1
innovation
convention convention
community1
agrees on & is shaped by
po
Typically, members of a community share a common location or
lo
inevitably lead to
individuals to provide the variety necessary for survival— Inevitably, both are limited. We used to ask the same questions about quality. Then Walter
n
to share perspective, insight, ideas, and inspiration. Shewhart and Edward Deming answered. Today, statistical
g-
process control, total quality management (TQM), kaizen, and
te
Over time, new members join and existing members depart. These six-sigma management are fundamental tools in business.
rm
changes can affect the conventions the community keeps.
Organizations have become much better at managing quality.
th
Quality has become a commodity, or at least “table stakes,”
ea r
necessary but not sufficient. Now, innovation matters more—
because you can’t compete on quality alone, whether as a
st t
business, a community, or a society. The next arena of global
o
competition is innovation, but the practice of innovation remains
an
stuck some 40 years behind the practice of quality.
y
Quality is largely about improving efficiency, whereas innovation
is largely about improving effectiveness. Improving quality is
decreasing defects. It’s about measuring. It’s making processes
more efficient. It works within an existing paradigm.
convention 1 each faces change (disturbance) Business Week design editor Bruce Nussbaum has suggested you
can’t measure your way to innovation—measurement being the
hallmark of quality processes. And though some six-sigma
Every convention exists within a community. Pressure from outside or decay inside changes the advocates disagree, Nussbaum is pointing out a fundamental
s)
disturbs relations creating
relationship between a community and its context. That difference between managing quality and managing innovation.
maintains relationship to
ce
A convention establishes a relation between relationship—formalized as a convention—is no longer Innovation is creating a new paradigm. It’s not getting better at
on
se n
a community and its context. It defines a way comfortable, no longer a fit. playing the same game; it’s changing the rules and changing the
en
m
on ctio
the community expects its members to behave sa game. Innovation is not working harder; it’s working smarter.
qu
in a given situation. It prescribes the tools A disturbance upsets an existing convention.
they can use, even what they can think. This is a root cause of innovation. This poster proposes a model for innovation. It takes the form of a
d c ru
an rd g
on
es r th as e
s c d-o nin
. R - o h lac
concept map, a series of terms and links forming propositions.
be er
ult ir te
. ce nd fit,” p
ne est
ed an co “ ne
ti
Every innovation has a precedent in a A disturbance has variety of its own.
nd v e eir o
la
te ad s, s th n in
insight previous convention. Unless a community has corresponding variety to cancel it, The model is built on the idea that innovation is about changing
lan e d
s u ab tin ed ova
the variety in a disturbance will overwhelm the community. paradigms. The model situates innovation between two conven-
ce w on y r n
in
tions. Innovation transforms old into new. It is a process—
str on e
en no c a . In
Variety cancels variety.
de luti “th
ing s
np iv
qu t k cle d m re
oy ize
a process in which insight inspires change and creates value.
e.” tly vo as
se no cy an ltu
ce
on re the ns f cu
on san y re tion
(u reat
d c ts a s tio b o
ew es ntl uc
an
The process begins when external pressure or internal decay
ng in ce de
ing eff tio on a
disturbs the relation between a community and its context, a
l
ati ith in ve
ris ct va c in
ba
re w at ati
rp ire no d ist
relation maintained by a convention.
su ind er in elate s ex
y c om n th re
im
ntl fr o s c
or rth ts r on
sa re tati e
es ctu mu crib
fu ec enti
The existing convention no longer “fits.” Perhaps the context
is
r
on ic us te
notices the misfit. It causes stress. It creates enough friction,
ld nom ind pe
e o o of um
tr
enough pain, to jump into people’s consciousness. Perception of
th e ec ess Sch
misfit almost simultaneously gives rise to proposals for change,
th oc ph
context 1 misfit (pain) variety
pr e
for reframing. These proposals compete for attention. Most fail to
s
Jo
e,
inspire, are ignored, and fade away.
a desired relation between a community and its context. pain or cost (delivering value).
can be superseded by
in
Misfit manifests itself as pain. It exacts a cost— We rarely recognize innovation while it’s happening. Instead,
cr
Every community exists within a context. physical, mental, social, or financial—on members W. Ross Ashby describes variety as a measure of information. innovation is often a label applied after the fact, when its value is
ea
of the community. Variety describes a system’s potential to respond to clear and a new convention has become established.
se
Context is the environment in which a community lives. disturbances—the options it has available. Applied to communities,
Ethnography and other research techniques may help identify
st
To survive, a community must have a stable relationship variety describes the experiences—the richness of language and
with its environment. Maintaining that stable relationship range of cultural tools—they can bring to bear on problems. opportunities for innovation. Design methods may increase the
he
is the purpose of conventions. speed of generating and testing new ideas. But new ideas are still
subject to natural selection (or natural destruction) in the political
l
In a stable environment, increasing efficiency makes sense.
ike
Do what you’ve been doing, but do it better and at a lower cost. process or the marketplace.
lih
That means narrowing language—decreasing variety.
Innovation remains messy. Even dangerous. Luck and chance,
oo
In an unstable environment, pursuing efficiency may actually be being at the right place at the right time, still play a role. But
heightened sensitivity and persistent alertness may increase luck.
d
dangerous. You may get better at doing the wrong thing—at doing
of
something that no longer matters.
This model is not a recipe. At best it suggests ways to increase
The key is to make sure what you produce is valuable, before you the probability of innovation. Our goal is for it to spur discussion.
worry about making it more efficiently. Increasing effectiveness Our hope is that increased understanding will spur innovation
calls for increasing variety—changing perspective, bringing new and increase the greater good.
people, new experience, and new language into the conversation
and expanding the field of action.
recognition (definition)
als ss
Recognition of misfit comes from observation and experience.
Research methods—such as ethnography—help.
s th f a
go roce
frames possibilities for
en o
e
op ing
ing am
But identifying a problem requires definition.
)
fin fr
Definitions are constructed—agreed to.
re the
ing p
or ut
They have constituencies.
es ing bo
fin ing
ch m s a
Thus, definition is a political act,
oa fra on
an exercise of power.
pr Re sti
ap ls. ue
(re arn
er oa e q
.
oth of g rais
ing n ay
le
try itio m
to fin pe
ity r de ty
ibil o roto
possess
ss m p
po oble ng a
pr sti
Te
(a bit of luck)
innovation requires preparation aids insight (seeing opportunity) comes from individuals drive
Each innovation is a link between two conventions:
the one it replaces and the one it becomes. (immersion) Insight begins a process of restoring fit. Insight remains the most
mysterious part of the innovation process. It may be irreducible, but
Individuals who are prepared to innovate possess:
motivates
benefit from (increase efficiency by) sharing skills within a
must be shared through
n)
olu s
An innovation is a pivot; it transforms one period into the next. it can be aided. Immersion within the context is almost always Optimism
ev es
change
tio
essential. Experience with other domains helps (by increasing Belief they can improve the world
variety). For example, applying patterns from other domains can Openness to change
ial oc
ly
or destroy) ideas, moving a few to the next stage. They “incubate” system known as TRIZ. Tenacity, persistence to see it through
or
d d on po
new ideas in “hothouses” long enough to launch them into the Passion, desire, even obsession
an sec ding
rti n
.
n— e ar
ign
tio is th isc
some religions (such as Catholicism), venture capital firms, and Insight may come from juxtaposition Variety
olu s) ., d
Domain expertise
d
ism va cti
structures needed to raise the probability of innovation (within What is the unknown? Understanding of the process
me rfo ral d
Boston, Austin, Research Triangle, and Seattle all currently enjoy What is the condition? (What are the constraints?) Management, rhetorical, and political skills
this advantage. What is the connection between data and unknown? Practice (Doing it a few times helps.)
What is a related problem?
How could you restate the problem? They also know what is not known but necessary
What could you draw to represent the problem? for progress; they understand how to find it; and they
recognize who can provide that knowledge.
articulation (prototyping)
For insight to matter, it must be
r) n
articulated—given form.
ro io
must be proved through
as it diffuses becomes
er at
It might be a
& iter
Hypothesis
Model or diagram
ism
Outline
may prompt a new
ial e
an
ch
Script or story
(tr mpl
me
Sketch
ign rst
es e fi
Mock-up
.
d d th
si
helps improve
Prototype
an n is
n— tio
Pilot
tio aria
olu v
ev ng
of reati
C
Of course, the convention resulting from a successful innovation No innovation arises fully formed.
reduces risk, encouraging
agrees on & is shaped by
community that exists after an innovation is likely to have changed Articulation provides a means of sharing an insight.
es
from the community that preceded it. The context, too, is likely Demonstration proves (or disproves) the insight’s value. Dubberly Design Office prepared this concept map as a project
to have changed beyond the change which created the misfit Demonstration provides a basis for adoption; of the Institute for the Creative Process at the Alberta College of
er
leading to an innovation. it is a key to creating change. Art and Design. The Institute exists to focus and organize activities,
ve
Demonstration enables evaluation. of dialogue, research, and special projects that directly address
st
Testing discloses errors, increases understanding, the nature of the creative process and design thinking. ACAD is
a leading centre for education and research, and a catalyst for
at
beliefs
by
Acknowledgements
re
Additional design by
may lead to
in
Research by
Satoko Kakihara, ACAD faculty Chris Frey, Wayne Giles,
Many people have proposed models, for example: may lead to Dubberly Design Office
maintains relationship to
or
on
artifacts
am
sit
of
all deliver
- Wicked problems, where constituents cannot agree on the goal 403 284 7670
re
in
Parrish Hanna:
su
e
- Tactical or incremental
nc
ea
- Strategic or punctuated
la
- Cultural or process-oriented
Sponsorship
ba
a
is
is
2
Toward a model of innovation
by Hugh Dubberly
For the last few years, innovation has been a big Can we reach consensus on such a model for
topic in conversation about business management. innovation?
A small industry fuels the conversation with articles,
books, and conferences. One step may be to propose models for discussion.
Designers, too, are involved. Prominent product Last year, Lance Carlson, President of the Alberta
design firms offer workshops and other services College of Art and Design (ACAD), initiated a
promising innovation. Leading design schools project (through ACAD’s Institute for the Creative
promote “design thinking” as a path to innovation. Process) to create a “concept map” of innovation.
The Institute worked with ACAD faculty, Dubberly
But despite all the conversation, there is little Design Office, Paul Pangaro, and Nathan Felde to
consensus on what innovation is and how to get it. develop a series of models and published one as a
poster.
The current conversation about innovation is
similar to an earlier conversation about quality. As This article describes the published model and
recently as the late 1980s, quality was something illustrates the process of developing it.
businesses actively sought but had trouble defining.
Today, statistical process control, TQM, Kaizen, Concept maps
and Six-Sigma management are common tools in This model of innovation takes the form of a
businesses around the world. concept map. “A concept map is a schematic
device for representing a set of concept meanings
As businesses have become good at managing embedded in a framework of propositions.” (Novak
quality, quality has become a sort of commodity— and Gowan, 1984) In a concept map, nodes and
“table stakes,” necessary but not sufficient to links form a web of meaning, a semantic mesh.
ensure success. When everyone offers quality, Nodes are nouns. Links are verbs. A noun-verb-
quality no longer stands out. Businesses must look noun sequence forms a proposition, a sentence.
elsewhere for differentiation. The next arena for Concept maps are similar to entity-relationship
competition has become innovation. diagrams and entailment meshes, though less
constrained and less rigorous.
The question becomes: Can innovation be “tamed”
as quality was? This concept map uses text direction and arrows
to indicate reading direction. Type size indicates
A key step in taming quality was Walter Shewhart importance and hierarchy. Colored backgrounds
and Edward Deming proposing a process model. join related terms.
(Shewhart, 1939) Their quality cycle is now widely
taught and has become an important part of the Creating concept maps involves trade-offs. Adding
quality canon. But innovation has no corresponding terms provides detail and may help clarify, but
model. more terms mean more links, increasing the
reader’s effort.
3
PDCA quality cycle Reading the map
The map is built on the idea that innovation is about
Determine the root cause of the Carry out the change or the the evolution of paradigms.
problem then plan a change test, preferably in a pilot
or a test aimed at improvement. or on a small scale.
In contrast to innovation processes, quality
processes typically work within existing paradigms.
Plan Do Quality is largely about improving efficiency,
whereas innovation is largely about improving
effectiveness. Improving quality is decreasing
defects. Defects can be measured, progress
monitored, quality managed.
Explaining a model involves telling a story, navigating a path The process begins when external pressure or
through the model. Similarly, telling a story builds a model of internal decay disturbs the relation between a
actors and their relationships in the mind of the listener. community and its context or environment, a
relationship maintained by some convention. The
original convention no longer “fits.” Perhaps the
context has changed, or the community, or even
the convention. Someone notices the lack of fit. It
causes stress and increases bio-cost. It creates
enough friction, enough pain, to jump into people’s
consciousness.
4
Insights only move forward when shared, can increase the community’s language, provide
articulated, prototyped. Sharing is a test: Does the new points of view, draw on additional types of
insight resonate with others? Proposals for change experience, foster new conversations, provoke
compete for attention. Most are ignored and fade action. (Esmonde 2002)
away.
Horizontal axis: the importance of individuals
The changes that survive are by definition ones the The map posits individuals as drivers of
community finds effective. They spread because innovation—and the source of insight. But
they increase fit, because they create value. to succeed, individuals must participate in a
community, where they contribute variety.
The map suggests a cycle moving from fit through
misfit and back again. The vertical axis loops back Individuals who drive innovation also have a sense
on itself, reflecting the cycle. of what is not known but necessary for progress,
and they understand how to find it. Individuals
The yellow loops: the role of feedback who drive innovation also seem to possess a
Of course, innovation processes are rarely healthy measure of optimism. They are motivated
linear. The map includes several feedback loops, by the value innovation creates (which need not be
suggesting the role of iteration and the recursive monetary).
nature of the process. At a basic level, innovation
involves experimentation, making something new Innovation remains messy. Even dangerous. Luck
and testing it. To some extent, the process may and chance, being at the right place at the right
be trial and error. The process may lead to new time, still play a role.
insights. Or it may prompt reframing of goals,
consideration of new approaches, new generative Like the vertical axis, the horizontal axis also folds
metaphors. Success also leads to change: new back on itself.
beliefs, actions, and artifacts.
An invitation to interaction
In turn, these lead to second-order change. The story above describes one path through major
Innovation in one place affects related conventions points on the map, but the map offers multiple
and may reduce their fit, hastening further paths and invites closer reading.
innovation.
While this model is not a recipe, it hints at ways we
Ethnography and other research techniques can might increase the probability of innovation. But
help identify opportunities for innovation. Design more importantly, it invites further thinking.
methods can increase the speed of generating and
testing new ideas. But new ideas are still subject Alan Kay noted, “we do most of our thinking with
to natural selection (or natural destruction) in the models.” (Kay, 1988) They are “boundary objects,”
marketplace or political process. enabling discourse between communities of
practice. (Star, 1989) This is what makes models
Variety: a regulator powerful.
The map posits variety as a regulator of innovation.
Variety is a measure of information. (Ashby, 1956) The poster includes an invitation to react and
Here, it is the language available to an individual participate in improving this model of innovation.
or community. Language enables conversation; Just as quality is founded on the feedback loop
conversation enables agreement; agreement of ‘plan-do-check-act’ and feedback loops are
enables action. Language constrains action. necessary for successful innovation (cf. the poster),
we seek your insights and feedback as well.
Pressure to increase efficiency creates pressure to
reduce variety. (Maintaining less variety requires The team’s hope is for this model to spur thinking
less effort or saves time.) Reducing variety and discussion—interaction among readers. We
decreases the number of options a community can hope it leads to other, more useful models.
discuss. Conversely, increasing variety increases
the number of options that can be discussed—
increasing the likelihood of insight. (In practice,
an increase in variety may be required for some
insights to be found.) A community seeking to
increase variety must integrate individuals who
5
innovation
convention convention
convention 1 change (disturbance)
insight
innovation insight (seeing opportunity)
change
value
convention 2 adoption (counter-change)
value
community1
agrees on & is shaped by
s)
disturbs relations creating
maintains relationship to
ce
se n
en
on ctio
qu
d c ru
ne est
lan e d
np iv
(u reat
c
recognition (definition)
als ss
go roce
frames possibilities for
)
ing p
fin ing
(re arn
le
n)
olu s
ev es
tio
ial oc
fic pr
rti n
(a esig
d
articulation (prototyping)
r) n
er at
& iter
helps improve
beliefs
may lead to
artifacts
context 2
6
pressure (external) This sequence of images separates the model into components.
decay (internal)
From left to right, top to bottom:
inevitably lead to
This sequence of images separates the model into components.
change (disturbance)
From left to right, top to bottom:
recognition (definition)
2
frames possibilities for
(immersion)
must be shared through
3
An armature can aid development and reading of large concept
maps. For example, a horizontal axis may set context, and a
articulation (prototyping)
vertical axis may define the main concept. In this model, the
must be proved through
4
In the left-most column, convention mediates between a
community and its context. As a rule, a concept map should
fit (gain)
not repeat terms. This map intentionally repeats community,
convention, and context, indicating that all three change as time
passes.
pressure (external)
decay (internal)
if strong, raise calls for efficiency, dangerously reducing
5
At the center of the map are four nested feedback loops,
emphasizing that innovation is not a linear, mechanical process.
First is the simple iteration of prototyping and testing. Second
is the design process, incorporating insight to drive new
prototypes. Third is the learning process, in which problems or
goals are reframed. And fourth is creative destruction, wherein
variety
(experiences) an innovation in one area hastens change in other areas.
in
cr
(Schumpeter, 1942)
ea
se
st
e h
lik
eli
ho
od
of
6
Another set of loops fill out the right side of the map. These
loops hinge on variety. (Ashby, 1956) Variety is the language
available to an individual or community. Pressure to create
possess
7
Innovation map
July 11, 2006
v0.6
Copyright ©
regulation
law
government
sustaining standards
open source
commerce
economics deregulation
implementation
economic development markets
goals
zietgeist
productivity
satisfaction
trends
opportunity
products
diffusion
engineering
revenue
improve
growth
quality
useful
better
profit
fun
domains
design
finding
multi-diciplinary
tools
commercialization
resistance
s-curve / diffusion curve
research tools
framework
forward
research
older parts dying off
operational innovation
finding
scenarios
responsibility
evolving system
breakthrough innovation
market-led innovation
open source
fusion
customer-centric innovation (CCI)
seeds of innovation
resistance to change
creation
RFP
constraints
available resources
creative destruction
time
entrepreneurship
patents
realization (a-ha!)
established
think
radical innovation
first
organizations people
funding
are made up of people
observation
game
opening
benefit
value innovation
evolutionary
future
defender
make/allow/resist
manufacturer
individuals
evaluation
copmanies
attacker
continuous innovation
to source ideas
supplier
business person
environment
commitment
revolutionist
practice (n.)
user
revolution
inventor
revolutionist
origin of hypothesis
think tank
rule-breaker
consumer
team
strategy
innovation
customer
redefine
services
solution
players
renew
innovation framework
culture
good enough non-market players
not good enough
subtraction pattern
under-shot
regulation
customers
forward
ideate
entrepreneur
resources
money
bring to market a new produt
world
recognize
conquest
perception
steps
recombinant
concept
networks of
breakthrough
sociology
concept
market cap
}innovation{
cycle
planning tools
alter
customer-centric
forms
diffusion
technological innovation
disruptive
beliefs
success
social systems
demand-led direction
new shoot
analystic tools
enable discipline
innovation factory
process innnovation
commerce
manufacturer
enact ecosystem
implement
value
multiplication pattern
competitive positioning
art
status quo
expert
experiential
attractiveness
factory
R&D
modes
process design
management
framework
value
market-led
models of lab
landscape
assessment
operational
method
game plan
process
radical paradox
model
seeds of risk
change
sources of
innovation
strategy
experimentation
strategic innovator's dilemma work
supply-pushed
advancement
intent
breakthrough
apply
technological
planning
theories of
exploration
significant
design (n.)
discovery
creativity
evolution
behavior
curiosity
different
is
develop
design (v.)
th
insight
changes of purposeful
novel
ideas
e
process change
new
continuous technical
method connect and
creativity evolution revolution
improvement
steps
techniques develop exploration insight creation -ary
R&D observation redefine
model acting on ideas measurement improvement
think tank radical
policy construction
design
acting on creative ideas
apply think recognize
evaluation
crisis incremental
creative destruction
reframe
scenario planning hypothesis
define older parts dying off
request for proposal development assessment mission oriented
need finding
need statement
engineering assess
knowledge brokering cycle significant environmental
empathic
evolving system
fusion
capabilities alter
planning
discovery design (n.)
strategic innovation
disruptive innovation
natural selection
accountability
self-stimulating system
theories of innovation
brainstorming
device
exploitation
experiential innovation
design (v.)
deep dive
social forecasting
research
finding
extrapolation
know don’t know experimentation
solve a problem
potential
different
supply-pushed
hypothesis
ARIZ
tradition
learning ideate
incremental
TRIZ
management innovation
difference
patternconsumption chain know
learning
generate anomaly
advancement new
platform
measurement
acting on creative ideas
profit chain
s-curve
diffusion curvevalue chain
ideas shoot
innovation concept
refine
models of innovation
introduce
system
breakthrough
innovation paradox
method
recycle
planning- novel
acting on ideas
leaps
define
unprecedented
initiative risk
invention prototyping-
principles
assess
theory of patents
realization (a-ha!) research-
innovation method
thinking support-
innovation risk
integrative- inspiration
reactive-
proactive-
tool kit
sources
knowledge brokering cycle
supportive-
economic development
enable
integration risk
culture
division pattern
leaps
radical
information
shapes
innovation ecosystem
beliefs
paradigm shift freedom decentralization
behavior
influences
generate idea*
assumption
play
sociology resistance
conflict
investment
organizational brand
concept
diffusion curve / s-curve
techniques
-aversion modes
interdependence risk
-exploration not-invented-here
innovation work
-systemization
innovation diffusion
time to market
innovator's dilemma
link
innovation direction
empathic design
supportive culture
worth
sources of innovation
goals
playbook
innovation strategy
point of view
sports
value objective
opportunity quality
economics
new product-
innovation cycle
revenue
assumption
success mission
shape
decisions
policy construction
first
enable innovation
decentralization of-
performance
players
opening
economic development
available-
development
better resources
problem
status quo
innovation expert
attribute dependency-
discipline
investment
diffusion division-
elements market cap commodity useful
standards
question
time
fun information
sustaining
entrepreneur
organization
knowledge
growth capital forward
individuals
consumer
sources future
customer
policy construction
productivity
business
to source ideas
enable
efficiency performance stability
team
difference
initiative-
enact innovation
uncertainty
process
science
objects meet
failure
Innovation
Processes for Creating Value: Stages in Organizational Maturity
Making products
& creates value Innovation Types
2
this pattern of innovation through its well-known
but is often unmanaged
Process revolution
Improving processes creates value more efficiently Process revolutions also improve existing business
processes, but in major leaps—say, a 30 percent
increase in productivity—through the implementa-
tion of major new technologies. For example,
Wal-mart is investing heavily n "smart tags" (radio
frequency identification, or RFID, tags), which
identify what a product is, where it is, where it has
been, how it has been handled, and so on. The
technology may revolutionize processes for
In the context of a community, observation (of customers, technology, laws)
tracking consumer products from production to
consumption and yield dramatic new supply chain
efficiencies. leads to insight (the joining of 2 or more formerly separate ideas)
strategic
or services
creates new value for the next Cabbage Patch doll, Tickle Me Elmo, or
Razor scooter. with consequences for the community (spreading adoption)
Parallels design, engineering, and R&D processes
Contrasts with TQM and Six Sigma practices (You can’t measure your way to innovation!)
Strategic innovation
Strategic innovations, such as OnStar, Tremor, and
cultural
observation
is
Innovation of
customers
technology
by
customers
designers
management
yields
is
insight applied
is
two or more
ideas combined What
resets goals, reframes problems. revises point-of-view
improves effectiveness (not focussed on efficiency)
Finance Business model How you make money Dell revolutionized the personal computer business model by collecting
money before the consumer's PC was even assembled and shipped
7 Sources of Innovation (resulting in net positive working capital of seven to eight days).
after Peter F. Drucker (1985) Networks and alliances How you join forces with other companies for mutual Consumer goods company Sara Lee realized that its core competencies were
benefit in consumer insight, brand management, marketing and distribution. Thus it
Systematic innovation means monitoring seven sources for innovative opportunity. divested itself of a majority of its mfg. operations and formed alliances with
mfg. and supply chain partners.
Sources within the enterprise, whether business or public-service institution, or within an industry or service sector:
Process Enabling process How you support the company’s core processes and Starbucks can deliver its profitable store/coffee experience to customers
The unexpected—the unexpected success, the unexpected failure, the unexpected outside event workers because it offers better-than-market compensation and employment benefits
The incongruity—between reality as it actually is and reality as it is assumed to be or as it “ought to be” to its store workers--usually part time, educated, professional, and respon-
Innovation based on process need sive people.
Changes in industry and market structures that catch everyone unawares
Core processes How you create and add value to your offerings Wal-Mart continues to grow profitably through core process innovations
Sources that involve changes outside the enterprise or industry: such as real-time inventory management systems, aggressive volume/
Service How you provide value to customers and consumers An international flight on any airlines will get you to your intended designa-
beyond and around your products tion. A flight on Singapore Airlines, however, nearly makes you forget that
you are flying at all, with the most attentive, respectful, and pampering
pre-flight, in-flight and post-services you can imagine. Throughout the life of a discipline (an art or science)
5 innovation patterns Delivery Channel How you get your offerings to market Legal problems aside, Martha Stewart has developed such a deep under- Before a market exists, when a market is young, when a market is mature, when a market is in decline
standing of her customers that she knows just where to be (stores, TV shows,
that manipulate existing components of a product and its immediate magazines, online, etc.) to drive huge sales volumes from a relatively small
environment to come up with something both ingenious and viable set of "home living" educational and product offerings.
after Goldenberg et al. (2003) Brand How you communicate your offerings Absolut conquered the vodka category on the strength of a brilliant "theme
and variations" advertising concept, strong bottle and packaging design, and
Attribute dependency Subtraction a whiff of Nordic authenticity.
The attribute dependency pattern alters or creates the The subtraction pattern works by removing product compo-
dependent relationships between a product and its environ- nents, particularly those that seem desirable or indispens- Customer experience How your customers feel when they interact with your Harley Davidson has created a worldwide community of millions of custom-
ment. For example, by creating a dependent relationship able. Think of the legless high chair that attaches to the company and its offerings ers, many of whom would describe "being a Harley Davidson owner" as a part
between lens color and external lighting conditions, kitchen table. of how they fundamentally see, think, and feel about themselves.
eyeglass developers came up with a lens that changes color
when exposed to sunlight. Task unification
14 Types of Innovation but within the minds of individuals, reframing the way we think
The task unification pattern involves assigning a
Multiplication
The multiplication pattern makes one or more copies of an
existing component, then alters those copies in some
important way. For example, the Gillette double-bladed
Application
Product
Develops new markets for existing products by finding unexploited
uses for them, often by combining them in novel ways.
Marketing
tion into finer elements of detail, getting closer to the surface of the
offer with less impact on the underlying infrastructure.
Experiential Bases value not on differentiating the functionality but rather the Cirque du Soleil redefined the notion of circus with its visual and
experience of the offering. philosophical productions.
Operational Excellence Value-Engineering Extracts cost from the materials and manufacturing of an estab- Southwest built a fleet with a single standard plane, simplified
Integration Reduces the customer’s cost of maintaining a complex operation by LEGOS sold its plastic bricks at a premium by marketing them in
integrating its many disparate elements into a single centrally kits that integrated into toys.
managed system.
Category Renewal
Process
Value-Migration
Focuses on improving profit margins by extracting waste not from
the offer itself but from the enabling processes that produce it.
Organic Uses internal resources to reposition itself into a growth category. Nokia, formerly of paper and pulp products, rubber manufacturing,
and cable, entered the electronics sector with coaxial cable for
computer networks.
Dubberly Design Office
Acquisition Solves problem of category renewal externally through merger and Gateway acquired eMachines, the low-cost leader in retail PCs, Innovation map B
acquisition. and allowed their management to control the company and July 27, 2006
v0.2
improve its operating efficiency.
Dubberly Design Office + Nathan Felde + Paul Pangaro | Innovation Map C | July 28, 2006 | version 0.3 | Alberta College of Art and Design | Institute for the Creative Process
8
This section shows 12 sketches developed during the design
process. More than 50 were printed at full size for discussion.
Processes for Creating Value: Stages in Organizational Growth The sketches are arranged in chronological order. From left to
right, top to bottom, by spread:
6 Learning process
Adds a third level to look for successful innovation processes and
goal = spread successful processes
improvement processes and then share them throughout the organization
Changes goals and processes throughout the organization
observe success codify roll-out Benefit: continuous improvement of organization and ability to adapt
organization to changing external conditions
1
observe problem
goal = create new system
goal = reduce defects
process output
(finished product) During the process, they developed three collections: existing
models related to innovation, prior definitions, and a list of
words related to innovation. The first step in mapping was to
feedback loop feedback loop feedback loop
2
feedback loop build (prototype) July 11, 2006 This version is one of the first that links concepts,
Classic design process
observe problem
goal = reduce defects
plan
3
goal = maintain quality output act
local process check do July 21, 2006 This version posits innovation as one of several
Classic quality management process
feedback loop feedback loop
(raw material)
input process output
(finished product)
Benefit: stability, quality
4
Increasing sophistication, maturity, and investment
2 Defined process
Actions repeatable, but unregulated
July 27th, 2006 This version focuses on ways of classifying
Adds defined method for achieving goal
(raw material)
input process output
(finished product) Benefit: repeatability, predictability
As groups face tasks repeatedly they should identify “best practices” and
agree on “standard procedures.”
innovation, reprising taxonomies from several authors. It posits
innovation as “insight applied.”
1 Ad hoc process
Actions happen as needed, but are difficult to repeat
Benefit: quick, adaptable
6
c. 9000 BC Agriculture Eight rules of brainstorming
Fertile Crescent after IDEO
c. 7000 BC Animal husbandry Every innovation is sandwiched All innovations have precedents. Innovation begins with insight. 1 Defer judgment
Near East between two conventions, Precedent provides a foundation— But ideas alone—even inventions— 2 Build on the ideas of others
the one it replaces and the one it becomes. or springboard—for innovation are not enough. 3 Stay focused on the topic
c. 6200 BC Map In that sense, an innovation is a pivot point, and a means of fitting a new idea 4 Allow only one person at a time to speak
Çatalhöyük
5000 BC Irrigation
a transition from one period to the next. into our model of the world. 5 Make quantity your goal
6 Encourage wild ideas
7 Be visual
8 Prototype
September 1, 2006 This version (one of many related studies)
frames innovation as insight + change + value. Change is at
Fertile Crescent
Six thinking hats
c. 3500 BC Wheel after Edward de Bono (1985)
Proto-Aryan people or Sumerians,
Russia/Kazakhstan or Mesopotamia 1 Fact (Focus on information available, objectivity,
what is needed, how it can be obtained)
c. 3500 BC Writing 2 Emotion (Present views without explanation,
c. 2500 BC Glass
Egyptians or Phoenicians
6 Summary (Control process, steps, other hats;
think about thinking, next steps)
two conventions. Innovation and convention are out of focus,
individual
2000 BC Currency
Unknown
1700–1500 BC Alphabet
Semitic-speaking peoples,
eastern coast of Mediterranean Sea Individuals have insights.
preparation
obsession
Ten faces of innovation
after Tom Kelley of IDEO (2005)
Learning
1 The anthropologist suggesting the blurring of boundaries. The vertical axis defines
immersion 2 The experimenter
650 BC Coins Prepared individuals bring: expertise 3 The cross-pollinator
Lydians, Turkey observation
600 BC Soap
Phoenicians, Lebanon
Optimism
Openness to change
Belief that the world can be different
Confidence to make it so
Observation can lead to insight
Something doesn’t fit
Something doesn’t make sense
juxtaposition
Organizing
4 The hurdler
5 The collaborator
6 The director
the innovation process.
insight
c. 300 BC Compass Persistence to see it through Something is wrong
China Something could be better Building
Experience, Skill, and Talent A new way of looking 7 The experience architect
c. 200 BC Saddle Domain expertise at things (a new frame) 8 The set designer
China Knowledge of other domains A new set of goals 9 The caregiver
Understanding of the process
pattern matching
10 The storyteller
77 Encyclopedia Communication, management, and political skills
Pliny the Elder (comprehensive work), Rome Practice (Doing it a few times helps.) Insight and development
favor those
105 Paper who are prepared. Nine innovation archetypes
Cai Lun, China after GE and Stone Yamashita Partners (2005)
reframing
China that gets an innovation rolling)
it must be manifest in change. 2 The iterator (An idea-engineer who takes
1041 Movable type printing press the original idea and turns it into an innovation)
Bi Sheng, China 3 The tech guru (The harnesser of technology
to turn the innovation into reality)
c. 10th C Gunpowder 4 The customer anthropologist (The keen observer
China or Arabia of what customers truly hunger for)
5 The producer (The champion of flow.
1280s Eyeglasses The master of moving ideas along)
Salvino degli Armati or Alessandro di Spina, Italy 6 The visionary (The force behind creating
in thought
1838 Morse code Systematic innovation means monitoring seven
Samuel F.B. Morse, U.S. Incremental Change sources for innovative opportunity. Sources within
Innovators work within a given situation. the enterprise, whether business or public-service
change
1841 Sewing machine Goals remain essentially the same. institution, or within an industry or service sector:
Barthélemy Thimonnier, France Means become more efficient.
Costs decline. theory 1 The unexpected (The unexpected success, the
1842 Refrigerator Productivity increases. unexpected failure, the unexpected outside event)
John Gorrie, U.S. This is the realm of TQM and Six Sigma. 2 The incongruity (Between reality as it actually is and
strategic in action
reality as it is assumed to be or as it “ought to be”)
1843 Typewriter 3 Innovation based on process need
Charles Thurber 4 Changes in industry and market structures
that catch everyone unawares
1868 Typewriter
Christopher Latham Sholes, U.S. Punctuated Change performance Sources that involve changes outside the enterprise
Innovators reframe the situation. or industry:
1876 Wired-line telephone They create consensus around new goals.
For a change to be an innovation
in artifact
Alexander Graham Bell, Scotland/U.S. They find the means to realize the innovation. 5 Demographics (population changes)
The means are now more effective it must create value. 6 Changes in perception, mood, and meaning
1879 Automobile engine (but perhaps not more efficient). 7 New knowledge, both scientific and nonscientific
Karl Benz New domains or new markets emerge.
A strategic change opens the possibility
1879 Incandescent light blub of many tactical changes. product
cultural
Thomas Alva Edison, U.S. Ten types of innovation
after Vijay Kumar (Doblin Group)
1884 Photographic film
George Eastman, U.S. Finance
1 Business model (How you make money)
1889 Automobile Meta Change 2 Networks and alliances (How you join forces with
Gottlieb Daimler, Germany Innovators focus on the organization other companies for mutual benefit)
(or its tools, especially its communication tools).
1894 Radio transmission They create systems that promote and reward innovators. Process
Jagdish Chandra Bose They change beliefs, values, and processes. 3 Enabling process (How you support the company’s
They create collegial organizations and learning organizations. core processes and workers)
1896 Radio Cultural change instills the spirit of innovation 4 Core processes (How you create and add value
Guglielmo Marconi, Italy paving the way for both strategic and tactical change. to your offerings)
diffusion
Delivery
1923 Recording of sound on film 8 Channel (How you get your offerings to market)
Lee DeForest 9 Brand (How you communicate your offerings)
10 Customer experience (How your customers feel when
1927 Television they interact with your company and its offerings)
Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, Philo Taylor Farnsworth, imitation
Russia/U.S.S.R., U.S.
value
2 Application
1945 Atomic bomb 3 Product
J. Robert Oppenheimer, et al., U.S. recognition and fame 4 Platform
intellectual property
1945 Penicillin Customer Intimacy
survival
Alexander Fleming, U.K. 5 Line-Extension
6 Enhancement
1947 Polaroid instant photography 7 Marketing
Edwin Herbert Land, U.S. 8 Experiential
1947 Transistor Innovation requires diffusion profit and growth Operational excellence
John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, of a change throughout a community. share price 9 Value-engineering
William B. Shockley, U.S. Diffusion is evidence of value to the community, 10 Integration
and it creates value for the innovators.
hope
11 Process
1950s Oral contraceptives
Gregory Pincus, John Rock, Min Chueh Chang, U.S. Not all changes become innovations. Category-renewal
For example, 12 Value-migration
1950 Credit card Mezo-Americans used wheels in toys 13 Organic
Frank McNamara, Ralph Schneider (Diners’ Club), U.S. but never applied them for transportation, duty 14 Acquisition
perhaps because they had no large draft animals. ethical imperative
1957 Artificial earth satellite
Sergey Korolyov, et al., U.S.S.R.
1958 Laser
Gordon Gould and Charles Hard Townes,
Arthur L. Schawlow (invented separately), U.S.
consequenaces
unknown (unknowable)
This concept map was prepared for the Institute
for the Creative Process at the Alberta College of
Art and Design. The Institute exists to focus and
organize activities, enterprises, and initiatives of
unintended ACAD with regard to the cultivation of dialogue,
1960 Birth control pills research, and special projects that directly
Unknown address the nature of the creative process and
design thinking. ACAD is a leading centre for
1960 Communications satellite education and research, and a catalyst for
John Robinson Pierce, U.S. creative inquiry and cultural development.
new paradigm
415 648 9799
9
(perceived)
maximizes
relates to
shares
-
. . . . . . . form . . . . . . .
form . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . may face
. . . . . affects . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gives way to
reduce
-
-
beliefs
are responsible for
-
3) from re-framing may lead to
[outside forces]
nova
artifacts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . leave & enter
..
.a
may threaten
re
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evolve
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . may drift within
on
-
-
organizations / cultures are built of conventions are sustained by thoughts include goals
e
ca
beliefs
us
values
of
..
models
innovation is a label (we assign after the fact) is borne by
.
creates
frameworks
- - - change - cost -
-
produces new
actions include habits
may be fight
may create a
is to
flight
organizations / cultures
freeze
-
-
as
mutation artifacts
is to
organisms / ecosystems
conserves
relates to
-
may be framed as an
innovation
have limitations which we may not see
are
-
(with luck & preparation)
..
..
ed
.m
knowledge of
e
us
sp
other domains
tm
lp
-
-
er
he
ai
it
an
ds
..
.c
..
..
..
..
individuals need motive, opportunity, means to create change may spring from juxtaposition - - articulation design process - -
-
. . . must survive . . .
is
is a sort of hypothesis
the innovation process articulation enables sharing of
-
-
. . may show fitness for
..
ovation
..
.u
ltim
at
ely
-
-
in
vo
lve
.. s
..
accrues to
..
becomes
creates
.
many beneficiaries
creates . . . .
to its origins in
relates to
fear
shares
altruism
compulsion
incorporates the design process desire
10
convention provides a ground for innovation link overview 7
innovation produces a new convention 13 change
change (in the environment) may threaten organizations / cultures
10
9
innovation
convention
September 4, 2006 Nathan Felde suggested a number of
8 insight
organizations / cultures evolve through innovation 6
5
process
adoption
improvements. He also sent his own version. (See page 10,
innovation is to organizations / cultures as mutation is to organisms / ecosystems 5 collaborate
organizations / cultures are built on conventions
4
4
demonstrate
limitations
September 4.) And he urged the group to meet.
conventions are embodied in thoughts (including goals), actions, artifacts 4 organizations/culture
3 articulation
conventions may fail 3 environment
1) from internal decay
2) from external pressure
3
3
hypothesis
immersion 8
3) because we view them differently 3 people
1, 2, 3 reduce the fit (between convention and people)
2
2
oppontunity
value September 10, 2006 Hugh Dubberly, Nathan Felde, and Paul
people seek to maximize fit within their environment
Pangaro met in Pittsburgh (at CMU’s Emergence Conference).
individuals need motive, opportunity, means to create change
motive is maximizing fit within their environment They went back to the beginning, rehearsing the arguments and
opportunity is
a) people with which to collaborate
creating a rough outline using Post-It notes. Over two days, a
b) a space in which to collaborate (physical or virtual)
c) infrastructure for collaborating (tools and systems)
d) a social structure for collaborating (norms and processes)
new consensus formed with the team agreeing on the structure
means is the innovation process of their argument and a series of propositions.
convention resists change
articulation can be brought to life through demonstration February 4, 2007 The next step was to give typographic form
demonstration is a test of hypothesis
to the model. It still places the old convention at the top and
demonstration embodies change
change faces resistance the new one at the bottom. Terms and propositions continue to
change overcomes limitation change.
change may lead to adoption
adoption creates value
value answers the needs of duty / fear / greed / altruism / compulsion / desire
adoption may have many outcomes / many beneficiaries
12)
ACAD Innovation Map
Propositions v1.3
po
se
lon a
inevitably lead to
on
am s
ion
lat
re
in
nce
la
ba
im
is
(experiences)
when large enough gains
can be overturned by
learning
recognition (definition)
(artificial evolution)
ing
frames possibillities for
design process
as
re
inc
by
ed
as
re
nc
ei
yb
ma
innovation has as its mysterious heart insight (seeing opportunity) is a source of, but does not guarantee, individuals
must be shared through
articulation (prototyping)
may be improved by more
must be proved through
as it difuses becomes
pr
beliefs
yr
es
ist
may lead to
ing
may lead to
ng
tin
mo
ep
artifacts
cc
sa
ra
ion
fo
le at
iit on
all create
r
in
d
on
ce
-c
lan
re
ba
ap
is
is
11
12
negates the status quo
Formed from, with / in side the extant
ego instigated
survivability
innovation
sustainability
o rg
is to an
by iterative
organizations/cultures
iza
as
development
conversation
collaborative
t io
h
mutation throug
par t]
ns
demonstration
is to [ in
lve
evo
an
organisms/ecosystems
d
thoughts
include
cu
we
c
lt
all goals
may threaten
beliefs
ur
e
innovation prov
id e a
values
grou models
sa
is a nd
fo r frameworks
re
gaps
flaws
t]
affe
label
cts
men
[we assign after the fact]
buil
actions
iron
and lack
include
env
mistakes
t of
habits
the
may fail from
[in
internal decay may be
external pressure flight, fight, freeze
co n
pro
duc re-framing
e s n
ew
are sustained by artifacts
bec
are agreements [between people] o mes
have limitations [which we may not see]
v e n t ion s
disruptions
a new
to its origins in
individuals need motive, opportunity, means to create change
intuition
organizational
cultural
strategic
tactical
rejection
faces resistence
risk
is t h e
may
lea
preparation
d to
is i n f r a
is a s o c
reward
em
in n
is increasi
bo
d
ce
i
ies creates
de
ial s
clu value traced through the change that produce it
action
spr
i
bearing in mind
y in
t
in
ng th
ma
artifact
a t ra
thought
te p fear
eir
springs from precedent and individual insight
dissipates
ovncorpogs fro
adoption
and uses change to create
le w h i
f
m s t h ro c
re
s t r r u ct
in e novelty of change greed
i
chance
hi
c v e d e e s s includes
n t s ig immersion is a precondition for insight remains partly a matter of chance altruism
w t
io n n p r may spring from juxtaposition
is a s p a u ct u u re
tw
o ce s s may have compulsion
i
o h to
f
c s pattern making
aid many outcomes desire
i t h ch o
is p e o p i n w f o r o r
th
l l o l l co l l articulation reframing many beneficiaries
c c
in
ol a b o a b o a b o ra t e abduction
la ra r is a sort of hypothesis
th
knowledge of demonstration
e
begins with individuals
b o t in a t e
ra g uce other domains
red
w
or t in
ld g is a test of
adoption of
value, new consequences, distribution
can
produces
a new paradigm
by seduction
juxtaposition
and abduction
innovation
adaptation
replication
expression
pattern matching
differentiation
convention
intent
desire
design
innovation
This page shows a series of sketches developed by Nathan Felde. Another View
They too are in chronological order. From left to right, top to by Paul Pangaro
bottom, by page:
‘Innovation’ has frustrated me for some time. Does
1
July 25, 2006 Nathan sent this wonderful poem early in the
‘innovation’ mean ‘new idea’, ‘invention’, ‘design
process. Sean Durham later turned it into an animation. You concept’, ‘product revision’, or ‘game-changing
can view the animation at http://www.dubberly.com/innovation_ revolution on-the-order-of general relativity’?
movie.html
Making a concept map is a good way to decide
2 what we mean. In the process of collaboration
September 4, 2006 This version responds to the map created
on September 1. Together, they illustrate a central tension in the
to build this map, I felt that coming to the core
team’s discussions: Can innovation be defined? entailment—“Innovation is an insight that inspires
change and creates value”—was an insight of its
Nathan wrote: “I guess what I am concerned about [in prior own about innovation. I sensed that if this insight
models] is the representation of innovation as cut and dried. countered the dilution of meaning and inspired
Fear, greed, need, perplexing situations and the associated a change in use of the term, that it would create
behaviors and anxieties are messy and volatile.
value. An innovation about innovation. But, as
I realize that the progress of business requires order and
with any innovation, saying does not make it so—it
command and control, but the chaotic flux within which or at actually has to change a convention, and for the
least from which the seeds of innovation are sown needs some better. (‘Value’ means ‘positive value’).
depiction in our rendering of the map / diagram / output of this
discourse. There was a point where that core entailment
was lost in revision, one of many twists and
Can anyone do it or can it be taught are questions that have
come up. Have we resolved that or is that a starting premise to
turns in the process. This shows that the process
be confirmed or denied? of innovation can be fragile. Perhaps because I
was a participant, I feel the story of making the
Are we at a juncture that mandates innovation ourselves? Is this map is as interesting as the outcome. Reviewing
a predicament that fosters innovation? the spreads reprinted here retells some of that
story, though flipping through 50+ full-sized
It appears to me that a fault or fault line discloses the prototypes retells it fortissimo. What neither tells
opportunity to innovate, although the activities take names like
think, wonder, search, toy, rummage and guess.
is the tug-of-views across cities, threads of email,
and fields of post-it notes. One key argument
Design: A guessing game.” was: What parts of the process of innovation are
messy, unpredictable, ineffable, mystical, magical,
3 intuitive? (The more innovation is those things, the
February 14, 2007 (Landscape) Nathan proposed this playful less we can help the process and make a deliberate
version in response to the grid structure of the February 4 innovation; at one extreme, that phrase becomes
version. He described this one as “my structural engineering
interpretation of the latest round.”
an oxymoron.) Conversely, what parts of innovation
are predictable, likely, improve-able, or even
4 deterministic? (We certainly resist the idea that the
February 14, 2007 (Landscape) Nathan’s assistant, Purnima Rao, source of inspiration, the source of hypotheses, can
created this version. It contains a number of very interesting be fully known, reduced to algorithm.)
ideas. Change is literally at the center of a whirl. It posits
“motive, opportunity, and means” as necessary for change. (Does
that suggest a crime?) It also describes innovation as “a label we
While we explored those questions, I learned
assign after the fact.” that bringing about innovation, in addition to
being creative, is about being stubborn. Without
stubbornness, obsessiveness even, why would
an individual rage against the lock-in of current
convention—spend all that time in the patent office
and on trains, in thought experiments outside
of prior language in order to see anew? So, this
is the unpredictable part: getting to the moment
of genuine insight when a new means to solve a
problem (a new metaphor for framing the problem-
solution) breaks the lock-in of convention. This is
the inventor’s phase of innovation.
13
Yet innovation requires a second form of References
obsessiveness: inspired by the possibility
of bringing value, there must be drive to do Ashby, W. R. (1957),
something with the inventor’s insight. This role can An Introduction to Cybernetics,
be called ‘the innovator,’ and often it’s a different Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London.
person. Propelled by demonstration of possibility,
the innovator moves from insight to demonstration Esmonde, P. (2002),
to fruition—to creating value. Notes on the Role of Leadership and Language in
Regenerating Organizations,
Is it inevitable that, once invented, an insight with Sun Microsystems, Menlo Park.
real potential brings about valuable change? It
would seem so, though timelines and paths are Kay, A. (1988) From an interview in the video,
not predictable. The innovator’s phase seems “Project 2000,”
more understand-able, plan-able, work-able Apple, Cupertino.
from experience. These are the aspects we can
understand better, and foster, and improve. Novak, J. D., and D. B. Gowan (1984),
Learning How to Learn,
New York and Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press.
Nussbaum, B. (2005),
“The Empathy Economy,”
Business Week, McGraw-Hill, March 8, 2005.
Schumpeter, J. (1942),
Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy,
Harper & Brothers, New York.
Shewhart, W. (1939)
Statistical Method from the
Viewpoint of Quality Control,
Graduate School of the Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.
14