0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
F Order 2.00 TorsionAngle
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 124
Driveline Torsional Vibration
Different types of dampers: friction. spring. etc
Trans
Diff'l
Wheel/Brake
Wheel/Brake
Engine
Damper
Torsional Spring
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 125
Driveline Torsional Vibration
4-8
20-50
50-90
90
130
750
1350
300
750
60
120
1350
1950
Eliminated with
Turbine Damper
Driveline Torsional Modes are a function of the rotational inertia and stiffness
of the driveline elements.
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 126
AMESIM
DEMO
Database: Boom and Clunk.ame
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 127
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 128
Gears, Motors, Pumps,
Bearings, ...
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 129
Rotating Machinery Agenda
Gears, Motors, Bearings,
Pumps
TransError. Sidebands.
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
Within one revolution
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
Brackets. Accessories
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 130
Gears
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 131
Gears and Bearings
Gear Issues:
Transmission Error
Sidebands
Gear Whine
Gear Rattle
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 132
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is shaft
frequency?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 133
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is shaft
frequency?
10 Hz
600rpm/60
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 134
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is shaft
frequency?
10 Hz
600rpm/60
0
20 40 60
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 135
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is frequency
of gear mesh?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 136
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is frequency
of gear mesh?
10 Hz x 48 teeth =
480 Hz
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 137
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is frequency
of gear mesh?
10 Hz x 48 teeth =
480 Hz
0
20 40 60
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 138
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is gear mesh
order?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 139
Order Example #2:
48 Tooth Gear
spins at 600 rpm.
What is gear mesh
order?
48
th
order
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 140
Transmission Error
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
50 tooth gear
spins at 100 rpm.
What is rpm of 25
tooth gear?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 141
Transmission Error
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
50 tooth gear
spins at 100 rpm.
What is rpm of 25
tooth gear?
200 rpm
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 142
Transmission Error
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
50 tooth gear
spins at 100 rpm.
What is rpm of 25
tooth gear?
200 rpm
Transmission Error means it
is not 200 rpm
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 143
Transmission Error
Transmission Error of 0
means no loss, perfect
transmission
50 tooth gear
25 tooth gear
Transmission Error = Actual RPM Gear2 Theoretical RPM Gear2
Where Theoretical RPM at Gear2 = Actual RPM Gear1 x Gear Ratio
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 144
Gears: Transmission Error
Can Gear rotation
speeds effect
Transmission Error?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 145
TL GEAR
TRANSMISSION
ERROR DEMO
Project: gear_trans_error.lms
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 146
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 147
Transmission Error Calculation Procedure
Gear1
rpm
Gear2
Theory
rpm
time
1. Measure RPM of driving and
driven gear vs time
2. Calculate theoretical rpm of driven
gear
3. Subtract difference of theoretical
gear speed and actual driven gear
speed vs time
4. Perform FFT on rpm difference
(overall or versus time)
Difference
rpm
time
time
Gear 2
Actual
rpm
time
0.00 5.00 order
Derived Order (rpm)
0.00
0.03
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
1.0024
Curve 1.0024 order
0.0192
Multiple Gear1 rpm by Gear Ratio
Subtract Gear2Actual-Gear2Theory
2
3
4
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 148
Transmission Error Causes
Perfectly Meshed
Gear 1
Gear 2
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 149
Transmission Error Causes
Eccentric Not Perfect Circle
Manufacturing
defect can cause
Gear to be
oblong/eccentric
Gear 1
Gear 2
Gear 2
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 150
Transmission Error Causes
Eccentric - Not Perfect Circle
Manufacturing
defect can cause
Gear to be
oblong/eccentric
Gear 1
Gear 2
Gear 2
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 151
Transmission Error Causes
Eccentric Not Perfect Circle
Manufacturing
defect can cause
Gear 2 to be
oblong/eccentric
rev
Gear 2
vs
Gear1
Gear 2
Gear 2
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 152
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
Modulation
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
2
nd
Order Ampitude Modulation
due to Eccentric Gear
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 153
Modulation -> Sideband
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
90.00 110.00 Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
100th Order
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
2
nd
Order Ampitude Modulation
due to Eccentric Gear
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 154
Modulation -> Sideband
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
90.00 110.00 Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
100th Order
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
2
nd
Order Ampitude Modulation
due to Eccentric Gear
90.00 110.00 Hz
0.00
0.64
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
Spectrum2_per_rev_mod
+/- 2 order
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 155
Transmission Error Causes
Off Center Rotation
Gear 1
Gear 2
Shaft mis-
alignment and/or
resonance causes
gear 2 to spin off
center
Center of Rotation shift
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 156
Transmission Error Causes
Off Center Rotation
Gear 1
Gear 2
Shaft mis-
alignment and/or
resonance causes
gear 2 to spin off
center
Center of Rotation shift
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 157
Transmission Error Causes
Off Center Rotation
Gear 1
Gear 2
Shaft mis-
alignment and/or
resonance causes
gear 2 to spin off
center
Center of Rotation shift
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 158
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
Modulation
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
1
st
Order Amplitude Modulation
due to Off Center Shaft Rotation
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 159
Modulation -> Sideband
0.00 1.00 s
-1.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00 1.00 s
-1.10
1.10
R
e
a
l
g
100
th
Order Gear Mesh
1
st
Order Amplitude Modulation
due to Eccentric Gear
90 110 100 95 105
Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
g
100th Order
90 110 100 95 105
Hz
0.00
0.64
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
Spectrum1_per_rev_mod
+/- 1 order
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 160
Gear Sidebands
90 110 100 95 110
Hz
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
g
Offset Rotation
Eccentric Gear
Gear Mesh Only
Sideband Order
(+/-)
Problem
0
None
1
Offcenter Shaft
Rotation
-Shaft Resonance
-Imbalanced Shaft
-Improper install
2
Eccentric Gear
- Manufacturing Issue
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 161
Sidebands
0.00 5000.00 Hz
VIBR:2:+Z (CH2)
899.96
2909.99
r
p
m
T
A
C
H
:
9
9
9
9
:
+
R
X
(
T
1
)
-50.00
50.00
d
B
m
/
s
2
AutoPower VIBR:2:+Z WF 202 [899.96-2910 rpm]
Sidebands vary
by rpm/load in
real life
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 162
Gear whine: Noise
generated by the loading
and unloading of the
individual teeth around
the point of engagement
Gear rattle: Noise
induced by teeth
impacting each other
at non-powered gears
fluctuating with lash
clearance
Gearbox Major Noise Types
FREQUENCY
R
P
M
R
P
M
FREQUENCY
Whine
Gearbox Rattle vs Whine
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 163
Example: Gear Rattle/Backlash
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 164
Gear Simulation Approaches
Definition
Analytical method (reference: Cai / ISO / )
Accounts for varying stiffness of the contact
Width of the tooth varies
Number of teeth that are in contact varies
(e.g. helical gear)
Applies the force to a single point at the tooth
center
Gear types supported
Spur and helical
Advantages
High solving speed
High level of detail
Limitation
Heavy manual modeling work (geometry,
kinematics, dynamics)
Solution is GTSE! (see next slide)
p
b
h
k
Meshing
path
Pitch point
Force
Applied
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 165
Gear Train Super Element (GTSE)
Definition
One interface for creating a complete
(multi-stage) gear train
Uses the same analytical algorithm as
the Gear Contact Force (Cai, ISO)
Includes the definition and creation of
bodies, joints, contacts and geometry of
the whole train
Advantages
Fast and easy modeling
Fast solving speed (analytical contact)
Automatic detailed geometry creation
and possible import of existing geometry
The gear contact force element can be
used in a standalone mode but the
feature is included in the GTSE as well
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 166
AMESIM GEAR
RATTLE DEMO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 167
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 168
Bearings
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 169
Bearings
Various types
Ball bearings
Roller bearings
Needle bearings
Tapered roller bearings
Spherical roller bearings
Thrust bearings
Widely used: from bicycles to
aerospace. control systems. axles.
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 170
Bearing Parts
Outer Race
Inner Race
Rolling Elements
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 171
Bearings
Inner shaft spins at
600 rpm.
What is bearing ball
pass frequency?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 172
Bearings
Inner shaft spins at
600 rpm.
What is bearing ball
pass frequency?
600 rpm/60 x 8 =
80 Hz
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 173
Bearing Parts
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 174
Bearing Frequencies
Bearing Defects and their frequencies
FTF: Fundamental Train Frequency: Defect in
the cage
BSF: Ball Spin Frequency: Defect in the ball =
2 Ball defect Frequency
Ball Defect Frequency: Defect in the ball
when it tends to roll rather than spin
BPFO: Ball Pass Frequency Outer race: Defect
on the outer race
BPFI: Ball Pass Frequency Inner race: Defect
on the inner race
Combinations of the above
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
RPM FTF
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 175
Bearing frequencies
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
RPM FTF
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
2
2
dp
dr
z
dr
dp
RPM BSF
|
|
.
|
\
|
= o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
z RPM BPFO
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = o cos 1
2
1
dp
dr
z RPM BPFO
Rolling element irregularities and defects
FTF: Fundamental Train Frequency: Defect in the cage
is contact angle between load and rolling plain
BSF: Ball Spin Frequency: Defect in the ball = 2 Ball defect
Frequency
Ball Defect Frequency: Defect in the ball when it tends to
roll rather than spin
BPFO: Ball Pass Frequency Outer race: Defect on the outer race
BPFI: Ball Pass Frequency Inner race: Defect on the inner race
Combinations of the above
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 176
Example Defect Frequencies for a Bearing
RPM
BSF
Ball Spin
FTF
Fundamental Train
BPFO
Outer Race
BPFI
Inner Race
100 3.979451 0.675251 6.077258 8.922742
500 19.89726 3.376254 30.38629 44.61371
1000 39.79451 6.752509 60.77258 89.22742
1500 59.69177 10.12876 91.15887 133.8411
2000 79.58902 13.50502 121.5452 178.4548
2500 99.48628 16.88127 151.9315 223.0685
3000 119.3835 20.25753 182.3177 267.6823
3500 139.2808 23.63378 212.704 312.296
4000 159.178 27.01004 243.0903 356.9097
Pitch Diameter = 1.548 inches
Ball Diameter = 0.3125 inches
Number balls = 9
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 177
Example Defect Frequencies for a Bearing
RPM
BSF
Ball Spin
FTF
Fundamental Train
BPFO
Outer Race
BPFI
Inner Race
100 3.979451 0.675251 6.077258 8.922742
500 19.89726 3.376254 30.38629 44.61371
1000 39.79451 6.752509 60.77258 89.22742
1500 59.69177 10.12876 91.15887 133.8411
2000 79.58902 13.50502 121.5452 178.4548
2500 99.48628 16.88127 151.9315 223.0685
3000 119.3835 20.25753 182.3177 267.6823
3500 139.2808 23.63378 212.704 312.296
4000 159.178 27.01004 243.0903 356.9097
Pitch Diameter = 1.548 inches
Ball Diameter = 0.3125 inches
Number balls = 9
2.387
Order
.405
Order
3.646
Order
5.354
Order
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 178
Bearing Defects
Good Bearing
Bad Bearing
Bearing defect can become failure due to:
Bearing defect starts as surface erosion (of bearing
or race). possibly due to hard contaminants
scraping bearing material
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 179
FFT on Impact Event
time
frequency
FFT
Bearing Defect Impact
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 180
Impact Event Frequency Analysis (Simplfied)
0.00 3.00 s
Time
0.00
4000.00
H
z
H
i
g
h
P
a
s
s
5
0
0
(
C
H
2
)
0.00
0.01
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
V
0.00 3.00 s
-0.01
0.34
R
e
a
l
V
Impacts are 0.6
seconds apart.
What is frequency?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 181
Impact Event Frequency Analysis (Simplfied)
0.00 3.00 s
-0.01
0.34
R
e
a
l
V
0.00 3.00 s
Time
0.00
4000.00
H
z
H
i g
h
P
a
s
s
5
0
0
(
C
H
2
)
0.00
0.01
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
V
Impacts are 0.6
seconds apart.
What is frequency?
1.66 Hz
1/time interval or
1/0.6
0.00 2000.00 Hz
0.00
300e-6
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
V
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
1.57
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 182
Real Life Bearing Data
8.20 11.80 s
-40.00
30.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
F 4:Outer Race Faulted Bearing 2000 RPM:None
F 5:Outer Race Good Bearing 2000 RPM:None
Difficult to see
impacts associated
with defect.
Bandpass filtering
required.
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 183
Envelope
0.61 0.65 s
-0.10
0.12
R
e
a
l
V
4:HighPass500:None
5:Envelope_of_HighPass:None
ENVELOPES
Envelope done by Hilbert
Transform
Hilbert Transform separates slowly
varying envelope from rapidly
varying signal
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 186
Step by Step Envelope
t
t
t
Bandpass Filter (based on accel resonance)
Envelope
FFT
Hz
Amp
frequency
FFT
1
2
3
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 187
Identification of bearing defects
Frequency analysis
FFT of Time signal
Peaks in the spectrum
Compare VS known defect frequencies
Compare VS spectrum of good bearing
Use of location
Maximum amplitude along axis of static load
Use of calculated or derived variables
Cepstrum
Envelope analysis
In case machinery faults have a modulating effect
Gearboxes (cracks. broken teeth). bearings (defects on inner/outer race). Turbine-
blades (cracks. distorted)
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 192
Identification of bearing defects
Cepstrum
Step 1 FFT of signal to identify bandwidth of interest
Step 2 Band Pass Filtering according to step 1
Step 3 Calculate Real or Complex Cepstrum
Step 4 Identify the 1/frequencies and compare with defect frequencies
Envelope detection
Step 1 FFT of signal to identify bandwidth of interest
Step 2 Band Pass Filtering according to step 1
Step 3 Calculate Hilbert transform
Step 4 Calculate Envelope
Step 5 FFT of envelope
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 193
Step by Step Envelope
t
t
t
Bandpass Filter (based on accel resonance)
Envelope
FFT
Hz
Amp
frequency
FFT
1
2
3
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 194
Bearing Simulation
Many levels of detail possible:
Simple Lumped Model
First is simple lumped stiffness and damping
Using ideal or measured stiffness and
damping for the bearing
Used as component in larger system
Discrete Detailed Model
Rigid Body
More detailed and accounts for local loads in
the bearing
Capture transient dynamic behavior
Discrete Detailed Model with Flexible Body
mesh geometry and solve for modes of
deformation
Get more accurate loads for the bearing and
the supporting structure than the rigid body
model
Flexible contact captures local deformation
and is the most accurate method
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 195
Sample Discrete Bearing Model
Primary components:
Inner Race
Outer Race (not shown)
Cage
Rollers
Skeleton sketch for layout
Skeleton is only a Part document, not a
body, it controls the size and position of
all bodies in the model
Use of a sketch skeleton in this manner
only works if bodies are coupled with
force elements
Design Table controls all major
geometry and dynamic parameters
One approach to how a bearing could
be designed. The various radius values
control the cutting of the Cage
Results are contact forces and
displacement, velocity, and acceleration
of the rollers, cage, and rotating race
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 196
VL Bearing Demo
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 197
Bearing Simulation
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 198
Electric Motors
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 199
Basics of Electric Motors
Motors
AC Motor
DC Motor
Basic Parts: Brush, Stator, Rotor, Commutator
Controllers
DC Motor Controller
Wave Rectifiers - Voltage = Speed, Current = Torque
Pulse Width Modulation Voltage (via Pulse width) = Speed, Current = Torque
AC Motor Controller
Pulse Width Modulation - Switching Frequency = Speed, Pulse Width = Torque(ie
current)
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 200
AC Motor
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 201
DC Motor
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 202
Order Example Motor Speed
DC Brushless
Motor with 12
copper windings.
What is
commutation
order?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 203
Order Example Motor Speed
DC Brushless
Motor with 12
copper windings.
What is
commutation
order?
12
th
Order
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 204
Electric Motors: AC/DC Power Transformation
Amp
AC Power
Amp
DC Power
Motor
Controller
Regulate Torque
and Speed via
Voltage and
Current
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 205
Example: AC to DC (and vice versa) Power Conversion
Examples:
Alternator charging battery in car
Alternator: Full Wave, 3 phase rectifier
Battery: DC power
AC to DC power
Electric Drive
750 V DC Battery
AC Drive Motor
DC to AC Power
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 206
Control via Pulses: Changing Frequency
FFT
FFT
1
3 7
1 3 7
Frequency Different
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 207
Control via Pulses: Changing Width
Note: Original Frequency
of Signal 1 and 2 is same,
only Pulse Width Different
Blue Original Frequency
Red Half Pulse Width
Green Long Pulse Width
Signal 1
Signal 2
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 208
Pulse Width Modulated
Pulse Wave
Unmodulated
Pulse
Wave
Modulate
d
(PWM)
Sine Wave
Sine Wave
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 209
Motor Inertia Smooths Pulse Wave Signal
Pulse Wave
Modulated
(PWM)
Sine Wave
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 210
Pulse Width Modulated Drive (Switching Frequency)
sideband switching orders that don't track with the wheel.
Electric Motor and
Combustion Engine Orders
Electric Motor
Control Switching
Frequencies
Hybrid Electric Drive
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 211
Pulse Width Modulated Drive
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 212
AC to DC Motor Controller
Single Phase AC Power
110 V, 60 Hz (USA)
220 V, 50 Hz (Europe)
degrees
240
120
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
360
DC Voltage Level =0
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 213
DC Motor Controller
Single Phase AC Power
110 V, 60 Hz (USA)
220 V, 50 Hz (Europe)
240
120
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
360
degrees
Half Wave Rectified
DC Voltage Level =
Vpeak/Pi
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 214
DC Motor Controller
Single Phase AC Power
110 V, 60 Hz (USA)
220 V, 50 Hz (Europe)
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
degrees
DC Voltage Level
2*(Vpeak/Pi)
240
120 360
Full Wave Rectified
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 215
DC Motor Controller
3 Phase AC Power
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
Carried on 3 wires
degrees
240
120
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
360
DC Voltage Level =0
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 216
DC Motor Controller
degrees
Amplitude
V
Volts
Amplitude
240 120 360
Half wave rectified 3 x Line Frequency Normal Operation
3 Phase AC Power
Line Frequency:
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
DC Voltage Level
Hz
A
m
p
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 217
DC Motor Controller
Full wave rectified 6 x Line Frequency Normal Operation
Volts
Amplitude
degrees
240 120 360
3 Phase AC Power
Line Frequency:
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
DC Voltage Level
Hz
A
m
p
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 218
DC Motor Controller with Problem
Full wave rectified 5
th
order Controller problem
Volts
Amplitude
degrees
240 120 360
3 Phase AC Power
Line Frequency:
60 Hz (USA)
50 Hz (Europe)
Hz
A
m
p
Problem
Frequencies
High 2
nd
, 3
rd
, 4
th
and
5
th
order on Full
Rectified 3 Phase
power indicates
problem
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 219
Summary of Motor Controller Frequencies
Electrical Expected Frequencies
Single Phase, Half Rectified Wave 1 x Line Frequency
Single Phase, Full Rectified Wave 2 x Line Frequency
Three Phase, Half Rectified Wave 3 x Line Frequency
Three Phase, Full Rectified Wave
6 x Line Frequency
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 220
Electric Motors: AC/DC Power Transformation
Amp
AC Power
Amp
DC Power
Motor
Controller
Regulate Torque
and Speed via
Voltage and
Current
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 221
Hydraulic Pump
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 222
Hydraulic Pumps
Various types
Vane
Piston
Gerotor
Screw
Gear
Controls pressure in hydraulic lines
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 223
Hydraulic Vane Pumps
Hydraulic Vane
Pump with 8 vanes.
What is pressure
pulsation order?
low
high
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 224
Hydraulic Vane Pumps
Hydraulic Vane
Pump with 8 vanes.
What is pressure
pulsation
frequency?
8x rotation
speed
low
high
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 225
Pulse amplitude versus freq
Higher number of compartments = smaller fluctuations
Odd number of vanes smaller fluctuations rather than even guaranteed overlap
Shape of compartment and bleed back valves
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 226
AC vs DC Pressure
Pressure
time
+
Pressure
Pressure
Average Pressure (DC)
Pressure Pulsation (AC)
Net Pressure (AC and DC)
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 227
If AC Fluctuation > DC Pressure
Pressure
time
+
Pressure
Pressure
Average Pressure (DC)
Pressure Pulsation (DC)
Net Pressure (DC)
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 228
Cavitation
Formation of vapor bubbles in hydraulic line or pump
Cavitation is when vapor bubble collapses (instantaneous when bubble reaches high
pressure line)
Can be violent event, damage hydraulic lines and pumps
Many possible causes:
Line resonance
Pump intake creates vacuum
Valve-Pump interaction
High frequency actuators
Phase diagram
temperature
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
boiling
l
i
q
u
i
d
s
o
l
i
d
g
a
s
cavitation
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 229
AMESIM HYDRAULIC
CIRCUIT DEMO WITH
CAVITATION
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 230
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 231
Cavitation Observations
Hydraulic system can be sized to perform function,
but dynamic performance can be easily overlooked
Dynamic interaction of complete system: valves,
pumps, lines, etc
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 232
Balancing
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 233
Rotating Machinery Agenda
Gears, Motors, Bearings,
Pumps
TransError. Sidebands.
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
Within one revolution
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
Brackets. Accessories
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 234
Balancing
Two shafts spinning.
Which one vibrates more?
Front View Shaft 1
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 235
Balancing
Two shafts spinning.
Which one vibrates more?
Answer:
Shaft 2!
Front View Shaft 1
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 236
Balancing
Two shafts spinning.
Which one vibrates more?
600 rpm
6000 rpm
Mass Added
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 237
Balancing
Two shafts spinning.
Which one vibrates more?
6000 rpm
600 rpm
6000 rpm
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 238
Balancing
Two shafts spinning.
Which one vibrates more?
6000 rpm
600 rpm
6000 rpm
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 239
Imbalance
Imbalance:
is the product of mass and
distance (radius)
customary unit of measure is g-
cm or oz.-in.
Complex quantity
Force due to imbalance (where =
has unit's rad/sec2):
2 2
e e I mR F = =
Imbalance force
increases
exponentially with
speed
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Shaft Speed, RPM
C
e
n
t
r
i
f
u
g
a
l
F
o
r
c
e
,
N
40 g-cm
20 g-cm
Imbalance force
increases
exponentially with
speed
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 240
Balance Example
Fan and Shaft are each 99.5% balanced.
Is fan/shaft assembly 99.5% balanced?
Fan
Shaft
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 241
Balance Example
Fan and Shaft are each 99.5% balanced.
Is fan/shaft assembly 99.5% balanced?
Fan
Shaft
NO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 242
Balance Example
Fan and Shaft are each 99.5% balanced.
Is fan/shaft assembly 99.5% balanced?
Fan
Shaft
NO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 243
Balance Example
Fan and Shaft are each 99.5% balanced.
Is fan/shaft assembly 99.5% balanced?
Fan
Shaft
NO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 244
Balancing
How to fix?
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 245
Balancing
How to fix?
Mass on each side
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 246
Balancing
How to fix?
Eliminate Mass
Front View Shaft 2
Mass Added
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 247
Types of Imbalance
Static Imbalance
Where (Principal Inertia Axis) PIA is displaced parallel to
geometric centerline.
Couple Unbalance
Where (Principal Inertia Axis) PIA intersects the geometric
centerline at center of gravity (CG).
Dynamic Unbalance
Where (Principal Inertia Axis) PIA and geometric centerline do
no coincide (run parallel) or touch.
Static
PIA
Geometric
Centerline
Center of Gravity
Static
PIA
Geometric
Centerline
Center of Gravity
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 248
Causes of Imbalance
Shaft Bending Resonance
If shaft is above 70% of its natural frequency (critical speed) it
is considered to be a flexible rotor. and the PIA and geometric
centerline do not correspond.
Bearing Clearance/Radial Endplay
Improper Installation
Shaft offset from center of rotation
Static
Geometric
Centerline
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 249
Imbalance Example: Power Generator
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 250
Imbalance Example: Power Generator
During periods of in-
use, large rotors/shafts
will droop.
Upon startup,
generators must be run
a low speeds for long
time, to allow the main
shaft to straighten
When the generator is
run at high speed, the
imbalance forces
prevent the shaft from
straightening, causing
high vibration.
Generator
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 251
VL
IMBALANCE
DEMO
Database: Shaft with U-Joints
and Added Mass
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 252
Drive Shaft Durability due to Imbalance
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 253
Drive Shaft Durability due to Imbalance
Imbalance
weights
induce
jump-rope
mode
Prop shaft
must
survive
maximum
expected
imbalance
Virtual strain
gauges
must be
below
certain
target
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 254
Production Equipment
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 255
Production Equipment
Production Line Equipment Story:
Line Speed Increased
Large Roller (with Gears) goes from 100 rpm to 300 rpm
Production equipment vibrates at unacceptable levels
Gear Mesh frequency is much higher
Changing Gears does not reduce the vibration. Why Not?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 256
Production Equipment
Production Line Equipment Story:
1
st
Order Imbalance is problem Very sensitive to speed
Imbalance on shaft holding gears causes mesh
frequency amplitude increase
Solution: Balance roller reduced gear mesh by factor of 6
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 257
Faster
Production Equipment
Production Equipment
Baseline
Frequency
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
1
st
order
imbalance
Gear Mesh
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 258
How to Measure Imbalance?
1 tach. 1 response of system
Find a speed
Measure 1
st
order
Baseline
With Known Mass added at specific angle
Determine Influence Coefficent
Amplitude and phase at speed of response (usually acceleration in gs)
Trial Mass (kg and location in angle)
This effectively calibrates the vibration plane to the mass plane
Influence Coefficient
relates Vibration Plane to
Imbalance
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 259
Influence Coefficient (IC)
Influence Coefficent (IC) Relates vibration at response to imbalance
IC = Change in Response/Change in Imbalance
Change in Response = Baseline vs TrialMass
Change in Imbalance known due to weight and angular placement and radius
Assumptions:
All response due to imbalance
Linear IC between response and imbalance
Influence Coefficient
relates Vibration Plane to
Imbalance
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 260
Find a Speed for Balancing
Optimal Speed
Just Imbalance
Imbalance + Resonance
g
g
rpm
rpm
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 261
Shaft Centerline Measurement
Front View Shaft 1
Proximity probe X
Proximity probe Y
t
t
seconds
X
Y
-0.24 0.24 Real
mm
-0.24
0.24
R
e
a
l
m
m
0.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
14.61 14.74 s
14.61 14.74
1:1
X
Y
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 262
Shaft Centerline Plot
-0.24 0.24 Real
mm
-0.24
0.24
R
e
a
l
m
m
0.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
14.61 14.63 s
14.61 14.63
1:1
Indicates how
well shaft rotates
around center
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 263
TL SHAFT
CENTERLINE
DEMO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 264
Angle Domain
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 265
Rotating Machinery Agenda
Gears, Motors, Bearings,
Pumps
TransError. Sidebands.
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
Within one revolution
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing
Resonances
Brackets. Accessories
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 266
Angle Domain Introduction
Engine
Front
Crankshaft
Optical Probe
0 10
Engine runup from 600 to 6000 rpm with 1 pulse/rev in 10 seconds
Why does time between
pulses change?
Time
seconds
0 10
V
rpm
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 267
Angle Domain Introduction
Engine
Front
Crankshaft
Optical Probe
0 10
Why does time between
pulses change?
Answer: Engine gets faster!
Time
seconds
0 10
V
rpm
Engine runup from 600 to 6000 rpm with 1 pulse/rev in 10 seconds
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 268
Transform Time to Angle
Time Data V
Time
seconds
V
Revolutions
Angle
1 rev 1 rev 1 rev 1 rev 1 rev
Angle Data
View data in angle domain
Angle
domain
makes
revolutions
uniform
distance
apart
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 269
Insights revolution/degree domain
Cylinder #5 Pressure
Vibration on Block
1 revolution
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 270
How to go from time to angle?
0 10
Time
seconds
0 10
V
rpm
Integrate RPM
Time
seconds
0 10
RPM is Speed. Angle is Distance Traveled
degrees
Now we can relate
each time
instance with a
particular angle!
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 271
Transform Data vs Time to Data vs Angle
Vibration/sound
amplitude
degrees
Vibration/sound
amplitude
time
Now we can relate
each time
instance with a
particular angle!
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 272
Resampling
Vibration/sound
amplitude
degrees
Resampling and angle domain resolution:
360 points/rev = 1.0 degree
720 points/rev = 0.5 degree
1800 points/rev = 0.2 degree
3600 points/rev = 0.1 degree
High Resolution
required
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 273
How to Measure?
Incremental Encoder Features:
High Pulse per Revolution: 360. 720.
1800. etc (A and B)
Single Pulse Revolution (INDEX)
Distinguish Forward and Backward
Incremental Encoder
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 274
How to Measure?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 275
INCREMENTAL
ENCODER DEMO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 276
Engine Analysis
Question: Is it useful to look
at data over 1 revolution
for a 4 stroke engine?
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 277
Engine Analysis
Question: Is it useful to look
at data over 1 revolution
for a 4 stroke engine?
NO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 278
Engine Analysis
Question: Is it useful to look
at data over 1 revolution
for a 4 stroke engine?
NO -
1 combustion cycle occurs
over 2 revs
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 279
Combustion occurs over 2 revs
1 cycle
1st revolution 2nd revolution
Intake Compression
Power Exhaust
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 280
Angle Maps
0.00 719.00
0.00
72000.00
1.30
13161069.00
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
P
a
22.61
0.00 719.00
0.00
72000.00
-7.73
6.88
R
e
a
l
g
22.61
0.00 719.00
block:+Z (CH18)
-7.00
6.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
F Angle block:+Z 3009.8 rpm
Averaged
0.00 719.00
PCYL1 (CH1)
-1000000.00
13000000.00
R
e
a
l
P
a
0.00
1.00
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
F Angle PCYL1 3009.8 rpm
Averaged
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 281
Maximums from 2 conditions
0.00 719.00
0.00
72000.00
-7.73
6.88
R
e
a
l
g
22.61
0.00 100.00 #
26.00
102.00
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
g
F Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
F Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
Cycles
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 282
Maximum Acceleration versus Angle
0.00 720.00 Real
26.00
102.00
R
e
a
l
g
0.00
1.00
R
e
a
l
0.00 73000.00
X X value at Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
F Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
F Maximum block:+Z Cyl5Accel
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 283
TL ANGLE DOMAIN
DEMONSTRATION
Project: angle_data.lms
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 284
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 285
Problems where angle domain helps
Piston Slap
Combustion Noise
False Knock detection
Injector Noise
Valve Timing
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 286
Example: Piston Slap
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 287
Example: Piston Slap
P
i
s
t
o
n
S
l
a
p
P
i
s
t
o
n
S
l
a
p
P
i
s
t
o
n
S
l
a
p
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 288
Example: Piston Slap
Solution:
Offset Piston Rod
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 289
Example: Pilot Injection
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
angle
Normal Cylinder Pressure
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
angle
Pilot Ignition Cylinder Pressure
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 290
Example: Pilot Injection
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
angle
Pilot Ignition Cylinder Pressure
Pilot Ignition:
1.Reduces Noise
2.More gradual pressure
buildup in cylinder
(pressure rise rate)
3.More fuel combusted
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 291
PLAY PILOT
IGNITION DATA
Project: angle_data.lms
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 292
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 293
Example: Pilot Ignition
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
angle
How to analyze:
1.Derived channels: Differentiate
Cylinder Pressure
2. Frame Statistics AD: Take Maximum
of Differentiated data
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
/
s
angle
Take Max
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 294
Example: Pilot Ignition
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 295
Example: Spark Timing
d
B
(
A
)
O
v
e
r
a
l
l
L
e
v
e
l
Spark Timing
degrees
0 -2
-4
-6 -8 -10
2
T
o
r
q
u
e
N
/
m
80
78
76
74
* Note: This is generalized graph
200
190
180
170
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 296
AMESIM ENGINE
DEMO
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 297
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 298
Resonances
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 299
Rotating Machinery Agenda
Gears, Motors, Bearings,
Pumps
TransError. Sidebands.
Order Fundamentals
RPM. 1
st
order. 2
nd
order
Angle Domain
Within one revolution
RPM Fluctuation
Torsional Vibration
Balancing Resonances
Brackets. Accessories
13.98 14.44 s
1635.46
1764.56
A
m
p
l i t u
d
e
r p
m
F 1:Tacho1
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 300
What causes
Vertical
Lines?
1.
0.00 2000.00 Hz
Point1 (CH1)
900.00
3500.00
r
p
m
T
a
c
h
o
1
(
T
1
)
-20.00
80.00
d
B
P
a
AutoPower Point1 WF 251 [984.96-3482.9 rpm]
Colormap of Runup
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 301
Natural Frequency
(rad/sec) frequency natural = =
m
k
n
e
Natural frequency is the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it
has been forced into motion
ground
m
c k
x(t)
f(t)
Single Degree of Freedom System
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 302
Resonant Frequency
Resonance is the buildup of a large amplitude that occurs when a structure is
excited at its natural frequency
f
= 0.4
f
= 1.01
f
=1.6
Frequency
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
n
= 1.0
3 Single Degree of Freedom Systems with
same mass, stiffness and damping
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 303
Aircraft Flutter
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 304
Natural Frequency
k = 1 N/m
k = 4 N/m
k = 9 N/m
What will happen to the natural frequency as the beam stiffness is increased?
Assume the mass of the beam is 1 kg and the excitation frequency is constant
n
k
m
=
n
= 1 rad/s
n
= 2 rad/s
n
= 3 rad/s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Frequency
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 305
31.26 57.71 s
4379.83
5019.96
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
r
p
m
0.72
0.86
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
F 6:Ring_Gear
Torsional Vibration Resonance
Torsional Vibration can be
amplified by resonance:
Crankshaft in Engine
Drive Shaft
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 306
More Resonances
Accessory brackets
Mount Brackets
Rigid Body Modes
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 307
CAE-Test Correlation
LMS International, A Siemens Business copyright 2013 308