Atlas Copco Rock Drilling Tools

Geology / Drilling Theory

Geology
Minerals and rocks
The earths crust consists of a variety of rocks, formed under different circumstances. Rocks consist of one or more composite minerals. A mineral is a substance formed by nature. A mineral may be an element or may consist of chemical compounds containing several elements. There are rather more than 3,000 different minerals. Of 103 known elements, oxygen is by far the commonest, making up about 50 per cent of the earths crust. Silicon, about 25 per cent, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and titanium, together with oxygen, account for about 99 per cent. Silicon, aluminium and oxygen occur in our commonest minerals, quartz, feldspar and mica. They form the large group known as silicates, a silicate being a compound formed of silicic acid and other elements. Also included are amphiboles and pyroxenes, which contain aluminium, potassium and iron. Some of the earths commonest rocks, granite and gneiss, are composed of silicates.

Diagram showing occurrences of minerals in the earth's crust

1. Lakebed: Calcite 2. Orebodies: Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite. 3. Weathered shale: Kaolin, bauxite and other shales. 4. Weathered sandstone: Quartz.

5. Weathered orebodies: Azurite, malachite, cuprite. 6. River valleys: Sediments: Gold, platinum, diamond, cassiterite, magnetite. 7. Volcanic rocks: Feldspar, quartz, olivine, hornblende, magnetite, mica.

8. Metamorphic sandstones: Quartz. 9. Metamorphic limestones: Calcite, dolomite. 10.Metamorphic shales: Garnet, mica, feldspar. 11. Contact zones: Garnet, hornblende, sulphides.

Oxygen often occurs in combination with metallic elements and forms our oxidic ores (the iron ores magnetite and hematite). Sulphur readily combines with metallic elements and forms sulphide ores (galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite. Halogenides (uorite, halite), carbonates (calcite, dolomite, malachite), sulphates (barite), tungstates (scheelite) and phosphates (apatite) are other large mineral groups. Gold, silver, copper and lead are elements that can occur as native metals. Feldspar accounts for almost 50 per cent of the mineral composition of the earths crust. Next come the pyroxene and amphibole minerals, closely followed by quartz and mica. These minerals make up about 90 per cent of the composition. Some of the characteristics of the minerals are hardness, density, colour, streak, lustre, fracture, cleavage and crystalline form. Hardness can be graded according to the Mohs 10-point scale. 1. Talc 2. Gypsum 3. Calcite 4. Fluorite 5. Apatite 6. Orthoclase 7. Quartz 8. Topaz 9. Corundum 10. Diamond Easily scratched with the ngernail Just barely scratched with the ngernail Very easily scratched with a knife Easily scratched with a knife Can be scratched with a knife Hard to scratch with a knife, can be scratched with quartz Scratches glass, can be scratched with a hardened le Scratches glass, can be scratched with emery Scratches glass, can be scratched with a diamond Scratches glass

Cleavage denotes the properties of a crystal whereby it allows itself to be split along at surfaces parallel with certain formed or otherwise crystallographically dened surfaces.

The properties of rocks

In order to be able to forecast the result of drilling in respect of penetration rate, hole quality, drill-steel costs, etc., we must be able to make a correct appraisal of the rock concerned. In doing so we distinguish between microscopic and macroscopic properties. A rock is composed of grains of various minerals, and among the microscopic properties are mineral composition, grain size, and the form and distribution of the grains. Taken together, these factors decide important properties of the rock, such as hardness, abrasiveness, compressive strength and density. These properties, in their turn, determine the penetration rate that can be achieved and how heavy the tool wear will be. The drillability of a rock depends on, among other things, the hardness of its constituent minerals and on the grain size and crystal form. Quartz is one of the commonest minerals in rocks. Since quartz is a very hard material, a high quartz content (SiO2) makes the rock very hard to drill and causes heavy wear, particularly on the drill bits. We say that the rock is abrasive. Conversely, a rock with a high content of calcite is easy to drill and causes little wear on the drill bits. As regards crystal form, minerals with high symmetry, e.g. cubic (galena) are easier to drill than minerals with low symmetry, e.g. brous (amphiboles and pyroxenes). A coarse-grained structure is easier to drill in and causes less wear than a fine-grain structure. Consequently, rocks with essentially the same mineral content may be quite different as regards drillability. For example, quartzite may be ne-grained, grain size 0.5-1 mm, or dense, grain size 0,05 mm, while a granite may be coarse-grained, grain size > 5 mm, medium-grained (grain size 1-5 mm) or ne-grained (grain size 0.5-1 mm). A rock can also be classified on the basis of its structure. If the mineral grains are mixed in a homogeneous mass, the rock is massive (e.g. granite). In mixed rocks the grains are arranged in layers. A slaty rock also has the minerals arranged in different layers, but in this case pressure and heat have compacted each layer in plates. Among the macroscopic properties are slatiness, ssuring, contact zones, layering, veining and inclination. These factors are often of great signicance in drilling. For example, cracks or inclined and layered formations can cause hole deviation and can occasionally cause drilling tools to get stuck. Soft rocks make it difcult to achieve good hole quality, since the walls often cave in and in extreme cases the ushing air disappears into cracks in the rock without reaching the surface. The enormous variety of rocks and rock formations

Molybdenite, hardness 1.5, blackens a thumb that is rubbed against it. The density of light-coloured minerals is for the most part below 3.0. Exceptions are barite or heavy spar (BaSO4), density 4.5, scheelite (CaWO4), density 6.0, and cerussite (PbCO3), density 6.5 Dark-coloured minerals with some iron, silicates, have densities between 3.0 and 4.0. Ore minerals have densities over 4.0. Gold has a very high density at 19.3, and tungsten at 19.4. The highest density is shown by osmium and iridium, 22.5. Streak is the colour of the mineral powder produced when the mineral is scratched against unglazed, white porcelain (e.g. an ordinary electric fuse). Fracture is the surface produced by breaking off a piece of mineral, not following a crystallographically dened plane. Fracture is usually uneven in one way or another.

makes it impossible to give the subject adequate treatment in just a few pages. We must therefore content ourselves with giving a summary description of the more important rocks and referring interested readers to the literature of the subject for further study. Rocks are classied into three main groups on the basis of their origin and the way in which they were formed: 1. Igneous or magmatic rocks (formed from solidied lava or magma). 2. Sedimentary rocks (formed by deposition of broken material or by chemical precipitation). 3. Metamorphic rocks (formed by the transformation of igneous or sedimentary rocks, in most cases by an increase in pressure and heat).

Igneous rock
Igneous rocks are formed when a magma solidies deep down in the earths crust (plutonic rock), or as it rises towards the surface (dyke rock) or on the surface (volcanic rock). The most important constituents (minerals) are quartz and silicates of various composition, chiey feldspars. Plutonic rocks solidify slowly and are therefore coarse-grained, while volcanic rocks solidify quickly and become ne-grained. Depending on whether the magma solidies at depth, or as a dyke rock, or on the surface, the rock is given different names even if the composition is the same. This is evident from the table below, which also shows that it is customary to classify the igneous rocks by their silicon content (SiO2). The greater the silicon content, the larger the amount of quartz in the rock will be.

SiO2 content Basic <52%SiO2 Intermediary 5265% SiO2

Plutonic Gabbro

Dykes Diabase

Volcanic Basalt

Diorite Syenite

Porphyrite Syenite

Andesite Trachyte porphyry Dacite

Quartz diorite Acid >65% SiO2

Quartz porphyrite

Granodiorite Granodiorite Rhyodacite porphyry Granite Quartz porphyry Rhyolite

Fig 1. Igneous rocks

Some common igneous rocks

Native copper in basalt. (White Pine Copper. U.S.)

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of material by mechanical or chemical action and a consolidation of this material under the pressure of overlying layers. It frequently occurs that the rock formation is broken down by mechanical action (weathering), carried away by running water and deposited in still water. Thus the original rock will determine the characteristics of the sedimentary rock. The weathering or erosion may proceed at different rates depending partly on climate and partly on how easily the rock breaks up. Sedimentary rocks can also arise as a result of the chemical precipitation of minerals or by proliferation of organic organisms, as for example in coral reefs or carbon deposits. Since formation takes place by deposition, several distinct layers can often be observed in a sedimentary formation. Sedimentary rocks make up a very heterogeneous family with widely varying characteristics.

Pegmatite, also called graphic granite, in which the whitish-grey veins are quartz in reddish-brown feldspar. The flaky element is muscovite mica. (Forshammars bergverk, Sweden)

Rock Conglomerate Greywacke Sandstone Argillaceous schist Aluminous slate Limestone

Original material Gravel, stones, boulders Clay, gravel Sand Clay Clay plus organisms Calcium carbonate or various organisms

Fig 2. Sedimentary rocks Diabase with lime-filled gas blisters. Volcanic rock that has solidified rapidly. The upper part is vitreous diabase. (Katrineholm, Sweden)

Some common sedimentary rocks

Granite (lvdalen, Sweden)

Sandstone with an undulating structure, showing that it is an old lakebed. (Mngsbodarna, Sweden)

or another, and in nature we may therefore observe, for example, pronounced folding, crushed zones, faults and other phenomena that can have a telling effect on drilling.

Rock

Original rock

Degree of metamorphism High Medium/high High Low Medium/high Medium Low High

Amphibolite Mica-schist Gneiss Dolomite limestone, well banded. (North Bay, Canada) Greenschist Quartzite Leptite Slate Veined gneiss

Basalt, diabase, gabbro Mudstone, greywacke, etc. Various igneous rocks Basalt, diabase, gabbro Sandstone Dacite Shale Silicic-acid-rich silicate rocks

Fig 3. Metamorphic rocks

Hematite, with quartz bands. (Norberg, Sweden)

Some common metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks
The effects of chemical action or increased pressure and/or temperature on a rock formation can sometimes be so great that it produces a transformation, which the geologist calls metamorphism. For example, pressure and temperature might increase under the inuence of up-welling magma, or because the formation has sunk down deeper into the earths crust. This results in the recrystallization of the mineral grains or the formation of new minerals. A characteristic of the metamorphic rocks is that they are formed without any complete melting. They are also frequently hard or very hard, and also compact and ne-grained, and are therefore often difcult to drill. The earths crust is in a constant state of ux, and the various rock formations may be subjected to very powerful forces. The result is deformation in one way
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Amphibolite which is a heavily metamorphosed gabbro. (Norberg, Sweden)

Green skarn, in which the green constituent is epidote. (Bckegruvan, Sweden)

Chalcopyrite in a metamorphic environment. (Bckegruvan, Sweden)

Gneiss. Metamorphosed granite. Can be recognized by the banding. (Malingsbo, Sweden)

Grey leptite with folded quartz bands. (Bckegruvan, Sweden)

Chlorite schist with a folded structure. (Senja, Norway)

Rose-pink calcite marble. Metamorphosed from limestone. (Grmyren, Uppland, Sweden)

Rock classification
Many attempts have been made to classify rocks on the basis of their drillability, and various measuring methods have been evolved with the aim of making it possible to predict productivity and tool wear by carrying out a laboratory test before a rock job begins. The term drillability is used here to mean primarily the rate at which the tool penetrates into the rock, but in the wider sense it extends to the resulting hole quality, the straightness of the hole, the risk of tool jamming etc. Tool wear is often proportional to drillability, though it also depends on how abrasive the rock is.

The higher the DRI, the higher penetration rate. Figure 4 shows how the DRI can vary from one rock to another. BWI stands for bit-wear index, and gives an indication of how fast the bit wears down. It is determined by an abrasive test. The higher the BWI, the faster will be the wear. In most cases the BWI and the DRI are inversely proportional to each other, so that a high DRI will give a low BWI and vice versa. However, the presence of hard minerals may produce heavy wear on the bit despite relatively good drillability. This is particularly true in the case of quartz. The quartz content has been shown to exert great inuence on wear, which explains why a relatively easily drilled sandstone, for example, can cause very heavy wear on the bits. In other cases, metamorphic, compact, quartz-bearing rocks may also prove to be very difcult to drill. Other examples of hard minerals that impair drillability are certain sulphides in orebodies.

Fig. 4. Relationship between drilling-rate index and various rock types.

The drillability of a given rock is determined by a number of factors. Foremost among these are the mineral composition, the grain size and the brittleness. Attempts are often made to describe drillability by stating the compressive strength or hardness; these are crude methods but they will often sufce for rough calculations. The Norwegian Technical University has developed a more sophisticated method for calculating the DRI and BWI. DRI, the drilling-rate index, describes how fast the drill steel can penetrate; it also includes on the one hand a measurement of brittleness and on the other hand drilling with a small rotating bit into a sample of the rock.
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Drilling theory
Principle of percussive drilling
The energy required to break the rock is generated by a pneumatic or hydraulic rock drill. Machines of this kind build up a pressure which, on being released, drives the piston forward (Fig. 1). The piston strikes on the shank adaptor. The kinetic energy of the piston is converted into a stress wave which travels along the drill string to the rock. Fig 1 In order to obtain the best possible drilling economy the whole system, i.e. rock drill drill steel rock, must harmonize. On the following pages we give a theoretical description of how this is achieved in hydraulic rock drills.

Wave shape and output power

Theoretically, the wave has a rectangular shape. Its length is twice that of the piston, while its height (Fig. 2) depends on the speed of the piston at the moment of impact and on the relationship between the cross-sectional area of the piston and that of the drill steel. The total energy that the wave contains is indicated diagramatically by the grey eld in g. 2. To calculate the output power obtained from a rock drill we multiply the wave energy by the impact frequency of the piston, and it is usually stated in kW. The designer seeking to evolve rock drills with special characteristics will combine several variables, such as the piston geometry, the impact rate and the frequency. Two machines with the same nominal power rating might therefore behave quite differently. The shock waves that are generated by hydraulic (Fig. 3) and pneumatic (Fig. 4) rock drills are different in shape. A drill steel used with hydraulic machines will normally show a substantially longer service life than one used with pneumatic machines, the reason being that the stress level is higher with a pneumatic piston. This is due to the fact that the pneumatic piston has a larger cross-section, and this in its turn is explained by the circumstance that a considerably greater crosssection is needed, since the pneumatic drill operates at a substantially lower working pressure, 6-8 bars as compared with the 150-250 bars found with hydraulic systems. The slimmer the piston, the lower will be the stress produced in the drill steel.
Fig 2

Fig 3

Fig 4

Fig. 5 shows three pistons, of which the upper one is the piston of a pneumatic rock drill operating at a pressure of 0.8 MPa (8 bars), the middle one is a hydraulic piston operating at a pressure of 12 MPa (120 bars) and the lower one is a hydraulic piston operating at a pressure of 20 MPa (200 bars). The pistons in this example are of the same weight, and their impact speed, i.e. the speed at which the piston hits the adaptor, is also the same (normally about 10 m/sec.). If we calculate the stress in the drill steel produced by these three pistons we get the diagram shown at the bottom of g. 5. It reveals that the lowest stress (shock-wave amplitude) is obtained with the long, slender piston (No. 3).

If we are to transmit that amount of power to the rock in a drill string it is easy to understand how important it is for the equipment to be braced up as well as possible, meaning that the drill support and other guide equipment on the rig must be in the best possible condition (e.g. guides on the cradle of the rock drill).

Fig 6

Efficiency and losses

The wave loses some of its energy, 6-10 per cent or so, for every coupling on its way along the drill string. This loss is due in part to the difference in the cross-sectional area between rod and sleeve and in part to the fact that the rod faces are never in perfect contact with each other. The poorer the contact, the greater the energy loss. When the shock wave reaches the bit the latter is forced against the rock, thereby crushing it. The efciency at the bit never reaches 100 per cent. Some of the energy is reected back in the form of a tensile pulse. The poorer the contact between the bit and the rock, the poorer will be the efciency. (Fig. 7)

Fig 5

If we measure the stress in the drill steel for pistons 2 and 3 we get the diagram shown in Fig. 6. From this diagram we see that the stress in the drill steel is 250-300 MPa (25-30 kg/mm2) and that the primary shock wave has a length of about 1,200 mm, which is the speed of sound in steel, 5,200 m/sec., multiplied by the time in thousands of a second, 0.23 msec. 5,200 x 0.23 = 1.2 M = 1,200 mm 1,000 How much force does this produce for the drill steel to transmit to the rock so that the drill bit can crush it? An extension rod with a diameter of 38 mm has a cross-sectional area of about 975 mm2, and with a stress of 25 kg/mm2 the shock wave in the drill steel gives us a force of 25 x 975 = 24,500 kg or 24.5 tonnes.
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Fig 7

Rock-drill development
The development of rock drills has gone ahead very fast since the hydraulic breakthrough at the beginning of the 1970s, and it is not going to get any slower in the future. Hydraulics makes these things possible. If we study a drilling operation with a 25-metre-long string of extension rods we can calculate how many shock waves can pass through this drill steel per second. We stated earlier on that the shock wave travels through the drill steel at a speed of 5,200 m/sec. We do not want to have more than one shock wave travelling along the drill steel at any one time, which means that the spacing between the shock waves must be greater than the length of the drilling package. If we put this gure at 30 metres, it means that we can have a percussive rock drill that in theory will strike the drill steel 5,200/30 175 times per sec. A COP 1238 delivers 50 blows a sec., meaning in theory that we could treble the percussion frequency without increasing the stress in the drill steel. We can manage this by increasing the oil throughput, meaning that we must increase the power output of the drive motors and the pumps. Apart from this there are no differences in principle. In point of fact, however, the matter is by no means as problem-free as it sounds. A very rapid percussion rate brings other troubles in its train. The great advantage of hydraulic rock drills, apart from the fact that they are easier on the drill steel, is that they enable us to vary the percussion pressure and thus to vary the energy transmitted to the rock. A professional rockdriller knows his rock and his

He knows how to make proper use of the drilling parameters: Percussion pressure Feed force Rotation

Percussion pressure
The percussion pressure that we select gives us the percussion energy. The higher the percussion pressure, the higher will be the speed of the piston and in consequence the higher will be the energy. If we are working on a very hard rock and the bit and rock are in good contact, we can utilize maximum energy in the shock wave. If we are not in contact with the rock and strike with the bit up in the air the energy cannot leave the drill string; it reverses direction down in the bit and travels back into the drill steel, but instead of a pressure wave we get a tensile wave of the same power, i.e. 24 tonnes. The shock wave can also be illustrated schematically in the manner shown in g. 9.

Fig 9

Fig 8

equipment, the drilling machine just as well as the drill steel, and he knows how to utilize his equipment in the right way to achieve optimal drilling economy.

The power contained in the shock wave (Fs) is 24.5 tonnes for a 38-mm drill steel, assuming full utilization of the percussion mechanism in for example a COP 1238 rock drill from Atlas Copco. The shock wave is transported at a velocity VS of 5200 m/s. The force contained in the drill steel before and after the shock wave is only the feed force FM, which is around 1.0-1.5 tonnes. Only when the front portion of the shock wave
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reaches the front of the bit is a force FS of 24.5 tonnes obtained between the bit and the rock and it is at this moment that the bit commences its penetration into the rock. The length of the shock wave in an Atlas Copco COP 1238 is about 1200 mm. All materials are compressed under load and if a rod with a diameter of 38 mm and a length of 1200 mm is subjected to a load of 24.5 tonnes, the rod is compressed about 1.2 mm. In other words, in the shock wave the drill still is shortened by about 1.2 mm. Since the volume is constant, the drill steel will also be thickened in the actual shock wave (see Fig. 9). While the shock wave is passing the front of the bit, the drill steel resumes its original length, so that when the shock wave has left the drill steel the drill steel becomes 1.2 mm longer than when the shock wave is in the drill steel. This elongation takes only 0.23 thousandths of a second and it is during this time that the penetration of the cemented carbide into the rock takes place. The compression which can be accomplished in the shock wave and the corresponding elongation of the drill steel, which is obtained when the shock wave leaves the drill steel, is also a measure of the maximum penetration that can be obtained irrespective of how loose the formations being drilled in acutally are. A rock drill intended for drilling in soft rock can for example be designed with a very long piston, which gives a long shock wave. For a maximum highest permissible stress in the drill steel it thus gives an increased compression of the drill steel. If we compare with the example above and the piston should be 1.2 mm, the shock wave will be 2.4 m and with the same force (FS = 24.5 tonnes) the compression per blow will be 2.4 mm. In bench drilling with a 76-mm bit with 12 buttons and a setting of the percussion pressure so that we obtain the maximum force of 24.5 tonnes in the shock wave, we get a force of about 2 tonnes per button when the shock wave reaches the front of the buttons. The rock in which we are drilling permits a certain penetration of the button until the rock gives a resistance of the

shock wave. For a brief moment Fbutton is then doubled to 4 tonnes and the button can, in theory, penetrate until we have a contact area of 2A. The force Frock is equal to the compressive strength of the rock x a factor K x the area A. The factor K is depending on the nature of the rock but is normally between 7 and 10, the surface pressure between button and rock thus being 7-10 times greater than the compressive strength of the rock. If, for example, the factor for granite (2200 bar) is K = 10, then the surface pressure between button and rock is 22000 kp/cm2. If Fbutton reaches double its value (4 tonnes) an area 2A is obtained which is equal to 4000 = 0.19 cm2 22000 which gives a contact diameter of approximately 5 mm. There is thus only a very small portion of the button that actually comes into contact with the rock. Assume that we instead are drilling in very soft rock where, on account of the soft nature of the rock, the maximum penetration is very easily obtained and where on penetration i = imax = 1.2 mm, the resistance of the rock is less than Fbutton. Let us also assume that the resistance of the rock is 1.2 tonnes and that Fbutton is 2 tonnes. We now have a tensile stress in the drill steel which is the difference between Fbutton and Frock (2.0 - 1.2 = 0.8 tonne) times the number of buttons, in this case 12 x 0.8 = 9.6 tonnes. With a changing load from a compression of 24.5 tonnes to a tensile load of 9.6 tonnes a substantially shorter drill steel life is obtained than if we go from 24.5 to 0 in compression. To obtain the best possible drill steel life the percussion pressure must be changed so that Fbutton is adapted to the resistance offered by the rock, in this case 1.2 tonnes. In other words, Fs must be lowered from about 24 tonnes to about 14 tonnes. This is achieved by reducing the percussion pressure. Consequently, it is only with sufciently hard rocks that we can utilize the maximum energy per blow. With very soft rocks the percussion pressure (percussion energy) will have to be reduced, so that we deliver the amount of energy that the rock can take in order to reduce the reected energy in the form of a tensile wave in the drill string. Fig.11.

Fig 10. Penetration in the rock

If, for example, Fbutton = 2 tonnes and when A is so large that the hardness of the rock gives Frock = 2 tonnes, the penetration = p ceases. If, now, p is smaller than the maximum penetration which is 1.2 mm, the force of 2 tonnes is reected as a reecting
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Fig 11

Fig 13

For any given percussion pressure, the amplitude, and with it the stress in the drill steel, will be higher the lower its cross-section is. In order to get the longest possible service life from shank adaptors and rods we must therefore ensure that the working pressure is at all times suited to the drilling equipment we have chosen. Fig 12.

Rotation
The purpose of rotation is to turn the drill bit to a suitable point for the next blow. For button bits we recommend that the periphery of the bit should be turned about 10 mm after each blow. To take an example, a 76-mm drill bit has a circumference of 76 x 3.14 = 240 mm, and if we want it to turn 10 mm for each blow from the rock drill this bit would have to be moved 240/10 = 24 times per revolution. If the impact frequency is 3,000 blows/min. (COP 1238) this will give 3,000/24 = 125 rpm as the rotation rate. If the impact frequency is 1,800 blows/min. (a typical gure for a pneumatic machine), this would give 1,800/24 = 75 rpm. It will be apparent from this that the rotation rate must be increased for a higher impact frequency and for a reduced bit dimension. (See g. 14.)

Fig. 12. The percussion pressure must be reduced when the steel dimension is reduced.

With the same hammer and with the same setting of the percussion pressure, we get the same amount of energy delivered to the drill steel per blow. In other words, if we select a drill steel with a diameter of 32 mm instead of one with a diameter of 38 mm we will still have 24.5 tonnes as the power in the shock wave, and this will give us an increase in the specic stress, which can be disastrous for the drill steel.

Feed
The feed must always be suited to the percussion pressure, a high percussion pressure requiring a high feed and a low percussion pressure requiring a lower feed. (See Fig. 13.) The purpose of the feed is to keep the drill bit against the rock, but since the feed is applied the whole time the drill bit must still be able to rotate. The feed will normally be around 500-1,500 kg, depending on the rock drill we are using.

Fig 14

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Fig. 15. Rotation rate as a function of bit diameter. Fig. 16. Ppm in relation to rpm penetration rate

Fig. 15 shows in the form of a graph how the rpm changes with changing bit size. The graph is valid for a hydraulic machine operating at about 3,000 blows/min. The procedure in practice is that the driller sets the percussion pressure that the rock can take, and then sets the rpm with due regard to the frequency and the bit diameter. When he then begins to drill he adjusts the feed so that he gets nice, smooth rotation without jerks. This tells him that he has got the feed right. If he doesnt succeed with this, which will show up in the service life of the adapter, the percussion pressure will have to be reduced and a new trial will have to be carried out to nd a feed that gives the nice, smooth rotation he wants. The temperature of the adaptor sleeve can be checked to make sure that the drilling parameters are correct. Immediately after a rod has been drilled the temperature is measured. For dry drilling the temperature should be 60-70 (max 100) and for wet drilling approximately 40 (max 60). As mentioned above, the adapter will immediately indicate to the driller whether the drilling parameters are right. Short adapter lives accompanied by failure, often arising from pittings in the thread are a sign that parameters are at fault. Do we have to adjust all our parameters in that case? Not always; it may be enough to try altering the rotation rate in order to hold the couplings together better. And the nice thing about this is that the rotation speed is not particularly critical to the penetration rate, as g. 16 makes clear, especially if we raise the rpm. If insert bits are used, what should the rotation rate be with these? Recommendations differ, but it is generally believed that the rotation rate should be faster, roughly 25 %. In other words, if the periphery of a button bit shifts 10 mm between consecutive blows that of an insert bit should be shifted 12.5 mm. In DTH drilling the same formula as above can be used to calculate the rotation rate, but the result of the calculation gives the rate in soft rock and must be halved when drilling in hard rock.
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Example: A 165-mm drill bit with a hammer giving 1800 blows/min. The circumference of the bit is 165 x p = 520 mm No. of blows/r = 520 = 52 10 Rotation rate (soft rock) = 1800 = 35 rpm 52 Rotation rate (hard rock) = 35 = 17.5 rpm 2 In some rocks, drilling problems arise whatever parameters we are using. It is difcult to keep the couplings together while drilling. In order to tighten the couplings during drilling we need to increase the friction of the bit against the bottom of the hole. We can do this by: 1. 2. 3. increasing the feed, increasing the rotation rate, or changing the bit.

If alternatives 1 and 2 do not help, we must resort to 3. When it comes to drill bits the insert bits have the best rotation resistance, followed by button bits with pointed buttons, while the poorest rotation resistance is found with button bits having spherical buttons. And remember this: worn bits, insert or button, always give poorer rotation resistance than new or newly ground bits. Conclusion: regrind in good time!

Flushing
As the power output from rock drills increases, accompanied by increases in penetration rate, efcient ushing becomes more and more signicant. The ushing medium is normally air for surface drilling and water for underground drilling. So what do we expect from effective ushing? The purpose of ushing is to: 1. clean the bottom of the hole ready for the next blow, 2. carry the cuttings out of the hole. The rst of these tasks usually gives no trouble. But it is necessary to make sure that the passageways for the cuttings on the sides of the drill bit are sufcient, and that the ushing holes in the drill bit are so directed that effective cleaning of the hole bottom is ensured. Task No. 2, however, demands rather more, and the ability of air to carry the cuttings away will depend on the cuttings, as follows: 1. Specic gravity Higher specic gravity calls for a higher ushing speed (more ushing air). 2. Particle size The larger the particles obtained in breaking the rock, the higher will be the necessary ushing speed. 3. Particle shape The more equilateral the particles are, the greater will be the necessary ushing speed. To illustrate this, it is easy to carry away a particle in the shape of a leaf than one of the same weight which is spherical.

Fig 17

The necessary air volume can be calculated, since we know the bit diameter and the rod diameter for the drilling operation under notice. If, for example, we are using FI38 equipment and a drill bit 76 mm in diameter the annular cross-sectional area between the drill steel and the wall of the hole. (Fig. 18) (762 - 382) 3400 mm2 4

or 3400 m2 106 With an air velocity of 10 m/sec., the volume is given by: V = 10 x 3400 = 0.034 m3/sec. 106 or about 35 litres/sec. If, on the other hand, we want to drill holes with a diameter of 102 mm using FI38 equipment, the annular cross-sectional area is given by:
2 2 A = (102 - 38 ) = 7030 mm2 4

Air flushing
The air speed up in the drill-hole for a normal rock with a density of 2.0 tonnes/m3 must be at least 10 m/sec. It can be reduced if the density is lower, and must be increased if it is higher. For example, an iron ore with a density of 4 tonnes/m3 may call for an air speed of 25-30 m/sec. in the drill hole (Fig. 17).

or

7030 m2 106

With an air velocity of 10 m/sec., the volume is given by V = 10 x 7030 = 70 l/sec. 106
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This is a combination that is unsuitable not only from the standpoint of ushing. The normal air capacity is 50-60 l/sec. for rigs with a compressor on board. The indicated air demand in litres/sec. must be compared with what is available, this being stated as the air capacity in free air for the compressor in question.

Water flushing
Since water has a considerably better lifting capacity than air it will be sufcient to have a velocity of 0.5 metres/sec. in the annular area, a considerably lower velocity than is needed with air. In drilling long holes upwards we have to bear in mind that we get a backpressure of 1 bar for every 10 metres, and this backpressure has to be overcome (Fig. 19)

Fig 18

Fig 19

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Notes

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18

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2002.10