FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM: Psychological Foundations Three Major Groups of Learning Theories: 1.

BEHAVIORIST PSYCHOLOGY The theory or doctrine that observed behavior provides the only valid data of psychology Also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. Focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic. A. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov, Ivan)

Technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response.

Ivan Pavlov (September 14, 1849 - February 27, 1936) - Russian physiologist who is best known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution.

- The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he called the unconditional response), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions. From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings were present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a bell to call the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the bell. When the presentation of the unconditional stimulus necessarily evokes a natural response. Pavlov called these the unconditional stimulus (US) and unconditional response (UR), respectively. If the neutral stimulus is presented along with the unconditional stimulus, it becomes a conditional stimulus (CS). Pavlov used the term conditional because he wanted to emphasize that learning required a dependent or conditional relationship between CS and US. If the CS and US always occur together and never alone, this perfect dependent relationship, or pairing, causes the two stimuli to become associated. The organism eventually produces the same behavioral response to the CS alone as to the pairing of US and CS. Pavlov called this the conditional response (CR). It is often thought that the conditional response is a replica of the unconditional response but this has been disproven. The CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly linked to experience with the conditional relationship with the US. It was also thought that repeated pairings are necessary for conditioning to emerge, however many CRs can be learned with a single trial as in fear conditioning and taste aversion learning. Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eye blink conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis. Types of Classical Conditioning: 1. The Unconditioned Stimulus unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. 2. The Unconditioned Response the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. 3. The Conditioned Stimulus previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. 4. The Conditioned Response the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

B. Operant Conditioning (Skinner, BF)

Also known as instrumental conditioning Occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

Burrhus Frederic "B. F." Skinner (March 20, 1904 August 18, 1990) - was an American behaviorist, author, inventor, social philosopher and poet who invented the operant conditioning - He also discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological research. Components of Operant Conditioning

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A. Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:

1.

Positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. Different Types of Positive Rein forcers Natural reinforcers are those that occur directly as a result of the behavior. For example, a girl studies hard, pays attention in class and does her homework. As a result, she gets excellent grades. Token reinforcers are points or tokens that are awarded for performing certain actions. These tokens can then be exchanged for something of value. Social reinforcers involve expressing approval of a behavior, such as a teacher, parent or employer saying or writing "Good job" or "Excellent work." Tangible reinforcers involve the presentation of an actual, physical reward such as candy, treats, toys, money and other desired objects. While these types of rewards can be powerfully motivating, they should be used sparingly and with caution. 2. Negative reinforces involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. B. Punishment, focused on reducing or eliminating unwanted behaviors while positive and negative reinforcement are used to increase behaviors. There are two kinds of punishment:

1. 2.

Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Negative Reinforcement versus Punishment One mistake that people often make is confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. Remember, however, that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative condition in order to strengthen a behavior. Punishment, on the other hand, involves either presenting or taking away a stimulus in order to weaken a behavior. Consider the following example and determine whether you think it is an example of negative reinforcement or punishment: Timmy is supposed to clean his room every Saturday morning. Last weekend, he went out to play with his friend without cleaning his room. As a result, his father made him spend the rest of the weekend doing other chores like cleaning out the garage, mowing the lawn and weeding the garden, in addition to cleaning his room. If you said that this was an example of punishment, then you are correct. Because Timmy didn't clean his room, his father assigned a punishment of having to do extra chores. C. Extinction in Operant Conditioning is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsequential it will occur less frequently.

2. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

The psychological study of higher mental processes, including thinking and perception Includes how people think, perceive, remember and learn. This branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics

How is Cognitive Psychology Different? Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states. Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 16 September 1980) - A French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological study - His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Stages of Development A child's cognitive development is about a child developing or constructing a mental model of the world. Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience, or to plan future actions. Jean Piaget was interested both in how children learnt and in how they thought. Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence. He used the following research methods: Stage Sensori-motor (Birth-2 yrs) Characterized by An infant's knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor activities. Differentiates self from objects Recognizes self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise Achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense (pace Bishop Berkeley) Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words Thinking is still egocentric, causing children to understand the world from their own perspective: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of color Formal learning Children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Can think logically about objects and events Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9) Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size. In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences. This stage starts to use hypothetical-deductive resoning. Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems Lev Vygotsky (November 17, 1896 June 11, 1934) - was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of cultural-historical psychology, and the leader of the Vygotsky Circle. Social Development Theory social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

Pre-operational (2-7 years)

Concrete operational (7-11 years)

Formal operational (11 years and up)

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

a. The Zone of Proximal Development

Difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. A child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help. (ZPD), in Education refers to the distance between what a child can do on his/her own and what the child can complete with adult assistance.

Vygotsky believed during the learning process children first learn by imitating adults. In the beginning, children are unable to complete a particular task without assistance. Overtime, this child may be able to complete more complex tasks with adult assistance. The distinction between these two examples above is coined the ZPD. b. More Knowledgeable Other It refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. 3. PHENOMENOLOGY/HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY (Psychology) approach to psychology advocated by some that emphasizes feelings and emotions and the better understanding of the self in terms of observation of oneself and one's relations with others Focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow (April 1, 1908 - June 8, 1970 ) - One of the founders of humanistic psychology and transpersonal psychology. He believed that an accurate and viable theory of personality must include not only the depths but also the heights that each individual is capable of attaining.

Hierarchy of Needs This hierarcy is most often displayed as a pyramid.

Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences. Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid as growth needs (also known as being needsor B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.

Five Levels of the Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological Needs
These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met.

2. Security Needs
These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safe neighborhoods, and shelter from the environment.

3. Social Needs
These include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow considered these needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments, and families help fulfill this need for companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, community, or religious groups.

4. Esteem Needs
After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.

5. Self-actualizing Needs
This is the highest level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested fulfilling their potential. Carl Rogers (January 8, 1902 - February 4, 1987) - Best-known for his nondirective approach to treatment known as client-centered therapy. - His concept of the actualizing tendency. - Developing the concept of the fully-functioning person. Self Theory

It involves awareness of being and functioning and establishes through interaction with other individuals. Carl Rogerss theory was that people do things out of free will. self is concerned with distinguishing ones values and understanding their association to other people. self is the brain of the person path to self-actualization involves getting in touch with our real feelings and acting on them. This is the main goal of personcentered therapy. He also stated that the self is concerned with recognizing ones values and understanding their relationship to other people. Rogers said the self is the brain of the person. It shows who and what one person is. Three Components of the Self-concept:

1. 2. 3.

Self worth (or self-esteem) what we think about ourselves. Self-image How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Ideal self This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic.

Prepared by: Cabrera, Elise Lauren I. | ED3 | FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM: Psychological Foundation