Investigative study on Angiosperms Morphology

Shubham Garg

Dicot plant

Time:- 1:07 PM Date:- 28/4/2012 Location:- Kashmir Common Name:- Sunflower Scientific Name:- Helianthus annuus Family:- Asteraceae

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Monocot Plant

Time:- 7:07 PM Date:- 29/1/2013 Location:- Rajkot, Domestic plant Common Name:- Bamboo Scientific Name:- Bambuseae Family:- Poacea

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Plant Stem
A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes, the nodes hold buds which grow into one or more leaves, inflorescence (flowers), conifer cones, roots, other stems etc. The internodes distance one node from another. The term shoots is often confused with stems; shoots generally refer to new fresh plant growth and does include stems but also to other structures like leaves or flowers. The other main structural axis of plants is the root. In most plants stems are located above the soil surface but some plants have underground stems. A stem develops buds and shoots and usually grows above the ground. Inside the stem, materials move up and down the tissues of the transport system. Stems have four main functions which are: 1] Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits. 2] Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem. 3] Storage of nutrients. 4] The production of new living tissue. The normal life span of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue.

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Monocot Stem

Dicot Stem

The stem is leafy and green. The leaf covers the stem like a sheath. Less branched. The internode distance is very less. Presecnce of nodes is less seen. Four-five leaves are present on each node.

The stem is woody and erect. The leaf is attached to the stem by a woody petiole. More branched. The internode distance is vast enough. Presence of node is very high. Mostly only two leaves are present per node.

*The names of plants of pictures marked in red and italics are clicked by me.
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Modifications of Stems
Reduced Stems:- Some plants have stems modified to thorns to reduce transpiration and prevent attack of predators.

Erect Woody Stem:- Most of the plants have erect and woody stem which can stand by their own without any support. These stems have well differentiated xylem and phloem.

Weak Stem (Climber):- These stems are weak and cannot stand up erect without support. These plants climb up in a twining way up any support available. Ex: Money plant.

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Weak Stem (Creeper):- These plant stems are too weak and creep on the ground. They are different from climbers as they do not have the ability to climb on an erect support. Ex: Water melon.

Runner:- The runner arises from the base of the stem as a lateral branch and runs along the surface of the soil. It develops distinct nodes and internodes. At each node, the runner produces roots below and leaves above. In this way many runners are often produced by the mother plant and they spread out on the ground on all sides. If any accidental injury results in the separation of a runner, the severed parts are capable of leading an independent existence. E.g., Oxalis, Fragaria, Centella astatica.

Offset:- An offset is a short thick runner like branch which produces a new plant at its tip. The offsets grow in all directions from the main stem of the parent plant. If any accidental injury results in the separation of these units, each is capable of leading an independent existence. E.g., Pistia, Eichhornia.

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Stolon:- Here, lateral branches called stolons originate from the underground stem. The stolons grow horizontally outwards for a varying distance in the soil. Ultimately their end (terminal bud) emerges out of the ground and develops into a new plant. A runner, sucker or any basal branch which produces roots is called a stolon. E.g. Colocasia.

Sucker:- A lateral branch arising close to the ground level, traveling underground for some distance, turning up at its end and producing a new plant is a sucker. Eg. Chrysanthemum

Rhizome:- A rhizome is a thick horizontally growing stem which usually stores food material. It has nodes and internodes, scale leaves, axillary buds, adventitous roots and a terminal bud. Scale leaves enclosing the axillary buds are seen arising from the nodal points of the stem. Some of the axillary buds develop into branches which grow upwards into the air and then produce normal green foliage leaves. Usually the growing points of the rhizome continue to remain underground causing an elongation of the rhizome. Roots develop from the lower surface of the rhizome. Eg. Ginger, Turmeric.

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Tuber:- Tuber is a swollen end of an underground branch which arises from the axil of a lower leaf. These underground branches grow horizontally outwards in the soil. Each tuber is irregular in shape due to the deposition of food materials (starch). On the surface of each tuber many leaf scars are seen. These leaf scars are the impressions of fallen scale leaves. Each such leaf scar encloses an axillary bud. A leaf scar with an axillary bud is called an eye. These eyes of potato are capable of producing new plants by vegetative propagation. E.g., Potato.

Bulb:- Here, the stem is reduced and represented by a short disc. The lower surface of the stem produces many adventitious roots. E.g., Onion, Garlic. In bulbs of onion, garlic, etc. the inner leaves are fleshy while the outer ones are dry. This is called as tunicated bulb since the concentric leaf bases form a complete covering or tunic. The apical bud of the bulb produces the shoot. The axillary buds sometimes produce daughter bulbs, as in garlic.

Corm:- A corm is a greatly swollen underground basal portion of an erect stem. The swelling is due to the storage of reserve food material. It bears scale leaves and axillary buds. At the end of the growing season, the aerial parts die. With the return of favorable conditions usually one axillary bud (rarely more than one) near the apex develops into a new shoot utilising the food reserve material in the old corm. The new plant produces a new corm at its base. The earlier corm shrivels off. E.g. Amorphophallus, Colocasia.

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Plant Roots
The roots anchor a plant, absorb water and minerals, and provide a storage area for food. The two basic types of root systems are a primary root system and an adventitious root system. The roots have many characteristics that make it suitable and efficient to carry out its functions. Some of them are listed as follows1. Roots form the descending part of the plant axis. They develop first and usually grow downwards into the soil. 2. Roots are cylindrical and non-green structures that help in anchorage and absorption and rarely aid in gaseous exchange and photosynthesis. 3. Nodes and internodes in the root system are absent. 4. Root apex is subtropical in position and is covered at the tip by a root cap which provides protection to it. 5. Near their tips, roots possess unicellular hairs which increase the exposed surface of the roots for absorption. 6. The roots are negatively phototropic and positively hydrotropic. 7. Main roots are positively geotropic.

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Fibrous Root System

A fibrous root system is the opposite of a taproot system. It is usually formed by thin, moderately branching roots growing from the stem. A fibrous root system is universal in monocotyledonous plants and ferns. A few plants with fibrous root systems: Coconut palm, Gabrielle, Grass This picture was taken by me at TGB (Rajkot).

Taproot system
In dicots the radicle elongates into the primary root which grows downwards into the soil and bears smaller roots as its branches. The primary root grows and becomes the main root or the tap root. The tap root, along with its branches, constitutes the tap root system of a plant. As the primary root elongates, it goes on producing lateral branches called secondary roots. These in turn produce tertiary roots, which grow in various directions fixing the plant firmly into the soil.

Adventitious Root System

The second type of root system, the adventitious root system, differs from the primary variety in that the primary root is short-lived and is replaced within a short time by many roots that form from the stem. Most monocotyledons have adventitious roots; examples include orchids, bromeliads, and many other epiphytic plants in the tropics. Grasses (family Poaceae) and many other monocotyledons...

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Difference between Adventitious and Tap Root Systems

Adventitious Root system Tap Root system

Develops from any other part except the radicle. Occurs in Monocots. May be above or underground. All roots are alike.

Develops from radicle of embryo. Commonly occurs in dicots. Always undergrounds. Tertiary, primary and secondary roots present. Primary root is thick compared to other roots and is permanent.

Primary root is alike all other roots and is short lived.

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Modifications Of Roots
In Tap roots:-

Besides the normal functions of anchorage, absorption and conduction, roots may carry on some special functions according to which these are modified. Tap roots as well as adventitious roots get modified. These modifications are the result of evolution. Mainly the tap roots are divided into the following three types1. Fleshy Tap roots-Further subdivided into Conical, Fusiform, Napiform and Tuberous types. 2. Nodulated Tap roots
In Adventitious roots:-

Not only tap roots but adventitious roots are modified into many different structures which help the plant to perform the required function. Adventitious roots also carry out its regular functions like that of absorption and anchorage along with the function for which it has been modified to do. Adventitious roots arise from any part of the plant except the radicle and normally are identical. Normally, adventitious roots are fibre like but sometimes they are modified to do the above functions also. Mainly, the adventitious roots are modified for three main functions viz. 1. Food Storage- This is subdivided into tuberous, fasciculate, moniliform, annulated, nodulose. 2. For Support- This is in turn subdivided into prop, stilt and climbing roots. 3. For Vital Functions- Which is in turn subdivided into epiphytic, parasitic, respiratory roots and contractile roots.

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Modifications Of Tap Roots

1. Fleshy Tap Roots
In certain plants, the tap roots become swollen or fleshy due to the storage of food in the form of starch. The may assume various shapes such as bulb like or conical. These plants are of great economic importance to us because the roots are consumed people. There are various types of fleshy tap roots. The types and details of these modified tap roots are listed below. a) Conical Tap Root In this case, the root becomes swollen from the top and becomes gradually tapering towards the apex. This type of the roots can be studied in carrot (Daucus carota). The secondary and the tertiary roots arise from the sides of the roots like any other normal tap root. The fleshy part has large amounts of starch deposits along with a little amount of fructose which give it a peculiar slightly sweet taste.

b) Fusiform Tap Root In this type, the roots are modified into spindle shaped structure which is tapering towards both ends but is swollen in the middle. It is also fleshy and starch deposits are found. The best example of this type of root is the Radish. c) Napiform Tap Root In this case, the root gets modified into an almost spherical structure which sharply tapers at the apex. This type of root is found in Sugar beet and Turnip. The swollen portion below the stem represents the hypocotyl and the remaining portion represents the root. The image is that of a typical Napiform root as found in Sugar beet.

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d) Tuberous Tap Root This type of storage root has no definite shape but starch deposits are surely found. The best example of this is found in case of Mirabilis Jalapa (The 4 oclock plant).

2. Nodulated Roots
Roots of leguminous plants like pea, fenugreek and groundnut etc. bear swelling outgrowths called root nodules which are irregular in shape and contain numerous nitrogen fixing bacteria like Rhizobium in them. These bacteria have symbiotic relationship with them as the bacteria find shelter in them and in turn fix nitrogen in them.

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Modification of Adventitious Roots

1. Modification for food storage
As we saw in case of tap roots, the modification into fleshy roots is also seen in adventitious roots and that too for the same function of food storage in the form of starch. Sometimes, the adventitious roots are modified into fleshy roots for water storage also. The main types of fleshy adventitious roots and their details are as follows-

a) Root Tubers Root tubers, also called tuberous roots are irregular in shape, swollen due to storage of food. These occur singly on the nodes of the stem and grow downwards into the soil e.g. sweet potato.

b) Annulated roots E.g., Ipecac, skunk cabbage sprout Here, the adventitious roots have a series of ring-like swellings on their surface.

c) Fasciculated roots In plants like asparagus and Dahlia, fleshy roots arising from a node occur in bunches or clusters are called fasciles or fasciculated fleshy roots.
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d) Nodulose Roots e.g., Curcuma amada, (mango ginger) Here, the root becomes swollen at its tip.

e) Moniliform Roots In such cases the roots become swollen at regular intervals and give a beaded appearance. Vitis trifolia, Momodica and Portulaca bear such roots.

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2. Modification for Support

One of the main reasons for the modification of the adventitious roots is to provide extra support to the plant. These are modified into pillar or stilt like structures to give the plant a firm hold onto the surface. a) Prop roots These types of roots arise from the aerial parts of the plant and hang down while they grow. The absorb moisture from the air until they reach the ground and become hard enough to provide support as well as assist in absorption of water and minerals for the plant. e.g., Ficus benghalensis (Banyan) : In banyan the adventitious roots arise from the horizontal branches and grow vertically downwards. Hence, they are also known as columnar roots. b) Stilt roots In Pandanus the adventitious roots arise from the lower part of the main stem and grow obliquely towards the soil. They serve to keep the plant erect by giving additional support. One can see the presence of stilt roots in the maize plant too.

c) Climbing roots These roots arise from the nodes and help in attaching the climbing stem firmly to a support like a tree or a wall, by various mechanisms.

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3. Modification for Vital functions

Plants which cannot carry out certain vital functions with normal organs or rather parts evolve these kinds of roots which help them in the respective functions. These vital functions include absorption of nutrients directly from other plants in case of parasites like rafflesia or absorption of extra moisture in case of orchids. a) Epiphytic Roots These types of roots are also called aerial absorbing roots; hang in the air from the aerial parts of the plant. Along with the clinging roots, they fix the plant and to some extent also absorb moisture from the air. The outer region of the root is made up of a special tissue called the velamen. This tissue absorbs moisture from the air and makes it available to the plant. These roots do not penetrate the host tissue like parasitic roots. Such roots are found in Orchids. b) Parasitic or Haustorial roots

Parasites like Cuscuta develop a kind of root which penetrates into the tissue of the host plant and help to draw nutrients from the host by sucking it. The parasitic plants are not completely equipped to prepare their food. Hence, such plants have to depend on host plants for nutrients. Such roots are found in Cuscuta, Mistletoes and certain other plants.

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c) Pneumatophores or Respiratory Roots In some trees growing in saline marshes, specialized roots are present which are negatively geotropic and grow vertically up in the air from the secondary roots. These specialized roots are called pneumatophores and bear small pores called lenticels through which gaseous exchange occurs. These types of roots are common in kinds of mangroves.

d) Contractile roots In plants that have an underground stem, special roots are present that can contract or swell in order to keep the stem at a proper level in the soil for its optimum growth. They are very essential as they keep the stem upright as well as prevent it from sinking too deep inside the soil. These kind of roots are found in Crocus, Freesia, Canna and Lilium etc.

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Plant Leaves
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Typically a leaf is a thin, flattened organ borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis, but many types of leaves are adapted in ways almost unrecognisable in those terms: some are not flat (for example many succulent leaves and conifers), some are not above ground (such as bulb scales), and some are without major photosynthetic function (consider for example cataphylls, spines, and cotyledons). Characteristics of a general leaf There are mainly for characteristics that define a leaf: Leaves are lateral outgrowths of the stem They are usually specialized for photosynthesis. They arise at the nodes of the stem They bear buds in their axis. Leaves do not possess an apical bud or a growing plant and the leaf lamina is traversed by prominent vascular strand, called veins.

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Monocot Leaf

Dicot Leaf

Petiole is present Venation is reticulate The leaf is dorsiventral Held perpendicular to the direction of light

Petiole is absent Venation is parallel The leaf is isobilateral Held parallel to the direction of light.

Parts of a Dicot Leaf

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Phyllotaxy
In botany, phyllotaxis or phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on a plant stem (from Ancient Greek phllon "leaf" and txis "arrangement"). The arrangement is usually done to ensure that leaves receive maximum sunlight for photosynthesis. There are three main types of Phyllotaxy 1. Alternate or Spiral In this type, a single leaf arises at each node. The consecutive leaves are produced in a spiral manner around the stem. e.g. Polyalthia, Hibiscus, etc. 2. Opposite

Superposed When the opposite leaves arise in the same plane at successive nodes, it is said to be opposite superposed phyllotaxy. e.g., Quisqualis.

Decussate When each opposite pair of leaves are at right angles to each other, phyllotaxy is said to be opposite decussate. e.g., Calotropis Ixora

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3. Whorled If more than two leaves occur at a node, the phyllotaxy is said to be whorled. e.g., Nerium. (Oleander)

Venation
The arrangement of veins and veinlets in the leaf blade is known as venation. There are two types of venation. Besides providing strength and rigidity, veins distribute water and dissolved mineral salts to the lamina and carry away the prepared food from it. There are 2 types of venation:- Reticulate and Parallel 1. Reticualar Venation:When the veins of a leaf show numerous irregular inter-connections giving the appearance of a network, it is called reticulate venation. This is characteristic of dicotyledons. Pinnate (Unicostate):In this type of venation, there is a single strong mid-vein which gives out secondary veins on the lateral sides, like plumes in a feather. The lateral veins produce even smaller veins and veinlets in all directions forming a network. An example is Ficus.
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 Palmate (Multicostate) : In this type of venation, there are two or more principal veins arising from a single point and they proceed outwards or upwards. The two types sub types are : Divergent type: When all the principal veins originate from the base and diverge from one another towards the margin of the leaf. An example is papaya.

Convergent type: When all the principal veins instead of diverging in a curved manner from the base to the apex of the blade. An example Zizyphus (Ber/Bor)

2. Parallel Venation If the veins show a more or less parallel disposition, the condition is described as parallel venation. The parallely running veins are often connected at intervals by short links which are placed at right angles to the prominent parallel veins. Parallel venation is characteristic of leaves of monocotyledons.

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 Pinnate (Unicosate): When there is a prominent mid- vein which gives out lateral veins perpendicular to latter run parallel to each other towards the margin of the lamina. An example is Banana.

Palmate (Multicostate): When there are two or more principal veins arising from a single point and proceed outwards or upwards, the venation is called palmate. Two types of palmate venation : Divergent type: Here all principal veins originate from the base and diverge towards the margins of the leaf. An example is fan-palm(Borrasus flabellifer)

Convergent type: Here all the principal veins instead of diverging run parallel to each other from the base of the lamina and join at the apex as in bamboos.
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Types of Leaf:- There are two types of leaf Simple and Compound. Compound leaves are further divided into Pinnate and Palmate compound leaves. Simple leaf:- In a simple leaf the lamina is not broken up into separate lobes or leaflet.

Compound Leaf:- The lamina is divided into a number of leaf-like lobes called leaflets. These leaflets are borne on a common axis and do not bear axillary buds in their axil. Compound leaves are of two types : Pinnate compound leaves: In a pinnate compound leaf, the leaflets are borne on a common axis, the rachis. Rachis represents the mid-vein/ Mid rib of the leaf. The leaflets are known as pinnae. The branches of the rachis are called rachillae, and leaflets borne on them are pinnules. Pinnate compound leaves are of the following type:

1. Unipinnate: When the rachis of the pinnately compound leaf directly bears the leaflets, it is said to be unipinnate. When the leaflets of an unipinnate compound leaf are odd in number (e.g. Rose), it is said to be imparipinnate.

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2. Bipinate:Here, the leaves have a long main rachis (primary rachis) on which arise a number of secondary rachii in a pinnate manner. The leaflets are arranged pinnately on these secondary rachii, so that the leaf becomes doubly pinnate. Hence, it is said to be bipinnate. e.g. Delonix, Acacia, Mimosa, etc.

3. In some plants like Moringa, the leaves have a long main rachis (primary rachis) on which arise a number of secondary rachii. The secondary rachii produce the tertiary rachii, each tertiary rachis produces the leaflets. Such leaves are said to be tripinnate.

4. Decompound Leaf: When the primary rachis of a compound leaf bears not only secondary but also tertiary rachii and rachii of the fourth order, the leaf is said to be decompound. e.g. Coriander.

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 Palmate Compound Leaves: A palmately compound leaf is one in which all the leaflets arise from a common point at the tip of the petiole. Depending upon the number of leaflets present, the palmately compound leaves can be distinguished into the following types: 1. Unifoliate: Only one leaflet arises from the tip of the petiole. e.g., Lemon

2. Bifoliate: When two leaflets arise from the tip of the petiole, it is said to be bifoliate. e.g., Balanites.

3. Trifoliate: A trifoliolate leaf is one in which three leaflets arise from the tip of the petiole. e.g., Feronia.

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4. Tetrafoliate or Quadrifoliate When a palmately compound leaf ends in four leaflets, it is said to be tetrafoliate or quadrifoliate. e.g., Oxalis.

5. Multifoliate or Digitate When five or more leaflets arise from the tip of the petiole, it is said to be multifoliate or digitate. e.g., Silk, Cotton.

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Modifications in Plant Leaves

A normal leaf is thin, flat and green and performs the function of photosynthesis. In some plants certain special functions are performed by leaves, which become modified. Several modifications in leaves can be seen some of them are as follows:1. Leaf Tendrils Tendrils are slender, spirally coiled springlike structures. They are highly sensitive to contact and when they come in contact with any support, tendrils coil around the support like the stem twiners. Pea and lily plants show leaf tendrils.

2. Leaf Phyllode A phyllode is the petiole or rachis of a leaf which is modified into a green flat structure for the purpose of photosynthesis. In such a leaf the lamina is poorly developed. Ex; Acacia.

3. Leaf Spines In some plants, leaves or parts of leaves may be modified into spines. In Opuntia (prickly pear) leaves are poorly developed and fall of very early, but the minute leaves of the axillary bud are modified into spines The spines act as defensive structures.
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4. Scale Leaves In many desert plants, the leaves are highly reduced and appear as scales. The scale leaves are thin, membranous, dry, stalkless and brownish or colourless. In plants where the leaves are reduced to scales in order to minimise transpiration, the function of photosynthesis is relegated to the stems (cladodes). 5. Waxy leaves Waxy leaf surfaces reduce water loss in arid and semi-arid conditions. The thick cuticle adds to the water retention. Ex; Eucalyptas

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6. Succulent Leaves:- In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents or sometimes fat plants, are plants having some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. Ex; Aloe

7. Floral Leaves:- Sepals, petals, androecium and gynoecium all are modified leaves. These are called floral leaves or sporophylls. Sepals are green and leafy-like. Petals also leaflike but coloured. Both of these protect reproductive organs. Corolla, being coloured, attracts insects for pollination. Androecium and gynoecium take part in reproduction.

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