A Scoping Study End-of-Life Printed Circuit Boards

August 2002

by Dr Martin Goosey and Dr Rod Kellner Supported by Department of Trade and Industry Intellect Shipley Europe Limited

A Scoping Study End-of-Life Printed Circuit Boards

Contents

Executive Summary 1. Introduction 2. Review of Current Situation 3. Emerging Technologies and Developments 4. Emerging Technologies 5. Hydrometallurgical Approachesv 6. Summary and Conclusions 7. hamos ERP Electronic Scrap Recycling System 8. Visit Reports References Bibliography

3 4 7 13 16 19 22 26 28 41 43

Executive Summary
In recent years there has been increasing concern about the growing volume of end-of-life electronics and the fact that much of it is consigned to landfill without any attempt being made to recycle the materials it contains. The limited availability of landfill and the need for society as whole and industry in particular to adopt a more sustainable approach to materials consumption has led to greater attention being given to the problems associated with endof-life electronics. Additionally, implementation of emerging legislation such as the draft Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive will necessitate the increasing recovery and recycling of materials found in scrap electronics. In a recent printed circuit board (PCB) Industry Sustainable Technology Scoping Study, a key issue highlighted was the disposal of end-of-life PCBs and the lack of established methodologies and infrastructure capable of handling the increasing volumes of scrap boards that would need to be recovered following implementation of the WEEE directive. It is estimated that as much as 50,000 tonnes of PCB scrap is produced each year in the UK and of this only around 15% is currently subjected to any form of recycling. The remaining 85% is consigned to landfill. Currently, the only board waste being recycled is the proportion having an inherent value because of its precious metal content and this is limited to recovery of the metal content via smelting. With growing pressure to recycle more end-of-life circuit boards there is a clear need to develop and implement recycling methodologies that enable more of the materials and the components to be recycled. This study has identified and assessed the existing and potential technologies that may be used for the recycling of end-of-life circuit boards and their components. It is clear that there is, as yet, no single solution capable of viably handling all types of PCB scrap. However, the technologies are being developed and solutions do exist. There is a clear window of opportunity for the UK to establish and implement a PCB recycling capability using this technology before the WEEE directive has a major impact in 2006. Another key finding from this work is that there is an increasing and controversial export of scrap PCBs from Europe to China for recycling. There has recently been much adverse publicity regarding the fate of this electronic waste, largely because of the use of unskilled, low cost labour and the dangerous and hazardous conditions to which workers are exposed. As the shipping of end-of-life electronics to China is undesirable and that boards containing low levels of precious metals are uneconomic to recycle via smelting, it is clear that alternative recycling strategies will need to be implemented before new legislation will force more recycling of electronics waste.

Martin Goosey Chairman of PCIF Environmental Working Group

1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Strategic Importance
In 1996 the Printed Circuit Industry Federation (PCIF), now a division of Intellect, formed an Environmental Working Group, which set itself the objectives of assisting the UK PCB industry to adopt environmental and waste minimisation best practices and to understand the implications of increasingly stringent legislation. The group has been very active over the past six years and has undertaken numerous projects with support from government organisations including the Department of Trade and Industry, Envirowise, the Environment Agency and Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP), as well as from individual companies such as Shipley Europe Limited. Since its formation, the PCIF's Environmental Working Group's key activities and main emphasis have been in addressing the environmental issues impacting the PCB industry and in helping with its environmental concerns. More recently, it has also sought to address these issues via sustainable approaches and through the definition and implementation of best practices. Projects undertaken by the Working Group have resulted in such deliverables as: An Environmental Legislation Database New tin-lead recovery equipment incorporating a novel and patented technology The PCB industry Environmental Best Practice Guide The PCB industry Sustainable Technology Scoping Study Several good practice guides covering specific topics important to the PCB industry, such as water use optimisation, copper waste and lead-free assembly An ISO 14001 Environmental Management System 'fast track' accreditation programme Work is also currently drawing to a close on an investigation into the technical and economic viability of recycling the 25 litre plastic drums used to supply process chemistry to the PCB and related industries and a full report will be issued in the near future. Members of the Working Group have also recently expanded their activities through involvement in two panEuropean projects that are being supported with funding from the European Union. The results and reports from many of the above projects, and other related relevant information, have been widely disseminated within the UK. Additionally, the dissemination activities have been augmented (and publicised) via conferences, joint programmes with Envirowise, working group meetings and the publication of environmental information via the PCIF's website (www.pcif.org.uk).* There has also been much consolidation and contraction of PCB manufacturing capacity in the UK, especially in the last two years, and the remaining manufacturers are facing increasing pressure on margins, especially from producers in countries in the Far East such as China. With environmental compliance and associated costs often being of the order of 7% to 8% of overall manufacturing costs, any reductions that can be made in this figure will enhance the ability of the remaining industry to compete with overseas competition. Consequently, it has become clear that a more co-ordinated and strategic approach to environmental issues is required if the UK PCB industry is to be able to implement best practices effectively whilst simultaneously enhancing its performance. It is through the adoption of such a co-ordinated approach that the UK PCB industry will be able to make significant cost savings via increased efficiency, not only in its use of raw materials and by embracing waste minimisation techniques but also through its ability to comply in a proactive manner with the plethora of new and emerging legislation that is increasingly impacting the whole electronics supply chain. Additionally, reductions in the use of raw materials and the generation of waste and the ability, wherever possible, to recycle
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and reuse valuable resources will help both to sustain finite resources for future generations and to reduce the ultimate impact on the environment. The PCB industry Sustainable Technology Scoping Study completed in 2001 identified and prioritized several key environmental issues that need to be addressed if the UK PCB manufacturing industry is to operate effectively within a climate of increasingly stringent environmental regulation and to do so in a sustainable manner, minimising its impact on the environment and conserving raw materials for future use. For example, a programme to develop UV-ozone-based oxidative destruction techniques for the removal of organic contamination in effluent streams may offer considerable benefits to both the environment and the PCB industry, as well as to other industry sectors such as general metal finishing. The Environmental Working Group has also identified the need to establish a UK packaging recycling scheme to enable used chemical containers, especially 25 litre plastic drums, to be recycled. Following the identification of these two projects in the Sustainable Technology Scoping Study both are now underway following the successful submission of proposals to appropriate funding bodies. New UV-ozone-based oxidative destruction techniques for the removal of organic contamination in effluent streams are now being developed in collaboration with Shipley Europe Limited and C-Tech, in the UK, as part of a European Commission funded CRAFT project that includes UK PCB manufactures as well as companies in Germany and Sweden. The 25 litre plastic drum recycling evaluation project has also been funded and, at the time of writing (August 2002), it is nearing completion, with the final report issue and dissemination programme scheduled for the early Autumn. A third key project identified in the Sustainable Technology Scoping Study was related to the issue of end-of-life and scrap PCBs and the need to implement new recycling technologies in order to enable industry to meet its obligations under forthcoming legislation. In fact, the need to address this issue was identified as the top priority in the Scoping Study (along with the plastic drum recycling project). * (It is important to note that the PCIF has recently become part of a larger trade organisation known as Intellect, which represents a much broader cross section of the UK Electronics Industry, but which nevertheless includes the PCB Industry as a very important sector. In September 2002, it is anticipated that the PCIF's website will be incorporated into, and become part of, Intellect's website which is at www.intellectuk.org).

1.2 Programme and Project Content

The work programme undertaken in this project has been directed towards an overall assessment of the current magnitude of the problem relating to the issue of end-of-life and scrap PCBs within the UK. It has also sought to identify and define the suitability of available and emerging technologies that may be applicable either in isolation, or in combination, for recycling materials from both populated and unpopulated circuit boards. The project has been pursued under the auspices of the PCIF for the benefit of the UK PCB industry. Specialist input has been utilised wherever possible and this has included representation from board manufacturers, recyclers and academia. Visits to individual companies, universities and other organisations were also undertaken, within both the UK and the rest of Europe, and these were augmented with information gained from telephone interviews and literature searches etc as appropriate. The project has additionally been extended to include wider international inputs as much of the recycling of PCBs involves movement of materials over borders and long distances, often to countries as far apart as Canada and China. The majority of the work in this project was undertaken by Dr Rod Kellner, an environmental consultant working within the PCB industry, and Dr Martin Goosey, Chairman of the PCIF's Environmental Working Group, (both of whom are members of the PCIF's Environmental Working Group). Project management has been provided by the PCIF. The programme has proceeded via an initial compilation of existing published information
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from various public sources such as company literature, technical reports and literature searches. Subsequent to this initial information gathering stage, specific input was sought from various identified experts via a programme of visits and discussions with personnel from industry and academia. This was complemented by a research review of potential new approaches and practices embracing individual technologies that had been identified on a global basis. These have been used to outline potential methodologies that could be adopted if the level of board recycling is to be enhanced in order to enable compliance with the broader end-of-life electronics recycling requirements defined in the draft Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive which is likely to come into force in 2006. In recent years there has been increasing concern about the growing volume of end-of-life electronics and the fact that much of it is consigned to landfill without any attempt being made to recycle the materials it contains. The limited availability of landfill and the implementation of emerging legislation, such as the proposed WEEE directive, will necessitate the increasing recovery and recycling of materials found in scrap electronics. This study has identified and assessed the existing and potential technologies that may be used for the recycling of end-of-life circuit boards and their components. It is clear that there is, as yet, no single solution capable of handling all types of PCB scrap. However, the technology is being developed and solutions do exist. There is a clear window of opportunity for the UK to establish and implement a PCB recycling capability using this technology before the WEEE directive comes into force in 2006.

2 Review of Current Situation

2.1 Overview
Whilst information in respect of the amount of electronic scrap generated within the UK is published by Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling (ICER), specific figures relating solely to PCB scrap are less readily available and perceived quantifications vary greatly. It appears from discussions with key recycling industry personnel that ~50,000 tonnes per annum of PCB scrap is currently generated within the UK of which an estimated 40,000 tonnes per annum comprises populated boards. The remaining 10,000 tonnes is either unpopulated boards or associated board manufacturing scrap, such as off-cuts. Of this 50,000 tonnes per annum of estimated PCB scrap, it is further estimated that only ~15% is subject to any form of recycling with the remainder being consigned to landfill. Approximately 60% of the estimated landfill demand of 42,500 tonnes per annum is believed to be consigned within the total redundant equipment package. A proportion of what would primarily be landfill demand is met by off-shore shipments to China for disassembly and pyrolysis. The recycled board waste effectively comprises only those boards having inherent value by virtue of their contained precious metal content. Recycling in the current sense is purely in respect of the recovery via smelting of the metal content, with the vast majority of boards being refined at either:

? Union Menieur (Belgium) ? Boliden (Sweden) ? Noranda (Canada)

Within the UK, both Johnson Matthey and Engelhard accept scrap PCBs through their smelters, but the costs are such that only boards with very high precious metal content are processed. Boards shipped for smelting have invariably been subject to 'upgrading' via shredding and magnetic and additional classification.

2.2 Recycling
Populated PCB assemblies typically have the following approximate material composition: Non - metallic eg glass-reinforced polymer Copper Solder Iron, ferrite (from transformer cores) Nickel Silver Gold Palladium Other (bismuth, antimony, tantalum etc) 70% 16% 4% 3% 2% 0.05% 0.03% 0.01% <0.01%

General routes which may be followed for recycling comprise: Component recycling via disassembly Materials recycling via mechanical processing, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy or a combination of these techniques. Scrap PCBs forwarded to a smelter are rarely subject to any form of upgrading other than selective disassembly, grading and shredding to reduce bulk volume in order to avoid the inherent loss in precious metal content that is perceived to occur within additional separation-classification processes. It is not uncommon for companies engaged in general waste recycling of PCBs to have a precious metal content loss of ~10%, even with wet
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mechanical separation processes. With dry mechanical separation processes the potential loss may be somewhat higher than this and levels of up to 35% loss have been reported in some instances of boards having high precious metal group (PMG) bearing component populations. This is considered in the main to be a function of the nature of the interface at which the precious metal is present within populated components and its adherence to comminuted plastic particulates. Specialist markets exists in the USA and Europe for the recovery and refurbishment of components from PCBs for sale in the second user marketplace. However, although robotic technologies operating from maintained populated board databases offer the capability for cost effective component identification and disassembly, there are experts who consider that the low cost and high technology of new components will place serious limitations on the long-term viability of component recycling. There continue to be, however, emerging techniques for disassembly such as those embrace a thermal approach and, in concert with solder removal, via the deployment of shearing rollers. Pyrolytic treatment normally comprises the ignition and melting of ground feedstock within a furnace at temperatures of ~1200C via air injection and, although a small amount of oil is normally required, much of the energy is provided by the organic components of the scrap. The organic constituents of scrap boards are destroyed at these temperatures and any toxic emissions are addressed via afterburners in the off-gas ducting operating at 1200C to 1400C. The metal produced is called 'black metal' and is generally a copper-rich product that is subject to electrorefining with the precious metals being ultimately recovered from the anodic sludge via a leaching, melting and precipitative route. The vast majority of scrap or redundant PCB assemblies that currently enter the recycling route, primarily for their precious metal content, are subject to pyrolytic treatment (smelting) via initial primary mechanical treatment. However, there are a number of enhanced mechanical treatment approaches, either commercialised or in the course of being commercialised, that seek to add value prior to pyrolysis and to generate a separated polymeric component to effect true recycling. In Germany, for example, Fuba (see 8.2) have commercialised the generation of a 92% to 95% metal stream output from scrap unpopulated PCBs via a mechanical process route involving shredding, granulation, magnetic separation, classification and electrostatic separation. Polymer stream output from this facility has found application in extrusion casting in the instance of a fibreglass-rich component and as a filler in building materials in the instance of a powder generated fraction. These downstream applications for separated plastic fractions have recently been superseded by Fuba's own development of their combined use in chemical-resistant polymer based pallets. This represents both a higher added value application and one that overcomes market restrictions and cost barriers in the commercial supply of additive materials. Commercial mechanical recycling systems are also being currently offered as turnkey plants deploying comminution, magnetic and eddy current separation (for ferrous and aluminium fractions), classification, electrostatic separation and secondary treatment to generate metallic fractions, non conductive and ferrous fractions from scrap PCB assemblies. Although scrap laminate materials, in the form of offcuts etc, are more accurately defined as associated PCB waste and may be subject to pyrolysis for both ultimate copper recovery or the generation of a copper ash for application in fertiliser production, hydrometallurgical approaches have been commercialised in the USA for the treatment via dissolution in sulphuric/nitric acid leachants and subsequent electrolytic copper recovery. In addition to processing scrap unpopulated PCBs, Fuba's German facility also processes materials such as laminate offcuts.

2.3 Current Disposal Hierarchy

The existing treatment/disposal hierarchy for scrap PCBs is depicted below in Figure 1.

Figure 1

OEM

Dismantler

PCB Manufacturer

End - User

Component Re - Use

Recyclers

Disposal Contractors

Specialist Recovery/Recycling Operations

Disassembly

Sort Metal Recovery Dedicated Plastic Products

Grade

Shred Secondary Metals Iron, Ferrite, Aluminium Upgrade

Smelter

Landfill/Secondary Options

Residual Destruction

Recovered Metals

The primary sources of scrap PCBs are from Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), PCB manufacturers, end-users (corporate or individual) and equipment dismantlers. Output from these sources is either directly to recyclers or specialist recovery operations or indirectly to recyclers via disposal contractors. Component disassembly may be effected either by the OEMs for resale or reuse within the supply chain or by recyclers and is invariably undertaken manually. The result of manual disassembly is that the cost impact renders component recovery viable only in instances of relatively high value elements or, in the case of recyclers, where the component presence, such as transformer cores, may either detract from the final residual value at a smelter or hinder any shredding/ granulation processes. Larger recyclers generally effect a level of disassembly of scrap PCBs followed by sorting, grading and shredding operations with added value to the final ground product possibly being effected via removal of iron and aluminium content by the deployment of magnetic and eddy current separation. The output from the recycler will be either to landfill or to a smelter and the only boards being forwarded for smelting and subsequent recovery of the metallic constituents are those that have been graded as containing sufficient gold or precious metal content to recovery economically viable. All non precious metal bearing board scrap is consigned to landfill. The input to landfill currently represents ~85% of all the PCB scrap board waste generated and is generally a combination of that arriving from recyclers, disposal contractors or specialist recovery operations with ~60% of the scrap being consigned to landfill within its original equipment. It is estimated that approximately 30 companies within the UK are actively engaged in the handling of scrap PCBs with approximately 15 of these companies supplying the input directly to smelters. Scrap PCBs are generally subject to grading into three categories that essentially mirror their inherent precious metal content. These are referred to as H (high-grade), M (medium-grade) and L (low grade) scrap. Low grade material comprises television boards and power supply units having heavy ferrite transformers and large aluminium heat sink assemblies; laminate offcuts would also be considered as low grade material. Medium grade scrap is that from high reliability equipment with precious metal content from pin and edge connectors and with little incumbent material such as aluminium capacitors etc. High grade material comprises discrete components, gold-containing integrated circuits (ICs), opto electronic devices, high precious metal content boards, gold pin boards, palladium pin boards and thermally coupled modules from mainframes etc. These gradings essentially represent the inherent precious metal content and even the low grade material will tend to have a very small PMG content. It is possible to effect a regrading from low to medium category via selective manual disassembly of high percentage mass ferrous and aluminium components. Within the UK a small amount of scrap PCBs does find its way through what may be termed specialist recycling operations although, (with the notable exception of FUBA in Germany which is taking some UK unpopulated scrap boards), these tend to be limited to operations concerned solely with precious metal recovery. It is estimated that of the total amount of board scrap generated less than 1% finds its way to specialised recycling operations. As more than 70% of the mass of boards forwarded to smelting comprises GRP, which is destroyed pyrolytically, it is clear that of the estimated 50,000 tonnes per annum of UK generated scrap, only ~15% of the metals content is recovered with ~95% of all the scrap being either consigned to landfill or subject to thermal destruction.

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It should be noted that there is an increasing trade in the export of scrap PCBs offshore into mainland China for 'recycling'. Within Europe, between 1000 euros to 5000 euros per tonne are currently being offered for PCB scrap on a three level grading basis. It is apparent from recent studies that the methodology pursued within China embraces the use of cheap labour for disassembly in a uncontrolled manner with subsequent smelting of the depopulated board assemblies. The European Union is a signatory to the Basel Convention, which has sought to adopt a total ban on the export of all hazardous waste from rich to poor countries for any reason, including recycling. PCB scrap does, however, fall largely outside the definitions of hazardous waste, which gives a limit of lead at 3% as a threshold. On the assumption that other specifically noted hazardous elements such as mercury or cadmium are absent, the level of lead within populated PCB waste is generally in the region of 2% and it is considered that the majority of scrap PCBs would fall outside the restrictions imposed by the Basel Convention. In respect of defined hazardous wastes, the Basel Convention additionally calls on all countries to reduce their exports of such to a minimum and, to the extent possible, to deal with their waste problems within national borders. Indeed, this is an obligation of the Basel Convention regardless of the level of waste management technology in the importing country.

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2.4 Economics of Recycling

To appreciate the economic drivers involved in the recycling of scrap PCBs the following is a tabulation of the approximate intrinsic value of typical medium graded populated circuit board waste*:
Component Gold Palladium Silver Copper Tin Lead Nickel Aluminium Iron Zinc Wt. (by %) 0.025 0.01 0.1 16 3 2 1 5 5 1 Value (by kg) 6500 8000 70 0.8 3 0.3 5 0.9 0.1 0.8 Intrinsic Value Intrinsic Value ( per kg) (%) 1.63 59.4 0.8 29.2 0.07 0.13 0.01 0 0.05 0.05 0 0 Value from Smelter (%) 98 92 95 96

Total

2.74

* Metal values are based on June 2002 London Metal Exchange (LME) levels The major points from this breakdown and related cost factors are: Approximately 90% of the intrinsic value of scrap boards is in the gold and palladium content Commercial smelter operations typically credit between 92% - 98% of the sampled precious metal value Basic charges levied by commercial smelters are of the order of 400 - 1000 per tonne inclusive of sampling and shipping costs. It is clear that for scrap PCBs containing less than such levels of precious metals and which would be classified as low grade, it would be uneconomic to process via smelting. It is equally clear, bearing in mind that recyclers have to purchase scrap PCB assemblies, that the maximum yield of contained precious metals is realised and that currently this is best attained via shredding of boards without additional comminution and classification to reduce bulk volume.

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3 Emerging Technologies and Developments

3.1 Overview
The cost effectiveness of pyrolytic recycling for scrap board assemblies, apart from those with relatively high precious metal content, coupled with increasing ecological concerns has cast doubt over the long-term viability of this methodology and has provided impetus for the development of more sustainable approaches embracing mechanical and hydrometallurgical technologies. To effect significant increases in the levels of recycling being undertaken it is clear that any approaches must embrace, in a cost effective manner, the treatment of scrap board assemblies other than those bearing precious metal content. Newer approaches should also seek to address more realistically the issues of total recycling with recovery and downstream applications developed for the GRP element of scrap boards which represents in excess of 70% of the total input. All existing and potential treatment approaches involve mechanical or mechanicalhydrometallurgical methodology. Owing to the nature of the input material base, even the most sophisticated hydrometallurgical treatment models involve a level of mechanical treatment. Mechanical treatment systems have currently realised a far greater level of development than hydrometallurgical ones and, although the output from such invariably finds final treatment pyrolytically within a commercial smelter, there are many distinct advantages in the operation of enhanced mechanical treatment systems. The major advantages of mechanical systems lie in their basically 'dry' mode of operation without the use of any operational chemistry as would be necessitated with a hydrometallurgical based system. The use of any chemical approach will create a downstream environmental demand, either from liquid or gaseous pollution. This must be addressed by deploying a developed sustainable approach which that does not itself create an off-site disposal demand from secondary waste. It should be noted, however, that hydrometallurgical approaches do offer a genuine treatment alternative to smelting and the possibility of realising higher metal recovery yields. This latter point is of great significance when dealing with high value scrap PCBs and the inherent loss from process of precious metals that may be evident within a mechanical route involving comminution, separation and classification of all materials. Ultimately, the issues of cost effectiveness and ecological concerns must be addressed and both of the stated approaches may be fundamentally improved by being deployed on input material that is more primarily metallic and that has been optimised by the prior removal of plastic fractions for downstream applications. It appears that the constraints on total recycling would even be far better addressed via the development of hydrometallurgical approaches for high value board scrap whilst utilising a total mechanical approach for low grade scrap.

3.2 Characteristics of PCB Scrap

PCB scrap is characterised by significant heterogeneity and relatively high complexity, albeit with the levels of complexity being somewhat greater for populated scrap boards1. As has been seen in respect of materials composition, the levels of inorganics in particular are diverse with relatively low levels of precious metals being present as deposited coatings of various thicknesses in conjunction with copper, solders, various alloy compositions, non ferrous and ferrous metals6 . In spite of the inherent heterogeneity and complexity, there are too many differences in the intrinsic physical and chemical properties of the many materials and components present in scrap PCBs, and indeed electronic scrap as a whole, to permit recycling approaches that separate such into their individual fractions. The following characteristics ultimately govern mechanical and hydrometallurgical separation and it is based upon such that current and potential recycling techniques and infrastructures have been envisaged, developed and implemented.
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3.2.1 Density Differences

Differences in density of the materials contained within scrap PCBs has formed the basis for separation methods subsequent to their liberation as free constituents. The specific gravity ranges of typical materials are as shown below. Specific Gravity Range (g/cm3) 19.3 - 21.4 10.2 - 11.3 1.7 - 4.5 7.0 - 9.0 1.8 - 2.0

Materials Gold, platinum group, tungsten Lead, silver, molybdenum Magnesium, aluminium, titanium Copper, nickel, iron, zinc GRP

With these densities not being significantly effected by the addition of alloying agents or other additives7 , it is predictable that the deployment of various density separation systems available within the raw materials process industry may be utilised to effect separation of liberated constituents of a similar size range. The utilisation of density differences for the recovery of metals from PCB scrap has been investigated on many occasions and air classifiers have been used extensively to separate the non metallic (GRP) constituents, whilst sink-float and table separation techniques have been utilised to generate non ferrous metal fractions4,5,8. Air techniques that effectively combine the actions of a fluidised bed, a shaking table and an air classifier, have been successfully implemented in applications involving a diversity of electronic scrap separations10-13. It is essential, as has been noted, that the feed material must be of a narrow size range to guarantee effective stratification and separation.

3.2.2 Magnetic and Electrical Conductivity Differences

Ferrous materials may be readily separated with the application of low intensity magnetic separators that have been well developed in the minerals processing industry. Many non ferrous materials in respect of their high electrical conductivity may be separated by means of electrostatic and eddy current separators. Eddy current separation has been developed within the recycling industry since strong permanent magnets, such as ironboron-neodymium, have become available. Rotating belt type eddy current separation is the most extensively used approach for the recovery of non-ferrous metal fractions10-12,14,15. In application, the alternating magnetic fields caused by the rapidly rotating wheel mounted with alternating pole permanent magnets result in the generation of eddy currents in non ferrous metal conductors, which in turn, generate a magnetic field that repels the original magnetic field. The resultant force, arising from the repulsive force and the gravitational force permits their separation from non conducting materials.

3.2.3 Polyformity
One of the important aspects of both PCB and electronic scrap is the polyformity of the various materials and components and the effect this can have on materials liberation. It is essential that any shredding and separation processes take this into account. In eddy current separation, the shape of conducting components, in addition to their particle sizes and conductivity/density ratios, has a significant effect on the generated repulsive forces that ultimately govern the separation efficiency. For instance, multiple induced current loops may be established in conductors with irregular shapes with the induced magnetic fields counteracting each other and reducing the net repulsive force 14.

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3.2.4 Liberation Size

The degree of liberation of materials upon shredding and comminution is crucial to the efficiency and effectiveness of any subsequent separation process in respect of yield, quality of recovered material and energy consumption of the process. This is especially critical in mechanical separation approaches. The comminution of scrap PCBs has been shown to generate a high level of material liberation and levels as high as 96% to 99% have been reported for metallic liberation after comminution to sub 5 mm particulates 12. It must noted, however, that a continual observation from recyclers is that liberation levels such as these are atypical of actual yields and that a fundamental constraint on mechanical processing is the loss, particularly of precious metal content, that appears to be inherent due primarily to the nature of many plastic-metal interfaces.

3.2.5 Chemical Reactivity

Hydrometallurgical approaches depend on selective and non selective dissolution to achieve a complete solubilisation of all the contained metallic fractions within scrap PCBs. Although all hydrometallurgical approaches clearly benefit from prior comminution this is primarily undertaken to reduce bulk volume and to expose a greater surface area of contained metals to the etching chemistry. Selective dissolution approaches may utilise high capacity etching chemistries based on cupric chloride or ammonium sulphate for copper removal, nitric acid based chemistries for solder dissolution and aqua regia for precious metals dissolution, where as non selective dissolution may be carried out with either aqua regia or chlorine based chemistry.

3.2.6 Electropositivity
Dissolved metals generated via chemical dissolution are present as ionised species within an aqueous media and may be recovered via high efficiency electrolytic recovery systems. In the instance of selective dissolution, a single metal is recovered as pure electrolytic grade material, usually in sheet form, from the spent etching solution with certain etching chemistries permitting regeneration of the liquors for reuse as etch chemistries. In the instance of selective dissolution, use may be made of the differing electropositivities of the contained ionised metallic species to selective recovery metals at discrete levels of applied voltage.

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4 Emerging Technologies
4.1 Mechanical Approaches
As may be anticipated, all of the work undertaken on mechanical systems has been with the primary objective of enhancing separation yield of the various fractions, particularly the precious metal bearing ones. The basic mechanical techniques deployed in the treatment of scrap PCBs and electronic assemblies have been adapted or adopted from the raw materials processing sector and refinement has sought to address both yield constraints and ultimately cost effectiveness of the approaches, either used singly or in an integrated manner. The problems associated with yield were apparent from early attempts to produce a model methodology for handling all types of electronic scrap as instanced by the US Bureau of Mines (USBM) approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s3-5. The separation route, developed up to a 250 kg per hour pilot plant, comprised shredding, air separation, and magnetic, eddy current and electrostatic separation to generate aluminium rich, copper rich (including major precious metal fraction), light air classified and ferrous fractions5. The yield, however, was such that no commercial uptake of this approach has been instanced. The relatively poor yields or levels of separation obtained from this approach were undoubtedly a result of the use of a standard hammer mill having no provision, or levels of refinement, to cope with clear comminution of aluminium, the use of a ramp type eddy current separator of low capacity and selectivity and the use of a high tension separator for metals/non metals, which has been since demonstrated as having low capacity and high susceptibility to humidity. There was little further meaningful development work on the implementation of mechanical treatment approaches until the early 1990s when Scandinavian Recycling AB in Sweden implemented their mechanical concept for electronic scrap handling which did not specifically address the treatment of scrap PCBs but rather removed PCBs for specialist treatment as part of the pre sorting stage. Subsequent to this development, work in both Germany and Switzerland has seen the implementation of mechanically based approaches for the handling and separation of electronic scrap with the work at FUBA dedicated to scrap PCBs being a notable example of this activity. In 1996, Noell Abfall and Energietechnik GmbH in Germany implemented a 21,000 tonnes per annum plant with the capability of handling a wide variety of electronics scrap but specifically intended for redundant telecommunications scrap10. The system again involves PCB scrap and the inherent precious metal content being subject to prior manual disassembly. The overall methodology deploys a three stage liberation and sequential separation route with ferromagnetic removal via overhead permanent magnets and eddy current techniques because of their ability to optimise the handling of fractions in the 5 to 200 mm particle size range. Air table techniques were utilised for the separation of particulate fractions in the 5 to 10 mm, 2 to 5 mm and less than 2 mm ranges respectively. Mechanical and physico mechanical approaches to the treatment of scrap PCBs may be deployed as stand alone treatment stages, (i.e. pulverisation, magnetic separation, or integrated into a complete treatment system with the output being metallic and non-metallic fractions). The metallic output would be destined for pyrometallurgical refinement via smelting where as the non metallic output would find applications in the secondary plastics marketplace or be utilised within dedicated developed applications. As reported, FUBA has developed its total mechanical treatment system, albeit only currently utilised for nonpopulated board scrap or ancillary laminate waste through this latter route.

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There are commercially available turnkey mechanical systems for the treatment of a wide range of electronic scrap materials including populated and non populated PCBs. One such is that developed by hamos GmbH in Germany which is an automated integrated mechanical system comprising the following stages: primary coarse size reduction, accomplished with a shredder having multi-use rotational knives; coarse ferrous metal separation, accomplished with rare earth magnets sited above an oscillating conveyor belt feed to allow high efficiency ferrous separation across a range of particle sizes; pulverisation in which circuit board assemblies are pulverised within a hammer mill utilising high abrasion resistance hammers and liners and proprietary grates with the action of the mill inducing a 'spherising' effect on the metallic particulates; classification, utilising self-cleaning sieves; electrostatic separation, allowing virtually complete separation of metallic fractions with recirculation of mid-range particulate fractions further size reduction, cosisting of secondary pulverisation to effect size reduction on oversized particulates. The hamos system can additionally incorporate density separation for aluminium extraction and dust generation treatment of any such outfall from the hammer mills via secondary electrostatic separators. The complete conveyor based systems are operated at negative pressures to eliminate any airborne pollution and are currently available with treatment capabilities up to 4 tonnes per hour of input feed. All product from the system, viz mixed plastic, metallic and extracted ferrous and aluminium is bagged automatically for onward shipment. Considerable work has been undertaken on enhancing the effectiveness of mechanical treatment systems. For example, the development of newer pulverising process technology via the application of multiple pulverising rotors and ceramic coated systems has enabled the generation of sub-millimetre particulate comminution and this is shown in Figure 2. This in turn has enabled the efficiency of subsequent centrifugal separation techniques to realise 97% copper recovery yields. The effectiveness of the pulverising process has been improved by the adoption of dual pulverising stages: a crushing process and a fine pulverising process. The crushing process combines cutting and shearing forces and the fine pulverising process combines shearing and impact forces. With such effective particulate comminution both screen separation and gravity separation have been investigated and conclusions drawn that the most effective approach was by gravity using a centrifugal classifier with a high air vortex system 18 . Researchers at Daimler-Benz in Ulm, Germany, have developed a mechanical treatment approach that has the capability to increase metal separation efficiencies, even from fine dust residues generated after particulate comminution in the treatment of scrap PCB assemblies. They considered a purely mechanical approach to be the most cost effective methodology and a major objective of their work was to increase the degree of purity of the recovered metals such that minimal pollutant emissions would be encountered during subsequent smelting. Their process comprises the initial coarse size reduction to ~2 cm x 2 cm dimensioned fractions followed by magnetic separation for ferrous elements. This is then followed by a low temperature grinding stage. The embrittlement of polymeric components at temperatures less than 70C was found to enable enhanced separation from non-ferrous metallic components when subjected to grinding within a hammer mill. In operation the hammer mill was fed with liquid nitrogen at minus 196C, which served to both impart brittleness to the plastic feedstock constituent and to effect process cooling. Additionally, the grinding of material within such an inert atmosphere eliminated any
17

likelihood of oxidative by product formation from the plastics, such as dioxins and furans. Subsequent to this enhanced grinding stage the metallic and non metallic fractions were separated via sieving and electrostatic stages. Cost analyses undertaken by Daimler-Benz engineers have indicated that such a process may be economically viable even when dealing with relatively low grade PCB scrap having little precious metal content. Ongoing activities are concerned with development of the treatment of separated polymeric fractions in conjunction with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries that have set up a gasification and methanolysis plant to such effect19 . Air table separation systems have been researched with a view to effecting separation of metallic and plastic components from an input feed of screened 7 mm shredded particulate scrap PCBs post ferromagnetic separation. Recovery rates for copper, gold and silver of 76%, 83% and 91% respectively were considered to validate the approach, but only for low grade PCB scrap or general electronic scrap20 . Figure 2
PWB Waste

Crushing Process

Pulverising Process

Fine Pulverising Process

Gravity Separation

Copper Rich Powder

Glass Fibre & Resin Powder

Recycling of Copper 97% Copper Recovery

Filler in Consruction Materials

18

5 Hydrometallurgical Approaches
A number of hydrometallurgical approaches have been developed through to pilot plant stage with preliminary cost studies indicating the potential recovery of all materials, with the exception of discrete components, at an operational profit of some US$200 per tonne. In the USA, a methodology based on solvolysis has been developed to enable both the more efficient recovery of metals and the recovery of plastic materials such as epoxides at high quality and with the additional benefit of having the capability to extract both halogens and brominated hydrocarbon derivatives. (BIGAT: www.recyclers-info.de/de/bigat/prasengl.htm) On a relatively small scale there have been a number of hydrometallurgical approaches traditionally pursued in the recovery specifically of gold from pins and edge connectors. Such methodologies have usually been deployed on discrete edge connectors and gold coated assemblies that have been manually separated from the scrap board via the use of air knives etc. The approaches have either liberated gold as metal flake via acidic dissolution of the copper substrates or dissolution of the gold in cyanide or thiourea based leachants followed by electrowinning or chemical displacement or precipitation with powdered zinc. The use of non selective leachants to dissolve the non precious metal content of scrap PCBs has also received attention. Various studies have been undertaken into the viability of utilising dilute mineral acids in conjunction with subsequent metal recovery techniques based on concentration and separation such as solvent extraction, ion exchange, adsorption and cementation21. In the UK, there have been two potentially significant development projects undertaken on hydrometallurgical approaches to the recycling of scrap PCBs with both having demonstrated viability to a pre pilot plant stage. Both of these are reported in some detail within Section 8. The first of these approaches is from a Cambridge University led consortium which deploys a selective dissolution-electrolytic recovery route for discrete metal constituents23. The solder recovery stage employs a solder selective (non copper etching) regenerable leachant based on fluoroboric acid. This may or may not be deployed prior to mechanical pre treatment, from which the dissolved solder can be electrolytically recovered in pure metallic form. Subsequent selective leaching of copper and PMG metals is then carried out. The ability to remove selectively solder prior to mechanical comminution has specific advantages in enabling disassembly and component integrity and recovery. Mechanical pre treatment methodologies followed by the Cambridge group have included shredding, magnetic separation, eddy current separation and classification. The second development is that of the Imperial College, London (ICL) consortium which has taken shredded and classified sub 4mm PCB populated PCB scrap through a single leachate route comprising electro-generated chlorine in an acidic aqueous solution of high chloride ion activity24-26. This has produced a multi metal leach electrolyte containing all of the available metal content at generally mass transport controlled rates with respect to dissolved chlorine. The viability of subsequent metal recovery via electrolytic membrane cells with discrete metal separation has also been demonstrated.

5.1 Disassembly
Disassembly is considered an integral element of realising intrinsic value on a scrap PCB assembly. As such it is carried out at a number of levels; by the OEM or equipment manufacturers themselves for recovery of components from faulty products or over capacity manufacture for reuse or replacement, by a specialist contractor performing this function for the manufacturer; or by a recycler or disassembler for resale in the secondary component market. As has been noted levels of disassembly may also be undertaken as a preparation stage within primary upgrading operations, (e.g. removal of transformer cores). Practically all such disassembly operations are carried out manually, which in itself places limits on the operation in respect of the costs involved. Manual disassembly of scrap is essentially carried out with the aid of tools such as chisels, screwdrivers, pliers and pincers which may be
19

driven electrically or pneumatically. It is of course of significance that the extent to which PCBs and electronic equipment in general is or is not designed to facilitate recycling at endof-life can significantly influence the dismantling process. Disassembly is considered to be an area of increasing significance in a marketplace of low cost components and the necessity to address such in an automated low cost manner. Disassembly may also be considered to have an impact on overall future recycling strategies. As noted prviously that the limitations of purely mechanical process routes are effectively concerned with precious metal loss from component structures on populated boards (owing to the nature of the metalnon metal interface) and an effective automated disassembly methodology could well expand the potential for mechanical turnkey approaches for all grades of scrap PCBs. In respect of both cost reduction and the ensurance of safety objectives, mechanical dismantling and automated and robotic dismantling techniques have been considered 16,17 . In Austria, the organisation SAT has developed an automated component disassembly methodology for the dismantling of components from scrap, redundant or malfunctioning PCB assemblies. The existing production facility deals with the recovery of relatively expensive components from faulty products and overcapacity manufacture from a number of German, Hungarian and Austrian OEMs but the potential exists to expand the application of this technology to complete component disassembly. SAT concurs that the dismantling of components by any manual approach will be both time and cost intensive and have little future applicability within the overall treatment of scrap PCBs (which SAT currently estimate quantitatively as 400,000 tonnes per annum within Europe). SAT's technology essentially comprises automated component scanning and dual beam laser desoldering with vacuum removal of selected components. The component disassembly operation comprises the following stages: scanning - read all component identification data reading stored component database to dtermine their value determining how the identified components are soldered or mounted if mounted, disassembling via robot in 3 to 5 seconds (cost = 0.5 euro) if soldered, desoldering by using laser or infra red, with a method determined by package type In concert with their work on mechanical treatment of scrap PCBs, the NEC Group in Japan has also sought to address the automation of disassembly via a mechanical approach22. Equipment has been developed to remove components in a conveyorised mode via heating with infra red and shearing and as a separate development having a higher throughput rate via crushing with impacting rollers shown in the following Figure 3. Although both of these approaches leave the bare board intact, the former results in removal of both surface mount and soldered components without loss of integrity. The NEC team additionally extended the heat impacting equipment to effect residual (~4%) solder removal via automatic belt sanding. A clear objective of this work was to reduce the intrinsic material loss from mechanical treatment and to utilise more fully the uneven material distribution between the bare boards and components.

20

Figure 3
Scrap Populated PCB

Disassembly

Components

Heat & External Force

Solder Removal Heat, Impacting Force, Surface Abrasion

Solder

Pulverisation

Crushing, Fine Pulverisation

Separation

Gravity & Electrostatic

Copper Rich Powder

Glass Fibre & Resin Powder

21

6 Summary
6.1 Discussion
The increasing rate and levels of redundancy of PCBs is a function of that being realised for all electrical and electronic equipment. There are some significant differences, however, in that the greatest intrinsic material value, specifically precious metals, within scrap equipment invariably is in the contained PCBs. This has led to the development of a commercial infrastructure based on the dedicated collection of PCBs and subsequent grading of such with those having significant precious metal content to justify recovery being processed within a smelter. The vast majority of scrap PCBs (~ 85%) are consigned to landfill, either directly or within their original equipment. This represents a non sustainable loss of finite materials resources and is placing a dramatically increasing burden on landfill. The solution to the problem of discarded PCBs, as indeed with discarded electronic goods, is recycling. This will reduce the landfill disposal demand and encourage recovery of valuable materials and the reuse of components. A total recycling approach will provide a substantial source of both ferrous, non ferrous and precious metals together with non metallic plastic materials. The necessity of focusing on new and viable recycling approaches has been acknowledged and addressed within the European EUREKA project (EU 1140) 'A Comprehensive Approach for the Recycling of Electronics (CARE) "VISION 2000". This project was initiated to enhance the value of the recycling of electronics by developing methods for disassembly, materials separation, and identification and recovery of marketable products. The driving forces behind the EUREKA project were the high value of many parts in electronic scrap and the difficulty and inappropriateness of landfill as a disposal option2. Although the intrinsic value of electronic components has decreased dramatically over the past five years there is undoubtedly still a significant market for many recovered components and the landfill disposal option has taken on everincreasing significance since the EUREKA project was launched (1994). In terms of the products obtained from scrap PCBs there may be considered two recycling categories - component recycling and materials recycling - but in terms of recycling techniques five categories have been noted1. Various recycling approaches that have been detailed within this scoping study have embraced some or all of these categories and techniques, the relationships between which are shown below in Figure 4. Figure 4
Disassembly Components Recycling

Mechanical Processing Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy Combination Of These Techniques Materials Recycling

22

As has been seen, it is not uncommon for the disassembly process to be employed to segregate components and/or materials that are reusable, identifiable or hazardous in such a manner as to maximise economic return and to minimise environmental demand enabling subsequent processes to be performed more effectively and efficiently. From the early attempts and approaches towards recycling of PCB scrap that have been noted in this study together with historic work on total mechanically based routes carried out in the United States in the late 1970s and early 1980s by the USBM3-5, mechanical recycling techniques have been enhanced and evolved through to commercial implementation in Germany (FUBA). The deployment of such enhanced mechanical separation and treatment techniques either as a dedicated recycling approach or in concert with hydrometallurgical and pyrolytic methodologies does provide the basis of a recycling approach to address both the level of redundant board scrap currently consigned to landfill or off-shore and the diminishing level of boards with high precious metal content levels. It is considered highly unlikely that a single universal approach will be evolved but rather a variety of treatment options based on hydrometallurgy, mechanical and pyrolytic technologies integrated with higher levels of automated disassembly will be used. Such flexibility is considered necessary to address the variability of input material and the related variable intrinsic content value. The necessity to develop real downstream applications for liberated polymer based waste is an issue that must be addressed within a truly sustainable recycling scenario, and the efforts of FUBA in Germany have demonstrated what is possible. The studies undertaken to date have confirmed both the level of circuit board scrap being generated within the UK marketplace and the current destination of such with only those elements of scrap having precious metal content following an essentially pyrolytic-smelting recycling route. The cost effectiveness of such a pyrolytic approach for all but high value scrap boards (currently ~15% of the total, and declining with current reduced precious metal content of assemblies) together with increasing ecological concerns has led to the commercialisation of enhanced mechanical methodologies and the development of a number of hydrometallurgical approaches. There appears to be a very real possibility that the integration of these second generation mechanical and hydrometallurgical treatment routes will offer a cost effective and more sustainable alternative methodology to pyrolysis and one that will viably permit the recycling of scrap board assemblies that are currently consigned to landfill.

6.2 Key Points

Points of significance that have emerged from this scoping study are as follows:

? An estimated 50,000 tonnes per annum of PCB scrap is generated within the
UK comprising ~40,000 tonnes per annum of populated boards, with the remainder being unpopulated boards and associated board waste such as laminate off-cuts. the balance being consigned to landfill or off-shore processing.

? Only approximately 15% of this scrap is subject to any form of recycling, with ? The scrap subjected to recycling is only that which contains a relatively high
proportion of precious metals (usually gold and palladium) and thus is economically viable. smelter.

? All of the scrap subjected to such recycling is treated pyrolytically within a ? Greater than 90% of the intrinsic material value of boards which may be
classified as medium grade scrap is in the gold and palladium content.

? Mechanical upgrading other than disassembly, grading and shredding for bulk

volume reduction prior to pyrolysis is not undertaken because of inherent yield loss, particularly of precious metals. This loss may be typically in the order of 10% but may be much higher. 23

? Yield problems with mechanical treatment methodologies are more a function

of the plastic-metal interface on components. For unpopulated or depopulated boards this is less of a constraint and successful commercial total mechanical recycling has been implemented for such assemblies (See section 8.2). automated systems will have an impact on future recycling strategies to maximise cost effectiveness for low value component recovery and as an initial stage for recycling approaches to maximise yield of residual intrinsic material value. loss from recycling processes but have a potentially more significant environmental impact in implementation.

? Disassembly has traditionally been undertaken manually but newer developed

? Hydrometallurgical approaches offer the opportunity to eliminate metal yield ? Mechanical treatment approaches appear to offer significant environmental

and operational benefits and this is reflected in the amount of development work undertaken on them during the past 20 years, with the focus having been on improving yield and efficiency. take advantage of intrinsic material physical and chemical property differences respectively. These differences include density, magnetic and electrical conductivity and chemical reactivity. treatment methodologies is in the liberation of the component material fractions. This is somewhat less of a constraint with hydrometallurgical treatment approaches.

? Mechanical and hydrometallurgical recycling approaches have been able to

? PCB scrap is markedly heterogeneous in nature and the key to all mechanical

6.3 Conclusions
It is considered, particularly in relation to realistically addressing the problems of rapidly increasing landfill demand caused by scrap PCBs and redundant electronic assemblies in general, that the following conclusions may be drawn: Developed treatment approaches must cost effectively embrace the recycling of scrap other than that having inherent precious metal content value. The issues of total recycling must be more realistically addressed particularly in respect of recovery and downstream applications for GRP, which represents >70% of the scrap board mass. The possibility of developing speciality products from recycled PCB waste has been demonstrated by FUBA in Germany. The constraints on yield from total mechanical recycling approaches should not detract from the viability of such operations when applied to unpopulated, depopulated or low precious metal bearing scrap, provided that there is evident cost effectiveness in recycling. This will only effectively be brought about by legislation, an incentive scheme or by a suitable charging mechanism. Hydrometallurgical approaches offer a viable methodology in maximising the recovery of intrinsic metal value, particularly precious metals, and should be further developed through pilot plant stages to commercialisation. No single treatment approach will be appropriate for the handling of all scrap PCBs because of their diversity and varying intrinsic worth. Rather, an integrated hierarchy of approaches that encompasses disassembly and mechanical and hydrometallurgical methodologies will be needed to generate either materials and components for direct reuse or downstream application or a non toxic feedstock for pyrolytic refining.
24

6.4. Recommendations for Further Work

It is clear that significant reductions in landfill consignment and off-shore shipments will only be effectively acheived by enabling profitable treatment via recycling of non precious metal bearing scrap boards. This in turn highlights the need for the development of lower cost treatment methodologies and possibly also a legislative constraint coupled with an effective charging mechanism. The following recommendations are therefore primarily directed towards the furtherance of development work that seeks to address these existing constraints. 1. Development work should be undertaken on mechanical separation treatment approaches for populated scrap PCB assemblies that enable yield enhancement, particularly of the metallic bearing fractions. 2. Development work should be continued through to a pilot plant study on hydrometallurgical approaches to generate operational cost data and to optimise operational parameters and yields. 3. Detailed life cycle analyses should be undertaken on PCB assemblies. 4. Hydrometallurgical development work should be directed towards integration with depopulation and other approaches to further optimise yields and to address the elimination of secondary environmental impact. 5. Development activity should be pursued on the integration of automated depopulation m ethodology with mechanical separation to generated separated fractions having upgraded feedstock capability for either pyrometallurgical treatment or developed hydrometallurgical treatment. 6. A detailed study should be carried out to identify downstream applications for separated polymer fractions. It is not considered sufficient to merely state that there are secondary applications within a filler-additive market and it is likely that defined products utilising such feedstock and taking advantage of its specific physical and chemical properties may require identification and development. FUBA's experience of recycling recovered polymeric fractions from PCB scrap is an example of a route which gives true added value to such material. This aspect is significant because of the fact that greater than 70% of PCB waste is polymer based. 7. There is a clear need to address the current clearly unacceptable issue of end-of-life electronics scrap being exported to China. Although such widespread practices may not yet be strictly illegal, there are clearly environmental, health and safety and even moral issues that make the practice unacceptable. 8. With the likely implementation of the WEEE and RoHS directives in January 2006, there are just over three years left for the UK to develop and implement the technology and infra structure that will be needed to process and recycle the large amounts of end-oflife electronics that will be subject to these directives. The technology for handling this type of electronic waste is becoming available but further development via a co-ordinated and integrated approach is clearly required. This will require a partnership between government and industry and it is proposed that an exploratory working group be established forthwith.

25

7. hamos ERP Electronic Scrap Recycling System

The hamos ERP electronic scrap recycling system* is designed to recycle electronic items, coming from production and post consumer electronics waste. Bare and populated circuit boards, integrated circuits, cellular phones and even complex electronic components such as whole computers, photocopiers, VCR's and other consumer electronics can be recycled. After several stages of size reduction, a non-ferrous metal product is made with a high degree of purity by a proprietary, dry separation system. To recycle: Printed circuit board base materials (Epoxy or phenolic resin) Bare and populated printed circuit boards Electronic elements Power supply circuit boards Power supply units with transformers (weight up to max. 4 kg each) Telephones and Mobile (cellular) phones Computers (without monitor) and Keyboards and many more the hamos ERP will help you to make the maximum profit by recovering the valuable fractions from these materials. The final products By the use of the hamos ERP electronic scrap recycling system you will achieve the following valueable fractions after a multi-stage, mechanical and electrostatic separation of your electronic scraps: A metallic fraction, which contents of a mixture of different metals and precious metals An almost metal-free non-conductor product, which consists mainly of plastics, epoxy resin, fibers, ceramics and other organic and inorganic materials. A ferrous fraction

26

The function The recycling system hamos ERP contains the following process steps: Pre- comminution for a rough liberation Magnetic and eddy current separation of coarse ferrous and non-ferrous metals Liberation of non-ferrous metals Classifying for improved separation Electrostatic Separation of the metal fraction Subsequent comminution of unliberated materials Dust extraction Optional gravity or eddy-current separation of coarse metal fractions Advantages Dry mechanical process High metal recovery rate, also for precious metals Fully automatic, continuous process High metal purity Compact, turn-key solution High economy due to low labour and operation costs Low wear costs by high metal yield Quick return on investment The extension possibilities Due to the modular construction, the basis unit can be modified for increasing the throughput or the degree of automation. By using other well-proven separation technologies like eddy-current separators, air-knives, shaker tables and others, heavy electronic scraps like VCRs, radios, non-disassembled computers etc. can also be recycled. * The material in Section 7 is reproduced verbatum from material provided by hamos

27

8. Visit Reports
8.1 Visit Report to PGM Recycling Limited
Briton Ferry Industrial Estate Neath SA11 2HZ recycle@pmigroup.co.uk Date of Visit: Person Contacted: Visit by: Visit Notes PGM is one of the largest acceptors of scrap computer and electronic waste equipment in the UK. It has been involved in such core business on its current site for 15 years and, whilst both dismantling and adding value via traditional mechanical methodology to scrap components and PCBs, is aware of and has participated in programmes offering more complete recycling opportunities. PGM has involvement in the Imperial College London (ICL) consortium which has the broad objective of developing a single stage hydrometallurgical total recycling approach to treating scrap PCB assemblies and has been involved in hydrometallurgical development work aimed at selective dissolution and recovery of metal content of scrap PCBs. PGM consider it essential that new approaches to recycling PCBs should be based on 100% recovery, certainly of the metals content. Its own experiences of hydrometallurgical approaches gives it an awareness of the technical issues which would need to be overcome to make it viable. In respect of the current route being followed with scrap PCBs, PGM stated that pyrometallurgical routes via smelting are the only currently alternative to landfill and current charges are circa US$1000 per tonne plus transport costs with credit only being issued in respect of gold and precious metal content. These costs are basically those being charged by Noranda and equivalent smelters in Sweden and Belgium. Engelhard's UK facility was charging some 1500 per tonne and as such was only deemed suitable for very high grade material. Main outlets for gold and precious metal bearing board scrap are in Belgium, Sweden or Canada (with a Hamburg refinery having some capability albeit restricted) because of environmental controls. The only real smelting treatment as an alternative to these would be in Australia. PGM emphasised that the only boards subject to metal recovery pyrometallurgically via smelting were those that had inherent precious metal content. In terms of component disassembly for reuse or resale, PGM was somewhat sceptical about the long term viability of such - when the value of chips was high it was considered worthwhile disassembling, testing and remarketing but the continuing slump in prices was considered to leave many question marks over the continuance of such operations. PGM currently receive electronic waste from end users and dismantlers and shred high value sorted PCBs for assay and shipment to smelters via 2 x 40 kW twin-shaft shredders. It stated that NECP, who as the largest acceptor of electronic scrap in the UK, takes in most of the lower grade material and deploys a single 1000 kW single-stage shredder for equivalent operations. Transport costs to the main operational smelter at Noranda were quoted at circa 100 per tonne. PGM's estimate of the amount of boards and associated waste being currently subject to any form of recovery via smelting was 25% with some 75% being consigned to landfill. The essence of the overall approach being emphasised once again that recyclers only recycle what is economic or profitable to recycle. PMG considered that the overall treatment costs and hence the percentage of boards that could be effectively recycled could only be increased via the development of a lower cost hydrometallurgical approach that could accommodate the treatment of low value scrap boards and perhaps have sufficient flexibility to handle small tonnages of waste input. 29th January 2002 Mark Wolle - Director Dr Rod Kellner

28

8.2 Visit to VOGT electronic FUBA GmbH

VOGT electronic FUBA GmbH Bahnhofstrasse 3 D-37534 Gittelde Germany http://www.vogt-electronic.com Date of Visit: Person Contacted: Visit by: Visit Notes FUBA is a wholly owned subsidiary of VOGT and is a substantial manufacturer of PCBs both from its Gittelde and Dresden sites in Germany and from an equivalent facility in Tunisia. Additionally, it has operational at Gittelde, a full production facility for the recycling of non populated PCB scrap offcuts and PCB manufacturing scrap material offcuts. The concept was initiated in 1991 via a combination of pressure from local 'green' political demand and a genuine desire to implement a programme of waste management cost reduction embodying raw material savings and in concert with a 'cradle to grave' product manufacturing methodology. Through development and pilot plant stages a 100% mechanical recycling process has been realised that has been operational on a production basis since 1996. The production plant has the capability to accept some 5000 tonnes per annum of scrap PCB and offcut feedstock and is currently running at levels approaching this capacity. Feedstock material is primarily from Germany (circa 90%) with materials from Austria, Switzerland, France and the UK also being processed. A key consideration in the development of a totally mechanically based approach was the demand to eliminate the necessity of integrated treatment equipment to process secondary environmental demand which would have been inherent with either a chemical or a thermally based processing approach. The actual input material comprises punching grids, sections, frames, single-sided PCBs, double-sided PCBs, multilayer assemblies and laminate offcuts. It has been estimated that some 1.26 kg of such waste is generated by a PCB manufacturer for every square metre of finished product and laminators may generate up to 0.15 kg of such waste per square metre of output. The separation methods employed at FUBA are mechanical size-reduction, classification, magnetic separation and electrostatic separation. The process flow is illustrated in the following Figure 5. The incoming materials are initially crushed and ground via a swinghammer crusher with in-line magnetic separation to remove iron based contamination and are thence directed to storage within silos from which they are subsequently directed through secondary pulverisation and separation stages. The final product comprises a copper fraction and two plastic fractions - a fibrous plastic fraction from the initial separation process and a powdered plastic fraction from the secondary separation. The copper fraction is granular in composition and comprises some 92% of copper. This metallic composition is the forwarded for off-site smelting and specific applications have been developed for the plastic fractions. Initially, the plastic fractions found downstream applications in both extrusion casting and as fillers, but now FUBA have developed a dedicated product outlet for all the plastic based fractions in the fabrication of chemically resistant pallets. The essence of FUBA's approach is the total elimination of waste with all separated elements being subject to total recovery and/or reuse. It is apparent that FUBA's approach could not only be expanded to cope with a total demand for unpopulated scrap board input but could also be integrated into and form the basis of a methodology for handling populated board scrap materials. As with most recycling systems, the main driver is cost. We have already seen that only board waste with inherent precious metal value is generally subject to thermal recycling. The FUBA system clearly adds value to this approach and offers a methodology wherein all the component elements, metallic and non metallic, are truly recovered. All other classifications
29

31st May 2002 Peter Kolbe Dr Martin Goosey and Dr Rod Kellner

of scrap PCBs are currently consigned either to landfill (or perhaps more worryingly) to countries such as China for manual working in the absence of either safety or environmental controls. FUBA's service enables true certification of recycling for the scrap board producer and normally generates a credit to the producer for base material waste of up to 100 euros per tonne where as a charge of up to 150 euros per tonne would be typically levied for scrap PCB waste. It should be noted that PCB scrap is currently classified into three grades of material with high precious metal content waste being Grade I through to lowest value waste at Grade III. Off-continent values being offered for this waste for manual treatment in China currently range from 1000 euros per tonne for Grade III material up to 5000 euros per tonne for Grade I material and these cost levels clearly indicate the treatment charges that must be approached to offer a real environmentally benign end-of-life recycling option for scrap PCBs. Figure 5
Delivery

Magnetic Separator Swing Hammer Crusher Pre - Comminution

Storage

Silo I

Silo II

Separation

Sifter

Sifter

Plastics Fraction

Plastics Fraction

Comminution

Impact Disk Mill

Impact Disk Mill

Grading

Sieving

Separation

Sifting

Separation

Twin Stage Electrostatic Separation

Copper Fraction

Plastics Fraction

30

8.3 Visit to the Austrian Society for Systems Engineering and Automation (SAT) Eco-Life
Albert Schweitzer Gasse 11 A-1140 Vienna Austria http://www.ihrt.tuwien.ac.at/sat Date of Visit: Person Contacted: Visit by: Visit Notes SAT has developed an automated component disassembly methodology for the dismantling of components from scrap, redundant or malfunctioning PCB assemblies. Whilst the existing production facility which has been set up deals with the recovery of relatively expensive components from faulty products and over capacity manufacture from a number of German, Hungarian and Austrian OEMs, the potential exists to expand the application of this technology to complete component disassembly. It is considered that the dismantling of components by any manual approach will be both time and cost intensive and have little future applicability within the overall treatment of scrap PCBs, which SAT currently estimate quantitatively as 400,000 tonnes per annum within Europe. SAT's technology essentially comprises automated component scanning and dual beam laser desoldering with vacuum removal of selected components. Process throughput is circa 1 board per 7 seconds for the scanning-database reading phase and approximately 20 seconds for each component desoldering operation with robotic removal taking 4 seconds per component. Some 20,000 components per month are recovered by SAT within its current facility during the processing of approximately 3000 - 4000 boards per month. The operational desoldering laser system is based on a 2 x 50 Watt diode laser emitting at 350 nm and SAT intend to increase the laser power to 2 x 100 Watt operation in the future. The component disassembly operation is described in Section 5.1. SAT estimate that the reusable chip market is equivalent to 10 billion euros globally but notes that this level is down from a figure of 30 billion euros some 2 years ago. The only perceived competitive approach to SAT's methodology is considered to be manual re-work-component desoldering. It considers that the OEM marketplace component recovery and reworking demands may only effectively be addressed via laser technology but points out the necessity for pulsed laser operation for reworking and a greater level of robotic accuracy. Future development perceived by SAT is perhaps for scalable multiple treatment lines rather than larger individual disassembly machines with an in-built flexibility of approach and perhaps the capability for portability to OEM sites within a 40 foot containerised vehicle. SAT further foresees possibilities for either leasing or franchising this technology to OEMs, existing recyclers and emerging-new recycling companies on a global basis. 26th April 2002 Dr Bernd Kopacek - Managing Director Dr Martin Goosey and Dr Rod Kellner

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8.4 Visit to Imperial College London

Department of Engineering Imperial College University of London London SW7 2BY g.kelsall@ic.ac.uk Date of Visit: Person Contacted: Visit by: Visit Notes Under the auspices of EPSRC funding, an Imperial College London (ICL) team with Cookson Group plc as the prime industrial partner has developed a novel aqueous leaching and electrowinning process for recycling metals (Au, Ag, Cu, Pd, Sn, Pb, etc.) from electronic and similar scrap. Samples of such scrap have been processed physically and characterised physically and chemically. Shredded scrap material, of particle size, less than 4 mm has been leached by electrogenerated chlorine in acidic aqueous solutions of high chloride ion activity. This has produced a multi metal leach solution, containing nearly all of the available metal in the scrap, apparently at mass transport controlled rates with respect to dissolved chlorine, for the majority of the metals. Electrochemical kinetic measurements and batch electrowinning experiments, supported by thermodynamic predictions, have demonstrated the feasibility of achieving high charge efficiencies for metal recovery and of selective metal deposition from the leach solutions. A prime driver behind the development work was that such a process would be a significant improvement on currently operated pyrometallurgical processes as it would maximise metal recovery with low specific energy consumption and obviate the need for treating the noxious gaseous emissions from pyrometallurgical processes. The objective of the work undertaken was to carry out a non selective metal dissolution process, using anodically generated chlorine as oxidant, followed by metal recovery in an electrochemical reactor, with the option of selective recovery. This involved the use of highly concentrated HCl + NaCl electrolytes (ca. 5 M Cl -, pH < 1) to increase the solubilities of various metals, with electrogenerated chlorine as the oxidant to drive a non-selective metal dissolution process. The overall process chemistry involved is set down in the following. In an electrochemical reactor, chlorine is generated at a Ti / RuO2 anode in acidic aqueous chloride electrolyte: 1. 2ClCl + 2e2

22nd February 2002 Professor Geoff Kelsall Dr Rod Kellner

This is used in a leach reactor to drive the oxidative dissolution of those metals from electronic scrap: 2. Mscrap + (n - z) Cl- + 0.5z Cl2 MCln(n-z)The metals are recovered from solution by electrodeposition as the counter reaction for the anodic generation of chlorine: 3. MCl (n-z)- + zeM + nCln won

Hence, the overall reaction in the electrochemical reactor is: 4. MCl (n-z)M + + (n - z)Cl - (catholyte) + 0.5z Cl
n won

Thus, the overall process involves inputting electrical energy to move the metals from the scrap to the cathode and produces only a de-metallised waste, the net chemical change being the sum of reactions (2) and (3): 5. Mscrap Mwon The primary loss in cathode current efficiency arises from dissolved chlorine being returned from the leach reactor and reduced at the catholyte, rather than on the metal scrap. An ion
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exchange membrane allowing chloride ion transport, but inhibiting transport of large anionic metal chloride complexes, must be incorporated in the reactor to enable recycling of chloride from catholyte to anolyte. Via the application of sequential applied varying deposition potentials, selective electrolytic recovery of Au and Pd, Ag, Cu, and Sn and Pb under mass transport control was realised. A clear significance of this technology is that a single dissolution stage for all the metals contained within an input feed of shredded circuit board material may be effected within a controlled reaction environment to obviate interstage pollution and contamination problems that may be inherent in a multi-stage dissolution process, albeit with perhaps a less efficient electrolytic recovery route. ICL foresee the potential significance of this work and is currently negotiating with a number of potential industrial partners to seek funding to progress the project through to a dedicated pilot plant stage comprising a reactor system with the capability to process up to 100 kg per day of scrap board material and which will be utilised to address outstanding issues highlighted within the project development phase. Professor Kelsall noted the necessity for complete life cycle analysis to be undertaken on electronic scrap within the context of the planned work programme.

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8.5 Visit to EA Technology Limited and University of Cambridge

EA Technology Ltd Capenhurst Chester University of Cambridge Dept of Materials Science Cambridge Dates of Visits: Persons Contacted: Visits by: Visit Subject: Visit Notes It is considered appropriate to summarise both of these visits and the technical description of the development work undertaken as a single document in respect primarily of both EA Technology and Cambridge University having been within the Link Project consortium relating to PCB recycling. It should be noted that one of the main drivers to this project was the desire of Fry Technology to recover and recycle solder contained within scrap PCBs. Although the technology developed may have been perceived as a prime objective a logical extension of the work was its integration of such within a complete hydrometallurgical treatment methodology for scrap PCB assemblies. The hydrometallurgical approach developed comprising selective dissolution of solder, copper and precious metals was considered technically successful and to have set down a blueprint for progression to pilot plant development stage. Preliminary estimates by both EA Technology and Cambridge indicate the cost of a 10,000 tonne per annum capacity treatment plant as being US$6 million and it such would show an operational profit on metals recovered of $180 per tonne, with the value of recovered components being up to US$3000 per tonne of material processed. At the time of initiation of the project, the perceived situation with regard to recycling was very much as is currently the status quo, i.e. with only scrap boards having an inherent precious metal content value being forwarded to those for smelting. Both EA Technology and Cambridge foresee the next development phase as the generation of a business plan, the development of a 100% security of supply situation and the building of a pilot plant to quantify operational costs and long-term technical viability. Professor Frey noted that a specific advantage of a hydrometallurgical approach was the ability to process waste containing bismuth, which has a persistence when present in smelter feedstock, and that a specific advantage of this hydrometallurgical approach was the ability to initially desolder unshredded boards with the consequent opportunity for component disassembly. January 2002 - EA Technology and 22nd March 2002 - University of Cambridge Ian Dalrymple, Jed Barlow - EA Technology Professor Derek Frey - University of Cambridge Dr Rod Kellner Cambridge University/ Fry Technology/ EA Technology Link Project on: The Recycling of Printed Circuit Boards

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Technology The process stages in the hydrometallurgical route developed are shown in Figure 6. Figure 6
Shredding

PCB Scrap
If component recovery is required

Magnetic and eddy current separation

iron/steel fraction aluminium fraction

Solder leach

solder recovery; electrowinning

Copper leach

copper recovery: solvent recovery; electrowinning

Precious metals recovery

The method involves the selective dissolution of the solder that connects components to the circuit board and tests undertaken by the consortium have indicated no loss in functionality or performance of components recovered in such a manner. However, the reduction in market potential for most component reuse applications means that shredding of the boards prior to leaching may be undertaken which promotes both ease of handling and permits the use of beneficial pre-treatment, namely magnetic and eddy current separation. Both eddy current separation and magnetic separation may be simultaneously deployed to effect a three-way separation of shredded particulate matter. A conveyor belt looping over a rapidly rotating permanent magnet enables a current to be induced within conductors in the shredded feedstock. The induced current tends to eddy around the randomly shaped particles creating a secondary magnetic field around them. Interaction of this field with the changing magnetic flux within the pulley head causes such particles to be ejected from the falling stream of granulated matter. This separation is particularly effective in removing aluminium. Ferrous conductors will experience a magnetic pull towards the belt that overrides the eddy current induction and so cling to the belt long enough to be separated from the main bulk of the falling feedstock. A particular novel technology of this hydrometallurgical route lies in the leaching of the solder, which is accomplished with no uptake of copper via the use of chemistry based upon fluoboric acid in the presence of the titanium (IV) ion. Solder may be recovered electrolytically from this leachant which may in turn be regenerated for closed loop operation by subsequently increasing its oxidation state.

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The reaction chemistry involved may be set down thus: Leaching 1. Pb + 2HBF4 + 2Ti4+ 2. Sn + 2HBF4 + 2Ti4+ Electrodeposition 3. Pb (BF4)2 + H2O 4. Sn (BF4)2 + H2O Leachant Regeneration 5. 2H+ + 0.5O2 + 2Ti3+ 2Ti4+ + H2O Copper extraction and recovery follows a well-established route of dissolution via ammonium or cupric based chemistry with subsequent electrolytic recovery which may be integrated into a closed loop etchant regeneration system. Following copper extraction, the residues containing precious metals may be dissolved in a chlorine based leachant and electrolytically recovered or be subject to mechanical upgrading prior to smelting. Pb + 2HBF4 + 0.5O2 Sn + 2HBF4 + 0.5O2 Pb (BF4)2 + 2Ti3+ + 2H+ Sn (BF4)2 + 2Ti3+ + 2H+

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The Communications and Information Industries (CII) Directorate is one of the sponsorship Directorates within the Department of Trade & Industry. CII Directorate was formally created on 1st April 1996 and brings together responsibility for IT, electronics, telecommunications, broadcasting technology and publishing. Thecreation of CII mirrors the converging nature of the industries. The key objective of the Directorate is to enhance the ability of the communications, information and electronic industries (ITEC) to compete in existing and new markets. Areas of manufacturing and services covered by the Directorate include: Creative content - electronic publishing, games Services - IT, telecomms operators (fixed, mobile, cable), VADS Software - applications, languages, embedded Hardware - CPUs, peripherals, networks, instrumentation, TVs, VCRs Components - Semiconductors, optical components, displays, PCBs, electronic design and manufacturing, etc. The Electronics Unit, with responsibilities including the manufacturing and design of electronics, has strong links with the PCIF and has supported several environmental projects for the sector, including this Scoping Study. Another recent programme is Electronics Design which makes companies undertaking electronics design aware of the latest methods and adopt them. Specific areas covered Printed circuit boards, active and passive components, contract electronic manufacturing services, and electronics design. Environmental issues in electronics manufacture, microengineering. Contact Dr Tim Reynoldson Tel: 020 7215 1337

Nick Jolly Tel: 020 7215 1331

Further information on CII activities is available on: Web: http://www.dti.gov.uk/cii Further information on the Electronics Design Programme is available on Tel: 020 7215 1909 Fax: 0148 353 8030 e-mail: info@e-design.org.uk Web: http://www.e-design.org.uk

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The PCIF is part of the Components & Manufacturing Services team of Intellect, the Information Technology Telecommunications & Electronics Industries in the UK. Intellect incorporate members of CSSA and FEI, and represents over 1000 organisations. The PCIF team represents the UK PCB and EMS industries, from designers and suppliers, to PCB fabricators and contract assemblers. In addition individual members are welcome through the ICT (The Institute of Circuit Technology) and EDRG (Electronic Design Realisation Group). Their work covers many areas directly relevant and beneficial to the PCB industry and they are committed to improving the environment in which their members do business, promoting their interests and providing them with high value services. The continued success of the industry relies upon it remaining aware of the challenges ahead and maintaining a sound knowledge of the market. To this end, Intellect's provision of market information is a key service within the industry and one of the most important functions of the association. In order to keep its members informed of events pertinent to the industry, the PCIF team also issues a monthly newsletter Short Circuit , Circuit Review twice a year and provides daily updates through its powerful websites found at www.pcif.org.uk and www.intellectuk.org The PCIF team also produces an on-line directory in which all corporate members are featured in, and this has become the buyers' guide to the industry. It provides full company information highlighting manufacturing capability and company specific technical information. It is distributed to the electronics industry across the world, thereby maximising members' exposure to potential buyers. The PCIF team and Intellect also hold regular conferences and workshops that address a wide range of pertinent topics from current technical developments to recent training initiatives. Regular senior executive forums are also popular, as is the annual conference, which continues to be the year's showcase event. For further details of all these services, contact Claire Yarrow on Telephone : 020 7331 2050 or visit http://www.pcif.org.uk or http://www.intellectuk.org

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Shipley is committed to the development of products and processes that stress quality and concern for our members, customers and the environment. Shipley recognises that as a worldwide supplier of chemistry systems, we share a major responsibility with our customers for the environmental health and welfare of our planet. We demonstrate this responsibility through our commitment to Responsible Care and our Environmental Management System. Shipley is proud to announce that we obtained certification to the ISO 14001 standard at our Marlborough, Massachusetts, USA, facility in 1998, our Sasakami, Japan facility in 1999, our Warrington, England facility in 2000 and our Coventry, England facility in 2001. By responsibly managing our environmental aspects, we can move toward sustainable development, reduce our operating costs, and increase our competitiveness. We all have a personal interest in and responsibility to protect our environment for the enjoyment of our children and our grandchildren. Shipley looks to our members, distributors and customers to work in an environmentally responsible manner. This will enable Shipley to achieve the following goals: Continual, measurable progress in pollution prevention Efficient resource utilisation Production of the highest quality products without adversely impacting the environment There are also many things that we, as individuals, can do to be environmentally conscious and enhance our natural surroundings. Reducing our consumption of natural resources, decreasing pollution and using energy wisely, are just a few small measures which collectively can make a difference. For further information giving you a better understanding of Shipley's progress in living up to our environmental commitment, please contact our Marketing Department for a copy of our current Annual Environmental Report. Shipley Europe Limited Herald Way Coventry CV3 2RQ For further details of Shipley's environmental activities please contact Dr Martin Goosey on Tel : 024 7665 4557 e-mail : mgoosey@shipley.com or visit http://www.shipley.com

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The Authors
Dr Martin Goosey C.Chem. FRSC FIM FICT Dr Goosey is Chief Scientist and Technology Fellow at Shipley's European headquarters in Coventry, where he is responsible for emerging technology activities. He is also and in recent years has led a number of environmental projects on behalf of the UK PCB industry. A chemist by training, he has over 25 years experience in the electronics industry and has spent much of that time on new electronic materials research and development. Prior to joining Shipley, Martin worked at Plessey's Caswell Research Laboratories and at the Morton Chemical Research Centre in Woodstock, Illinois. He has published numerous papers, patents and articles and has edited several books on electronic materials. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry, a Fellow of the Institute of Materials and a Fellow of the Institute of Circuit Technology. Dr Rod Kellner C.Chem. MRSC FIMF Dr Kellner is a chemist with over 30 years experience in the environmental and waste treatment fields. With an electronics and surface chemistry research and development background and an awareness of the importance of environmental issues, Dr Kellner has pursued his own manufacturing and consulting interests for many years. His approach to waste treatment issues emphasises recovery based technology and he has designed and installed numerous treatment plants within the electronics, surface treatment, aerospace, graphic arts and extractive industries throughout the world. Dr Kellner has specific expertise in implementing true zero discharge waste treatment systems. He is currently working with both Shipley Europe Limited and the PCIF to promote and enhance their environmental commitment to customers and member companies respectively.

Acknowledgments
This scoping study has been undertaken by Intellect (formerly the PCIF) and Shipley Europe Limited on behalf of the UK PCB Industry. It has been possible through the provision of funding by the Department of Trade and Industry and the authors and Intellect wish to thank the DTI for its generous support. We acknowledge Shipley Europe Limited in supporting both the project itself and the preparation of this report. We also wish to thank Gary Wilkinson for its design, preparation and publication and finally we wish to record our sincere thanks to all the companies that provided us with valuable information. Without these inputs and co-operation we could not have completed this study.

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