r
R
FLUID PRESSURE
Density : The exact way of expressing the heaviness and lightness
of bodies is called the density.
V
M
Volume
Mass
Density
The units of density are grams/ cm
3
in C.G.S system and kilograms
/ meter
3
in M.K.S.system.
Specific Gravity : The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of a
certain mass of the substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at 4
0
C. Since the density is the mass per unit volume.
gravity Specific
water of density
ce tan s sub the of density
Laws of Floatation :
1. The weight of the floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced.
2. The centre of gravity of the floating body and the centre of buoyancy
are in the same vertical line.
Matter exists in three states. They are the solid, the liquid and the
gaseous.
Solids have a definite size and definite shape.
Liquid has a definite size but not a definite shape.
A gas has neither a definite size nor a definite shape.
Liquids with low viscosity are mobile and those with high viscosity
are viscous.
Density gives the heaviness or lightness of bodies and is defined as
the mass per unit volume.
Hydrometer : An instrument used for measuring the specific gravity
of liquids.
HEAT
Heat lost by a body at higher temperature =Heat gained by a body
(or bodies) at lower temperature.
(or)
Q (Lost) by a body =Q (Gained) by a body (or bodies)
Q =ms
T
T m
Q
S
for
M
U
V
and
( )
2
2 1
d
q q
x K F
The value of K=1 when q
1
, q
2
and d are measured in C.G.S units and
the unit of F is measured in dynes. The medium is either air or
vacuum.
The value of K =
0
4
1
when q
1
,q
2
, d are measured in M.K.S. units
and the unit of F is measured in newtons.
Electrocopes : Electroscopes are the devices which can detect the
presence of an electric field.
Electric potential : Electrical potential is the magnitude of electric
charge present at a region of a body.
Potential Difference : Magnitude of potential is measured in VOLT
symbol V. The difference between two potential levels is called
Potential Difference.
Potential Difference P.D is measured by an instrument called
Voltmeter. The magnitude of charge (Q) is directly proportional to
the potential (V) of that body.
Q =CV
where c is called the capacity.
Current : The rate of flow of charge represents the magnitude of the
current
I
t
Q
1
360
Sound :
If an object vibrates, sound is produced.
A medium is essential for transmission of sound.
One compression and one rarefaction, put together is known as a
sound wave.
Our eardrum vibrates when sound waves hit it. These vibrations of
the eardrum reach the brain through nerves. Then we experience
that we hear a sound.
Sound travels faster in liquids than in gases. It travels faster in
solids than in liquids.
The reflected sound is called an echo.
Bats make use of reflection of sound to avoid hitting objects in the
path of their flight at night.
Noise Pollution :
Sound polution has very bad effects on the parts of human body,
especially the ears.
Sounds is measured in decibels. The sound produced by a blade of
grass when it moves in breeze has an intensity of zero decibel. The
sound pressure of this sound is 0.0002 dyne per square cm. The
scale of decibels is logarithmic.
Primary Electric Cells :
There are two defects local action and polarisation in the voltaic
cell.
For intermittent use of electricity a Lechlanche cell is useful. Its
EMF is 1.46 volts. It is efficiently used in telephones, electric bells,
telegraph equipment etc.
A dry cell is small, compact and carried easily to any place. Its EMF
is 1.46 volts. This is used in torches and radios.
The bichromate cell is used when more electricity is required. Its
EMF is 2 volts.
Electric Circuits :
When electric cells are connected in series, the electromotive force
increases.
When electric cells are connected in parallel the total e.m.f is not
more than that of individual cells used.
When bulbs are connected in series, if one of them is fused, all the
others stop working because the circuit becomes open.
When bulbs are connected in parallel, if one bulb is fused or removed,
the others continue to work.
Effects of Electric Current :
Electric current can produce heat which is radiated. This principle
is used in domestic electric appliances such as electric heaters, hot-
plates, iron-boxes, etc.
Electric current can result in magnetic energy. This principle is
used in electro-magnets, electro motors, telephones, telegraph,
electric-bell etc.
El ectroni c current may resul t i n a chemi cal change. Thi s
phenomenon is used in electro-plating, purification of metals, making
electro-type setting etc.