EE 498
Professor Kelin J. Kuhn
Keep the functional and physical characteristics as simple as possible Design for the most economic production method Design for a minimum number of machining operations Specify finish and accuracy no greater than are actually necessary
I. Conventional machining
A. Milling
Milling is the most versatile of the conventional machine tools. In concept, milling is very straightforward. A cutter is held in a chuck which rotates at a controlled speed. The cutter is suspended over a work surface whose location can be precisely controlled. The part to be machined is securely fastened to the work surface, and the work surface is moved underneath the cutter. Appropriate choices of cutter type, depth of cut and speed determine the final shape. A typical mill is shown below.
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There are two ways to cut using a mill. The edge of the piece can be cut (peripheral milling) or the surface of the piece can be cut (face milling).
The piece can be milled where the work is fed against the direction of the rotating milling cutter (up milling). This technique is best for surfaces with an initial rough finish. Alternatively, the work can be fed in the same direction as the cutter (down milling). This technique is best suited for intricate parts.
Cutters: Cutters are typically fabricated from high speed steel in a number of shapes and sizes. However, cutters can also be obtained in carbide or diamond for special milling operations. Materials: Materials best suited for milling are the softer metals and plastics. Aluminum and brass are two commonly milled metals; Teflon and Delrin are commonly milled plastics. However, the ability to mill a metal is typically limited only by the hardness of the cutter. Special cutters can be obtained for milling harder materials and refractories. Alternatively very sharp cutters are available for plastics and even wood.
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Set-up and fixturing. A typical milling job requires more time to set up the fixturing to hold the job then to actually complete the job! Thus, fixturing is a critical part of the milling process. Fixturing may involve fabrication of a number of other pieces before the actual part is manufactured. CNC and NC Milling can be performed under computer control. Such mills called Computer Numerical Control or Numerical Control mills are becoming increasing common in small machine shops. There are numerous variations on these mills, the most interesting (at least for EEs!) are CNC mills that machine simple circuit boards. Advantages of milling:
Very good for one-off objects Virtually any material can be milled with a proper cutter Complex parts with high detail Tolerances of 0.001" to 0.003" are possible Weights from a few grams to up to 100 lbs
Disadvantages:
A more reduced set of features possible. Certain features are not possible More materials waste than casting type processes Quite slow
B. Turning
Turning is the second most versatile of the conventional machine tools. Turning is useful for producing parts with rotational symmetry. In concept, turning is also very straightforward. The part is held (typically horizontally) in a machine called a lathe. One side of the part is clamped to a chuck, the other side is held by a rotating support called a tail stock. A typical lathe is shown below.
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A cutter, held by a tool post, engages the material. The cutter can be fed transversely into the material or longitudinally along the material. In metal turning, the cutter is usually a single point cutter ground from a square piece of tool steel. Appropriate choices of cutter type, depth of cut and speed determine the final shape. Typical cutters are shown below.
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One of the most powerful uses of a metal lathe is in cutting screw threads. Screw threads can be cut internally or externally as shown below.
Certain types of lathes termed screw machines are specifically designed to simply manufacture screws. Conventional automatic screw machines can produce screws at the rate of one every 3-5 seconds. Swiss type automatic screw machines (typically more accurate) produce precision screws at the rate of one every 10 or so seconds. However, Swiss type machines can produce intricate parts in far larger quantities. Materials: Materials best suited for turning are the softer metals and plastics. Aluminum and brass are two commonly turned metals; Teflon and Delrin are commonly turned plastics. The ability to turn a metal is primarily limited by the hardness of the cutter and the cutting speed. For example, turning carbon steel requires speeds up to 600 sfpm and carbide tipped cutters. Types of lathes: Engine lathe: This is the typical lathe that you will see in a machine shop. It is limited to one single point cutting tools and generally is used for prototype work. Toolroom lathe: This is a smaller more precise version of an engine lathe. Often called a jewelers lathe.
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Turret lathe: These are semiautomatic tools which perform essentially the same functions as an engine lathe. However, turret lathes are not limited to single cutting tools -- thus several things may be happening to the part at the same time. In order to facilitate tool changes, a six-sided turret is used in place of a tailstock. CNC lathes: The same idea as a turret lathe, but on computer control. CNC or NC lathes provide more rapid turn-around times for complex one-off parts. Automatic screw machines: These are turret lathes, but arranged for continuous feed of bar stock. Some automatic screw machines have carried the idea a step further and have multiple spindles as well as multiple tools. Logically enough they are called multiple spindle bare automatic screw machines. Swiss-type automatic screw machines: Swiss style machines work on a different principle than the majority of lathes. In a Swiss-type machine, a revolving piece of material is fed through a bushing and then into the path of five radially mounted tools. The combination of the bushing and the radial tool mounting permits exceptionally fine control of the cut. Swiss-type machines are almost exclusively used for the production of highly precise parts -- such as those in Swiss watches. Precision:
Engine Lathes: 0.005" typical Turret Lathes: 0.003" typical Screw Machines: 0.003" typical Swiss-type machines: 0.0002" for special 0.0005" for typical
Advantages of turning:
Essentially the only way to make accurate radially symmetrical objects Virtually any material can be milled with a proper cutter Complex parts with high detail Tolerances of 0.001" to 0.003" are possible Weights from a few grams to up to 100 lbs
Disadvantages:
A more reduced set of features possible. Certain features are not possible More materials waste then casting type processes
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A side note on screws: Although screw machines are typically used to fabricate precision screws and bolts -day-to-day screws and bolts are typically made using thread rolling machines. In thread rolling, a blank is placed between two dies. One die moves, one die is stationary. The blank is moved down the stationary die by the moving die and exits the machine as a completed screw.
Production versions of this use rotating planetary dies and can produce thousands of screws per hour.
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Rolled threads have certain advantages over cut threads. In particular, the rolled thread does not cut the material grain boundaries, but rather imparts a workhardened surface similar to a forging. This tends to reduce stripping, as it is harder to shear across the grain of a rolled thread than a cut thread.
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A. Sand casting.
In spite of its innocuous name, sand casting is one of the most major industrial metal casting processes. Sand casting accounts for over 90% of all metal poured for casting. The process of sand casting begins by fabricating a pattern for the final object. The pattern is often two piece due to the construction of the mold. The pattern can be made from virtually any substance including wood, foam, clay and plastic. The mold which contains the sand is called a flask. It consists of two pieces, the top or cope and the bottom or drag. The centerline divides the cope from the drag. Holes called sprues feed molten metal into the flask and holes called risers allow air bubbles to escape. To begin the casting process, the flask is broken into its two pieces. The pattern is inserted into the flask and the flask reassembled. Sand is packed tightly around the pattern. Then the flask is opened and the pattern removed. The sand imprint is checked carefully, and appropriate risers and sprues added (if not contained on the original pattern). Then the flask is closed and molten metal poured into the sprues until it emerges from the risers. After the metal has cooled, the flask is broken open and the cast part removed. The sand is cleaned and recycled back for the next casting operation. The sprues and risers are removed and the part is cleaned.
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Tricks: Either "green" sand (actually black) or dry sand is used for casting. In green sand casting, the sand binder is kept moist with water. The part is cast as soon as possible after the pattern is removed. In dry sand casting, an organic binder is used -- and the mold is baked after the pattern is removed. Green sand casting is more economical, dry sand casting has better dimensional tolerances. To create a hole in the middle of a casting, a baked sand part called a core is inserted in the mold after the pattern has been removed. The core will be removed destructively after the casting is complete -- leaving a hole in the middle of the part. Polystyrene or Styrofoam can be used to create a one-time pattern for a specialty casting. In this process, the pattern is inserted into the flask and left there. When the molten metal is poured over the pattern, it vaporizes and the vapor escapes from the riser holes. Materials: Any metal that can be melted. Common metals include cast iron, steel, brass, bronze, aluminum alloys, and magnesium alloys. Advantages:
Exceptionally economical Virtually no materials waste, as leftovers can be remelted and used again The castings can range from a few ounces to thousands of pounds The castings are isotropic Virtually unlimited freedom of shape
Disadvantages:
Dimensional tolerances of 1/16" are typical -- this is large for many applications The castings have a work hardened (chilled) surface and cause significant tool wear in post casting machining
B. Plaster casting
Plaster casting begins with a highly polished pattern of wood, plastic or metal. Typically the cope and drag molds are made separately -- so the pattern is really a half-pattern (one for the cope and one for the drag). A high polish and lack of pores is necessary in order to facilitate removal of the pattern from the mold. The fabrication of the mold begins with the cope or drag part of the mold flask. A bottom plate is placed in the mold flask. Then, the cope or drag half of the pattern is sprayed with a material called "parting compound" to assist removal of the pattern from the mold. The pattern is placed carefully onto the bottom plate. Next, the plaster slurry (70% gypsum and 30% strengthening materials) is poured into the flask over the pattern. After the plaster has set, the mold is reversed, the bottom plate removed, and the pattern extracted. The molds are then baked.
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After the molds have set, molten metal is poured into them in the same way as with sand casting. Once the metal has hardened, the mold is broken open to retrieve the parts. Tricks: To create a hole in the middle of a casting, a plaster core can be used. The core will be removed destructively after the casting is complete -- leaving a hole in the middle of the part. Plaster casting is somewhat more expensive than die casting (see next section) for large production runs. However, for runs of less than 1000, plaster casting is much cheaper. Thus, it is ideally suited for development of test components before major high volume manufacturing. Materials: Limited to non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals react with sulfur in the gypsum. Typical cast metals are aluminum alloys, yellow brass, zinc, magnesium alloys and copper. Advantages:
Well suited for parts with thin walls, intricate detail and complex coring Walls may be cast as thin as 0.020" The castings can range from a few ounces to thousands of pounds Tolerances of 0.005" are possible Parts can be made with minimal post machining Excellent surface finish
Disadvantages:
Parts are typically small, less than 6" in any direction Non-ferrous metals only For production runs of over 2000 parts, metal molds are cheaper - 11 -
The wax pattern is then covered with a refractory material. This could be done by dipping the pattern into a ceramic slurry -- or covering the pattern with some refractory molding material. The mold is then baked and the wax or plastic allowed to drain or vaporize out. Molten metal is then poured into the mold. Unlike the previous casting operations, getting the metal out of the mold is more difficult in investment casting. Since the mold material is typically refractory -- it is often difficult to remove. Chemicals, pressurized water and sand blasting are all used to remove molds. Materials: Any metal that can be melted. However this process is best suited for hightemperature metals, precious metals, or metals difficult to fabricate by other methods. Thus, stainless steel, magnesium, and carbon or tool steels are commonly investment cast. Advantages:
Permits casting of materials difficult or impossible to fabricate with other methods Virtually no materials waste, as leftovers can be remelted and used again Allows exceptional detail and features difficult to machine Tolerances of 0.003" to 0.005" are possible A parting line is not necessary
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Disadvantages:
Typically restricted to less than 10 lb castings Typically restricted to less than 40" in total length Significantly more expensive than sand or plaster casting
Molds for casting iron or steel are made of graphite or other refractories. Molds for casting aluminum, magnesium or copper alloy castings are made of iron or die-steel. Molds incorporate the necessary sprues and risers, and also typically have pins for ejecting the castings. Materials: Materials best suited for gravity die castings are materials with relatively low melting points in order to be fluid in the mold. Typically iron, magnesium alloys, and aluminum alloys are cast using this process. Copper and zinc alloys tend to be insufficiently fluid. Steel and steel alloys require special molds. Advantages:
Reusable molds Good grain quality due to rapid heat transfer to the mold Virtually no materials waste, as leftovers can be remelted and used again Tolerances of 0.010" to 0.015" are possible Weights from a few ounces to up to 500 lbs
Disadvantages:
Expensive fabrication costs for the permanent mold Subject to warpage The need to machine the mold limits the type of features Reduced set of materials due to fluidity considerations
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E. Die casting
Die casting is one of the most common manufacturing processes. The basic idea is to force metal into a permanent mold using high pressure. The metal then cools (often assisted by water cooling of the die). The mold is then opened, and the casting ejected. Molds for die casting are quite elaborate. They are usually constructed of alloy steel in two pieces (called the cover and the ejector). The die must withstand high temperature and pressure, so the die is typically made for chromium or tungsten steel alloys. In order to increase die life, and improve throughput, the die is usually cooled with water, air or nitrogen. There are two major types of die casting machines. Hot chamber die casting machines are used for low melting point materials. A typical hot chamber machine is shown below. When the piston is raised, molten metal flows into the gooseneck. The molten metal is forced out of the gooseneck and into the die by the plunger. These machines are FAST typically operating at 150+ shots per minute.
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The cold chamber die casting machine is shown below. Die castings of aluminum, magnesium, brass and bronze are all made on cold chamber machines. In a cold chamber, the metal is fed first from the holding furnace into a chamber. The plunger then takes that metal and forces it into the die. Cold chamber machines are typically a bit slower than hot chamber machines.
Materials: Materials best suited for die castings are zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper, lead and tin. High pressure die casting is generally limited to non-ferrous metals because of the difficulty in making refractory molds capable of withstanding the high temperature and pressure. Advantages:
Exceptionally fast Metallic or non-metallic inserts may be used Complex parts with high detail Reusable molds Good grain quality due to rapid heat transfer to the mold Virtually no materials waste, as leftovers can be remelted and used again Tolerances of 0.001" to 0.003" are possible Weights from a few grams to up to 100 lbs - 15 -
Disadvantages:
Expensive fabrication costs for the permanent mold Non-ferrous metals The need to machine the mold limits the type of features Flash on parts Reduced set of materials due to fluidity considerations
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III. Forging
Forging is the process of shaping metals by deforming them with a hammer, a press or rollers. Forged parts are characterized by a fibrous crystal structure. In such structures, the strength increases significantly along the lines of the grain boundary flow. Forging is among the oldest of the metal working technologies.
Smith and hammer forging Smith forging consists of making a part by banging on the heated metal with a hammer. This is the familiar forging process performed by blacksmiths on such objects as horseshoes. Hammer forging is simply a larger and more automated version of the same thing. Drop forging Drop forging is the most common of the forging processes. In drop forging, a heated bar of material is forced into a die by a powered hammer. One half of the die is attached to the hammer and the other half to the anvil. In many cases, several different dies will be used for a single part, with the part transferring from die to die as its shape becomes more well defined. Impact forging Impact forging is the same idea as drop forging, except two hammers are used, each holding 1/2 of the die. Hammer forging is generally set up to only require one impact. Impact forgings tend to be of higher quality than drop forgings, apparently due to the effects of the mutual impact on the grain structure. Press forging In press forging, like drop forging, heated metal is forced into a die. However, in press forging, the die is not subjected to impact. Instead, the pressure is slowly increased over the course of several seconds. Maximum pressures may be as high
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as 10,000 tons. Press forging is a much quieter process than drop forging, and results in parts which are at least equal in quality. Roll forging Roll forging is used on short lengths of stock that require the additional strength added by the forging process. Two counter-rotating wheels contain the die. The heated rod stock is inserted into the wheels. The diameter of the stock is decreased and its length increased. Typically, the rollers include a number of dies of decreasing diameter. The operator consecutively moves the part through the dies until it reaches the final form.
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Unbelievably fast Wide variety of materials Reusable dies Tolerances of 0.005" to are possible Weights from a few grams to up to 100 lbs
Disadvantages:
Die and stretch marks Up to 25% scrap loss Springback of metal parts to cold forming Thickness range of 0.020" to 0.75" for stock
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VI. Plastics
There are two major classes of plastics, thermoset and thermoplastic. Thermoplastics are plastics such as polyethylene or styrene which can be softened with heat. Thermoplastics can be molded, extruded and cast. However, their deformability with heat does pose problems in some applications. Thermoset plastics include epoxies and phenolics. Thermoset plastics are typically formed from multipart solutions (a resin and a hardener). Once set, thermoset plastics do not flow or melt when heated. Common Thermoplastics: ABS, Acetal, Acrylic, Cellulosics (cellulose acetate, ethyl cellulose ....), Fluoroplastics (PVDF, ETFE, FEP ...), nylon, polycarbonate, polyester, polyethelene, polymide, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyurethane, polyvinylchoride (PVC). Common Thermosets: Epoxy, Melamine, phenolic, urethane.
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Thermoplastics are typically molded using a process called injection molding. A typical injection molding machine is shown below.
Pellets of the plastic are fed into a hopper and carried into the barrel by a screw or plunger. The plastic melts in the barrel. When the proper volume of plastic has melted to fill the mold (including the sprues and risers), the screw or plunger is forced forward, injecting the plastic into the mold. Like in die castings, mold pressures tend to be very high -- often in the 3000 ton range. However, unlike die casting, the mold temperatures tend to be rather low. Interestingly enough, molds made for one plastic cannot be used for others because plastic shrinkage is quite different for different plastics. Other plastic forming processes: Compression molding: A mold is filled with pieces of thermoset plastic as well as various fillers such as wood fiber, cotton and pigments. Heat and pressure is applied to the mold cavity to force the material to melt and fill the mold. Extrusion: Extrusion is typically reserved for thermoplastics. The material is carried by a screw to a heating chamber, and then forced through a heated die (much like toothpaste through a tube). The extruded material then rests on a conveyor and is cooled by air or water. The extruded lengths may be cut to length (as in plastic channel) or coiled in a tube (as with pipe). Blow molding: In a processes similar to glass blowing, thermoplastics can be blown up and then sealed in a mold. Typical examples include liter soft drink bottles. Thermoforming: In this process, a sheet of thermoplastic is heated and then allowed to droop into a mold. The droop process can be gravity assisted, mechanically assisted, vacuum assisted or air assisted. A typical example is plastic luggage.
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