C HAPTER

Introduction

This chapter is intended to provide basic principles of microwave engineering which is treated in greater detail in the text.

1.1 MICROWAVE SPECTRUM AND BANDS

The whole electromagnetic-spectrum (Table 1.1) that extends from d.c. to -rays and beyond is broadly divided into two regions, namely, the radio-spectrum from d.c. to 300 GHz and the optical spectrum extending from 300 GHz to infinity. The term microwave* is commonly used to designate frequencies ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz or having wavelengths ranging from 100 cm to 1 mm in radio-spectrum. The microwave region has been further divided into three regions, namely, Ultrashort wave (Ultra high frequency-UHF), Supershort wave (Super high frequency-SHF) and Extreme shortwave (Extreme high
Table 1.1 The electromagnetic spectrum
Frequency limits (GHz) Region (a) Radio-spectrum (b) Optical spectrum (i) Infrared (ii) Visible (iii) Ultraviolet (iv) X-rays (v) -rays (vi) Cosmic rays 300 375 10 225 10 270 10
3

Wavelength limits (cm) Maximum Infinity Minimum 0.1 Remarks VLF/LF/MF/HF/ VHF/UHF/SHF etc. Heat and invisible light Light-red to violet Chemically invisible

Minimum d.c.

Maximum 300

375 10 3 790 10 450 10

3

0.1 8 10
5

8 105 38 106 12 107 6 10

10

790 103
5

225 105
8

38 106 12 10 l 10
7

450 108
9

270 109 Indefinite

6 1010
10

l 1010 Indefinite (smaller than 1012 cm)

* Corrara in 1932 first used the term microwaves to designate electromagnetic waves of 30 cm wavelength, which is also the term appeared for the first time in the proceedings of the IRE (Now it is IEEE).

BASIC MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

frequency-EHF) according to the recommendations of the International Radio Consultative Committee. The position of microwave bands in entire radio-spectrum is shown in Table 1.2. The region of microwaves has been pushed into wavelengths lower than 1 mm and are known as submillimetre waves (> 300 GHz).
Table 1.2 Position of microwave bands in the entire radio-spectrum
S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Frequency band 0 to 30 kHz 30 to 300 kHz 300 to 3000 kHz 3 to 30 MHz 30 to 300 MHz 0.3 to 3 GHz 3 to 30 GHz 30 to 300 GHz 300 to 3000 GHz Wavelength band Infinity to 104 m 104 to 103 m 103 to 102 m 100 to 10 m 10 to 1 m 1 to 0.1 m 10 to 1 cm 10 to 1 mm 1 to 0.1 mm Designation (I.R.C.C. band) Very low frequency (VLF)/Very long waves Low frequency (LF)/Long waves Medium frequency (MF)/Medium waves High frequency (HF)/Short waves Very high frequency (VHF)/ Very short waves Ultra high frequency (UHF)/ Ultrashort waves Super high frequency (SHF)/ Supershort waves Extreme high frequency (EHF)/ Extreme short-waves Submillimetre Remarks Microwaves Microwaves

Microwaves

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recommended microwave bands designations as listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 IEEE microwave frequency bands
Frequency range (GHz) 0.003 to 0.030 0.030 to 0.300 0.300 to 1.000 1.000 to 2.000 2.000 to 4.000 4.000 to 8.000 8.000 to 12.000 12.000 to 18.000 18.000 to 26.000 26.000 to 40.000 40.000 to 300.000 >300.00 Approximate band designation HF VHF UHF L band S band C band X band Ku band K band Ka band Millimetre Submillimetre

The radar band classification, as listed in Table 1.4, came into use during World War II and is still in use today even though the new military band designation, as listed in Table 1.5 has been adopted by the U.S. Department of Defence since 1970.

INTRODUCTION

Table 1.4 U.S. Military microwave bands (Radar bands)

Frequency range (GHz) 0.225 0.390 1.550 3.900 6.200 10.900 36.000 46.000 56.000 to to to to to to to to 0.390 1.550 3.900 6.200 10.900 36.000 46.000 56.000 Designation P band L band S band C band X band K band Q band V band W band

to 100.000

Table 1.5 U.S. New military microwave bands (New radar bands)
Frequency range in (GHz) 0.100 to 0.250 0.250 to 0.500 0.500 to 1.000 1.000 to 2.000 2.000 to 3.000 3.000 to 4.000 4.000 to 6.000 Designation A band B band C band D band E band F band G band Frequency range in (GHz) 6.000 to 8.000 Designation H band I band J band K band L band M band

8.000 to 10.000 10.000 to 20.000 20.000 to 40.000 40.000 to 60.000 60.000 to 100.000

1.2 UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROWAVES

The microwaves display certain unique characteristics that make them distinct from the waves of other adjacent bands, namely, (1) Short wavelengths, (2) More bandwidth (information carrying capacity). For instance, a frequency band 109 to 1012 Hz (microwave region) contains thousand sections such as the entire frequency band from 0 to 109 Hz. Then any one of these thousand sections may be used to transmit all radio, television or other communication that is presently transmitted by 0 to 109 Hz band. A 10% bandwidth at 4 GHz carrier is 400 MHz which can carry 1,00,000 voice channels (bandwidth 4 kHz) or 66 television channels (bandwidth 6 MHz), or 8000 266 digital data channels (50 kHz 1.5 MHz bandwidth). (3) Small antenna size with large antenna gain (narrow beam antenna), (4) Travel by line of sight propagation through ionosphere with negligible absorption and reflection. For instance, a 140 cm diameter parabolic reflector type antenna produces a beam of 1 beam width (angular beam width = 140/(D/); where D is diameter of the parabola and is the wavelength) at 30 GHz ( = 1 cm). At 300 MHz ( = 100 cm) the diameter of the parabolic antenna becomes 140 m to provide a beam of 1 beam width. The size is too large to be carried aboard in an aeroplane. (5) Reflection from metallic surfaces, (6) Microwave heating, (7) Molecular, atomic and nuclear resonance, etc. These features have provided unique opportunities for several useful applications. Some important and typical applications of microwaves are briefly described here under.

BASIC MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVES

1.3.1 Microwave Communication Systems Because of the increase in bandwidth microwaves are extensively used to carry voice (4 kHz bandwidth), digital data (50 kHz 1.5 MHz bandwidth), television signals (6 MHz bandwidth) or telephonic traffic etc., over long distances links on the ground (ground communication) to deep-space spacecraft (space communication). Broadly, microwave communication systems are of two types, namely, (i) groundwave system where signal is transmitted over a low loss cable or waveguide. With the commercial availability of high power lasers, fiber optical cables are increasingly used for long-distance telephonic traffic, as they are characterised by low-loss, very high bandwidth and a high degree of ruggedness, and (ii) Radio-links where the signal propagates through space. This is because of the fact that microwave signals travel by line of sight and are not bent/reflected by the ionosphere. However, for long distance links on the ground, repeater stations are required at frequent intervals, to receive and retransmit the signal. The newer systems, like (i) direct broadcast satellite television (DBST), (ii) personal communication systems (PCSs), (iii) wireless local area computer networks (WLANs), (iv) cellular video (CV) systems and (v) global positioning satellite (GPS) systems operate in microwave band. 1.3.2 Radar Systems and Countermeasures Microwaves are widely used for directive signal transmission (navigation) and locating and ranging objects in space (radar or radio-detection and ranging). It is because extremely narrow microwave beam could be produced by the microwave antennas. Many varied forms of radar systems have been developed and are in use. Besides, military applications of radar systems such as (i) air and marine navigation, (ii) detection and tracking of aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, (iii) missile guidance, (iv) fire control for missiles and artillery, (v) weapon fuses, and (vi) reconnaissance, there are civilian and scientific applications of radar systems some of which are listed below: Civilian applications(i) Airport surveillance, (ii) marine navigation, (iii) weather detecting radar, (iv) altimetry, (v) aircraft landing radar, (vi) automobile speed measuring radar (Police radar) etc. Scientific applications(i) Remote sensing of natural resources, (ii) mapping and imaging radar, (iii) astronomy etc. CountermeasuresCountermeasures involve the radiation of noise power in the operating band of the radar to confuse or deceive the radar as communication system. Electronic support measures (ESM), Electronic countermeasures (ECM) and Electronic counter-counter-measures (ECCM) have been developed using microwave technology. 1.3.3 Radiometry / Radio-astronomical Research Very sensitive microwave receivers are being used to develop information about a target solely from the microwave portion of the black body radiations (noise) that it either emits directly or reflects from surroundings. It is known as radiometry and the device is called radiometer. Radiometry is being used by radio astronomers in (a) planetary mapping, (b) solar emission mapping, (c) mapping of galactic objects, and (d) measurement of cosmological background radiation. The technique has been extended to environment studies (remote sensing) such as (a) measurements of soil moisture, (b) flood mapping, (c) snow cover/ice cover mapping, (c) ocean surface wind speed, and (d) developing atmospheric temperature and humidity profiles. Radiometry is extensively used in military operations such as (a) target detection and recognition, (b) surveillance, and (c) mapping. Radio-astronomical applications of microwaves are due to the fact that ionosphere is a transparent media for propagation of microwaves.

INTRODUCTION

1.3.4 Industrial Applications During the last one and half decades, the industrial applications of microwaves have expanded greatly. Microwave heating has entered into commercial use in the form of microwave ovens, in which cooking is done quickly and uniformly by waves, inside and outside the food-material simultaneously. To the average consumer, the microwave connotes a microwave oven, which is getting increasingly popular in households for heating food. Microwave drying machines are used in textile and paper industries. Industrial applications are particularly evident in the food processing industry, the rubber industry and foundries. Other industrial applications include the central and on-line measurement of expensive materials during processing procedures in environments hostile to opto-electronic techniques. Recently, microwaves have also been used for non-destructive testing of metals such as thickness measurements, and measurement of moisture content in paper and textile industry and in liquids etc. 1.3.5 Microwaves in Basic and Applied Research Microwaves have provided a very powerful experimental probe for the study of basic properties of matter as various molecular atomic and nuclear resonance occurs at microwave frequencies. Consequently, microwaves are capable of energetically interacting with matter. This feature is widely used in microwave and radio frequency spectroscopy for structural analysis. Microwave absorption spectra provide information about molecular structure and energy levels. Useful molecular resonances exist at microwave frequencies in the diodes of certain crystal materials. The resonant interaction of microwaves with crystals has been used for the generation of microwave power. Impact conjugation avalanche transist time (IMPATT) device, the non-reciprocal ferrite devices and masers are yet another examples of microwave resonances in molecules. The interaction of an electron beam with periodic slow-wave microwave structures has been used to design high power linear accelerators that are indispensable instruments in nuclear research. 1.3.6 Biomedical Applications The potential of microwaves for used in medicine is immense. The exact location of deep cancerous tissue, in particular, can be known by means of microwave radiometers. Microwave diathermy machines are used to remove rheumatic pains by producing heat inside the muscle without affecting the skin. Patients afflicted with uncontrollable pain or random muscle movements can be treated using microwave irradiation which creates thermal blocks in the nerve network. Microwave radiations are being used for cancer therapyhyperthermialocal, regional and whole body. Electromagnetic transmission through a human body has been used for monitoring heartbeat, lung-water detection, etc. Biomedical applications of microwaves are ever increasing. 1.3.7 Potential Application in the Field of Energy Transfer It has a potential application in the field of energy transfer, i.e., electrical energy can be transferred, without use of transmission lines, by converting it into microwave power and radiating through antenna in a narrow beam. At the receiving station it could be converted back to electric energy. Such a system has been proposed in the form of satellite power stations (SPS) as a method of tapping solar energy on a 24 hour-a-day, 365-days-a-year basis for the present century and beyond. Although the field of microwave engineering is already well developed, the scope of its applications in communication, industry and basic research is ever increasing. The extension of microwave techniques into the field of optics is one such example.

BASIC MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

However, varied uses of microwaves have increased microwave pollution and the consequent risk to health. This has stimulated the study of the biological effects and safety in several large research projects. Table 1.6 summarises the typical and unique applications of microwaves. The scope of microwave applications in communication industry and basic and applied research is ever increasing. The extension of microwave techniques into the field of development of optical communication system is one such example.
Table 1.6
S. No. 1. 2. Applications Television, satellite communication, surveillance radar, navigational aids, food industry (microwave-ovens) point to point communication. Altimeter, air and ship borne radar, microwave links, common-carrier land mobile communication, satellite communication, navigation, basic research-microwave spectroscopy. Radar, radio-astronomy, radio-meteorology, space research, nuclear physics, nucleonics. Frequency band 0.3 to 3 GHz 3 to 30 GHz

3.

30 to 300 GHz

1.4 TYPICAL MICROWAVE SYSTEM

Figure 1.1 shows a typical microwave system. It has a transmitter subsystem, which normally consists of microwave generator, waveguides, wavemeter, attenuator and transmitting antenna, and a receiver subsystem, which normally consists of receiving antenna, waveguides, a microwave amplifier, detector. Another typical radar system is shown in Fig. 1.2 which uses single antenna for transmission and reception. Therefore, a first course on Microwave Engineering should include four major areas of study, namely (i) Microwave Transmission Lines Waveguides, (ii) Waveguide Component and Applications, (iii) Microwave Sources Tubes and Solid State Devices, and (iv) Microwave Measurements. These topics are discussed in the text keeping a balance between mathematical and physical approach.
Transmitting horn antenna Receiving horn antenna Indicating meter or power meter

Power supply Calibrated Wavemeter attenuator Microwave source

Waveguide Microwave source mount Stand

Waveguide termination Crystal mount

Fig. 1.1 Typical microwave system

INTRODUCTION
ler
dup lexe r

7
oup al c
ad

d lo

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Ma tc

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Dire c

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Ferr i te

C To power To AF meter

ad lo r to h tc cula a M Cir ed
From microwave source

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Rotary joint

tch ed

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F wa lexib ve le gu id Sw e itch

1.5 BASIC MICROWAVE CONCEPTS

(i) Microwave Transmission: The principles of microwave transmission cannot be derived by mere extensions of either low frequency radio or high frequency optical concepts, although they are all based upon the fundamental laws of electromagnetism. For instance, if microwave power is fed in a conventional two conductor lines where the longitudinal and transverse dimensions of the line are comparable to the wavelength of the propagating signal, it leads to a series of interesting effects that fall outside the scope of problems examined by classical theory of long transmission lines. It turns out that such a line cannot be used for microwave transmission. One has, therefore, to use hollow metal tubes called waveguides. The energy propagation in these structures is basically a reflection phenomena. Conversely, a hollow-pipe waveguide cannot be treated by the rules of low-frequency electricity, for by these rules opposite currents cannot flow in the same metallic conductor without coalescing into one net current, yet we see that opposite currents can flow in the same conductor in waveguides. Another class of waveguides of most recent origin is called surface waveguides which are absolutely uncommon to low frequency transmission. The waveguide transmission of microwaves is associated with a number of interesting problems such as coupling of power to another system say from generator to line, exciting of waves in a waveguide, etc. To overcome these, three basic coupling methods, viz. electrical coupling (probe), magnetic coupling (loop), and aperture coupling (waveguide to waveguide) have been evolved. The basic feature of these methods is that one can control the amount of coupling because these structures have small antennas that radiate into the waveguide to be coupled. (ii) Microwave Circuit Elements: It is a well-established fact that conventional circuit elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors do not respond well at microwave frequencies. For instance, a coil of wire may be an excellent inductor at 1 MHz, but at 500 MHz it may be an equally good capacitor because of the predominating effect of inter-turn capacitance. However, this does not mean that energy dissipating (resistors) and storing (capacitors and inductors) elements cannot be constructed at microwave frequencies but their geometrical shape will be quite different. As will be seen, a section of a microwave line (distributed parameters), offers reactances varying from to + if its length is suitably chosen.

No gen ise erat or

Directional d coupler che at ad Ferrite M lo h T-R switc r ceive To re

Fig. 1.2 Typical radar system

BASIC MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Similarly, conventional resonant and anti-resonant circuits are replaced by resonant microwave line sections known as resonant cavities. Often resonant cavities are used as circuit elements with varying properties. When a number of such microwave circuit elements are,connected together, we have a microwave circuit. The analysis of a microwave circuit can be carried out either in terms of equivalent transmission line, voltage and current waves or in terms of amplitudes of the incident and reflected waves. The first approach is called the conventional equivalent impedance description approach while the second is known as the scattering matrix approach. The latter approach being closely related to the wave nature of fields. (iii) Generation and Amplification of Microwaves: The operation of conventional vacuum tubes and solid state devices is limited by transit time effects. However, the frequency range of operation of these devices can be extended to the lower edge of the microwave spectrum at the cost of power output and noise characteristics. Therefore, the development of new devices was essential to exploit this frequency region. Fortunately, number of new principles of operation such as velocity modulation, interaction of space charge waves with electromagnetic fields were proposed. It involves transfer of power from a source of direct voltage to a source of alternating voltage by means of a density-modulated stream of electrons resulting in the development of klystron (in 1939 by R.H. Varian and S.F. Varian [1]), magnetron (in 1921 by Hull and an improved model in 1940 by Boot and Randal [2, 3]) and travelling-wave tube (TWT) (in 1944 by R. Komfner [4]. The interaction of the impact ionization avalanche and the transit time of charge carriers was used to develop Reed diode in 1958 [5], IMPATT by Johnston et al. in 1965 [6], TRAPATT by Prager et al. in 1967 [7]. Quantum mechanical tunneling was used to develop Tunnel Diode by Esaki in 1958 [8]. Transferred electron techniques were used to develop transfer electron devices by Ridley et al. in 1961 [9] and Hilsum in 1962 [10]. Gunn oscillator was developed in 1963 [11] which operate simply by the application of a dc voltage to a bulk. In all solid-state devices the negative resistance characteristics is exploited for microwave generation and amplification.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Explain how microwave engineering is different from low frequency electronic engineering. (JNTU, 2008) Describe in brief basic microwave concepts. List unique characteristics of microwaves. List the typical application of microwave. Explain with an example how microwave has large information carrying capacity. Explain Microwaves are widely used for directive signal transmission and locating and ranging objects in space.

SELECTED TITLES
1. Collin, R.E., Foundations for Microwave Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1966. 2. Gandhi, O.P., Microwave Engineering and Applications, Pergamon Press, New York, 1981. 3. Liao, S.Y., Microwave Devices and Circuits, Prentice-Hall Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., U.S.A., 1995 [Indian reprint]. 4. Soohoo, R.F., Microwave Electronics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Mass., 1971.

INTRODUCTION

5. Reich, H.J., et al., Microwave Principles, D. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1957 (an EastWest Edition). 6. Reich, H.J., et al., Microwave Theory and Techniques, D. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1953. 7. Brownwell, A.B., and R.E. Beam, Theory and Application of Microwaves, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1947. 8. Chatterjee, R., Elements of Microwave Engineering, East-West Press, New Delhi, 1984. 9. Rizzi, P.A., Microwave Engineering: Passive Circuits, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1988. 10. Sisodia, M.L. and G.S. Raghuvanshi, Microwave Circuits and Passive Devices, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987 (Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, 1987, now New Age, 2003). 11. Sisodia, M.L. Microwave Active Devices, Vacuum and Solid State, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 2003. 12. Sisodia, M.L. and G.S. Raghuvanshi, Basic Microwave Techniques and Laboratory Manual, John Wiley & Sons, 1987. (Wiley Eastern Limited, 2000, New Delhi, now New Age). 13. Sisodia, M.L. and Vijay Laxmi Gupta, Microwaves: Introduction to Circuits, Devices and Antennas, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.

REFERENCES
1. Warnecke, R.R., et al., Velocity Modulated Tubes: The Advances in Electronics, Vol. 3, Academic Press, New York, 1951. 2. Hull, A.W., Phys. Rev. 18, 31 (1921). 3. Okress, E., Editor, Crossed Field Microwave Devices, Academic Press, New York, Vols. I and II, 1961. 4. Kompfner, R., The Travelling Wave Tube as Amplifier at Microwaves, Pros. IRE 35, 124-127, February 1947. 5. Read, W.T., A Proposed High Frequency Negative-Resistance Diode, Bell System tech. J., 37, 401-446, 1958. 6. Johnston, R.L., B.C. Deloach, and G.B. Cohen, A Silicon Diode Microwave Oscillator, Bell System Tech., J., 44, 369-372, February 1965. 7. Prager, H.J., et al., High-power, High-efficiency Silicon Avalanche Diodes at Ultra High Frequencies, Proc. IEEE (letters), 55, 586-587, April 1967. 8. Esaki, L., New Phenomenon in Narrow Ge p-n Junctions, Phys. Rev., 109, 603, 1958. 9. Ridley, B.K. and T.B. Watkins, The Possibility of Negative Resistance Effect in Semiconductors, Proc. Phys. Soc., 78, 293-304, August 1961. 10. Hilsum, C., Transferred Electron Amplifiers and Oscillators, Proc. IEEE., 50, 185-189 February 1962. 11. Gunn, J.B., Instabilities of Current in III-V Semiconductors, IBM J. Res. Develop., 8, 141-159, April 1964.