Week 6

SYCPA Regents Prep Living Environment

Evolution & Human Impact

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact

Evolution Review Natural Selection

Vocabulary: adaptations, common ancestors, competition, classification, evolution, extinction, fossils, fossil record, natural selection, overproduction, reproduction, selecting agent, speciation, species, survival of the fittest, variations Evolution, the change of species over time, is the central unifying theme of biology. Biological evolution occurs through natural selection. Natural selection is the result of overproduction of offspring having variations, these variations struggling for survival, and the subsequent survival and increased reproduction of those best adapted to a particular environment. Natural selection is the evolutionary process which selects the variation(s) of organisms best suited for a particular environment. Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences provide a scientific explanation for the fossil record of ancient life, as well as for the molecular and structural similarities observed among the diverse species of living organisms. The degree of kinship between organisms or species can be estimated from the similarity of their DNA sequences; this similarity often closely matches organisms' or species' classification based on anatomical similarities.

DNA Sequence Similarities in Some Primates

The graphic above shows that: 1. All of these primates had a common ancestor, the ancestral primate. 2. The human and chimpanzee have the closest evolutionary relationship as their DNA is the most similar.

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Theory of Natural Selection 1. Overproduction: Within a population more offspring are born than can possibly survive. 2. Competition: Since the number of individuals in a population tends to remain constant from generation to generation due to limited resources, a struggle for survival occurs. 3. Survival of the Fittest: The individuals who survive are the ones best adapted to exist in their environment due to the possession of variations that best suit them to their environment. This genetic variability within a species is chiefly due to mutation and genetic recombination. The variation of organisms within a species increases the likelihood that at least some members of the species will survive under changed environmental conditions. 4. Reproduction: Variations assist or hinder individuals in their struggle for survival. The best adapted individuals survive and reproduce, passing on the favorable variations to their offspring. 5. Speciation: As time and generations continue, adaptations are passed on and new species may evolve from a common ancestor. Small differences between parents and offspring can accumulate in successive generations so that descendants become very different from their ancestors. An adaptation is a variation which assists an organism or species in its survival. Biological adaptations include changes in structures, behaviors, or physiology that enhance survival and reproductive success in a particular environment. Some characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving and reproducing, and the advantaged offspring, in turn, are more likely than others to survive and reproduce. The proportion of individuals that have advantageous characteristics will increase. Behaviors have evolved through natural selection. The broad patterns of behavior exhibited by organisms have evolved to ensure reproductive success. Modern Examples of Natural Selection Peppered moth: 3

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Two varieties of peppered moth existed, a light colored and a dark colored one. As industrialization and coal burning increased, the environment in England where these moths lived became dirtier . The dark colored variety of the moth blended into the trees and increased in numbers, while the light colored moth was less adapted and decreased in numbers.

Insect resistance to insecticides:

Insecticides kill insects not resistant to the insecticide, while insects resistant to the insecticide live to reproduce. The insecticide acts as a selecting agent.

Bacterial resistance to antibiotics:

Bacteria not resistant to an antibiotic are killed by it, while resistant bacteria live to reproduce. The antibiotic is a selecting agent for these bacteria.

Galapagos Island Finches:

Darwin developed his theory of natural selection by observing the many species of finches on the Galapagos Islands off the coast of South America. He notices similarities among all of the species, both on the mainland and the islands but noticed distinct differences among those on different islands which he attributed to the selecting agents of the varying foods the finches ate.

After years of observations, he concluded that all of the island finches had evolved from the mainland finch. This has later been proven with DNA analysis of the different finches.

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact Evolution and Extinction Evolution does not necessarily mean long term progress is going to go in a certain direction. Evolutionary changes often appear to be like the growth of a bush. Some branches survive from the beginning with little or no change, many die out altogether, and others branch out repeatedly, sometimes giving rise to more complex organisms. Direction of Evolution

. Note the divergence of the various groups from a common ancestor and the fact that some branches became extinct.

Extinction of a species occurs when the environment changes and the adaptive characteristics of a species are insufficient to allow its survival. The fossil record indicates that many organisms that lived long ago are extinct. Extinction of a species is common; most of the species that have lived on earth no longer exist. The Fossil Record Fossils are direct or indirect remains of organisms preserved in media such as sedimentary rock, amber, ice, or tar. Fossils have been found that indicate organisms existed well over 3 billion years ago. These organisms were simple, single-celled organisms. About a billion years ago, increasingly complex multi-cellular organisms began to evolve. The higher up you go in an undisturbed rock stratum (rock layer), the younger the rock layers become and therefore it is believed the fossils within these layers, as compared to lower rock layers, are also younger. Relative Dating of Undisturbed Sedimentary Rock and its Fossils

Upper strata generally contain fossils of younger, more complex organisms, whereas, the lower strata contain fossils of simpler life forms. This means there is a tendency toward increasing complexity in life forms over time. 5

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact When comparing fossils in undisturbed strata, fossils can be found in upper strata which, although different from fossils in lower strata, resemble those fossils. This suggests links between modern forms and older forms, as well as divergent pathways from common ancestors. Classification Biological classification is based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on structural similarities and evolutionary relationships. The species is the most fundamental unit of classification. This is a group of organisms which are close enough in their evolutionary relationship to be capable of successful reproduction and having fertile offspring.

Mutations
Vocabulary: crossing over, mutation, natural selection One source of the variation driving the process of evolution is mutation. Mutation is the change in DNA of an organism which may result in that organism being different than its parents. While there are many causes of mutations, some factors are known which rapidly increase the incidence of mutation. The differences in species produced by mutation is a driving force in the process of natural selection. Mutations are any changes in genetic material. Mutations can be caused by such agents as radiation and chemicals. When they occur in sex cells, the mutations can be passed on to offspring. Mutations occurring in other cells can be passed on to other body cells only. The experiences an organism has during its lifetime can affect its offspring only if the genes in its own sex cells are changed by the experience.

Some Types of Chromosome Mutations

Inversion: chromosome pieces are attached upside down Duplication: involves copying an extra section of chromosome Translocation: chromosome pieces moved Addition and deletion: chromosome is added or removed

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact Either changes in chromosomes or genes on chromosomes changes the genetic which contributes to sources of variation. Some Other Sources of Genetic Variability In addition to mutation, other sources of the variation seen in sexually reproducing offspring include crossing over and genetic recombination during fertilization (union of egg and sperm). In crossing over which occurs in the production of sex cells or gametes in meiosis, there is an exchange of chromosome pieces between the chromosome pairs associated with each other in this process. Crossing Over and Genetic Variation

Mutations, crossing over, and genetic recombination ensure that no two gametes formed as the result of sexual reproduction will be exactly the same. As a consequence, the offspring formed as a result of sexual reproduction will exhibit variations. Some of these variations will be better suited for survival than others, thus driving the process of biological evolution.

Variations
Vocabulary: mutations, natural selection, variations Variations are differences between groups of organisms of one species. Mutation is one source of variation between different groups within a species. The variation of organisms within a species increases the likelihood that at least some members of the species will survive under changed environmental conditions. Sources of Variation 1. The exchanging and recombining of genes during meiosis and fertilization result in a great variety of new possible gene combinations from that of the parents. 2. Mutations are random changes in the genes or DNA of sex cells may result in new gene combinations creating variation in the offspring formed from these. Only mutations that occur in sex cells can be passed on to the offspring. Mutations which occur in other cells can be passed on to other body cells only. The experiences an organism has during its lifetime can affect its offspring only if the genes in its own sex cells are changed by the experience.

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact Variation and Evolution Evolution is the consequence of the following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. the potential for a species to increase its numbers the genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recombination of genes a finite supply of the resources required for life the ensuing selection by the environment of those offspring better able to survive and leave offspring.

Some characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving and reproducing, and the advantaged offspring, in turn, are more likely than others to survive and reproduce. The proportion of individuals that have advantageous characteristics will increase. An Example of Variation Driving Natural Selection Natural selection favors longer necks for a better chance to get higher leaves. Favored characteristic is passed on to next generation.

Original group exhibits variation in neck length.

After many generations, the group is still variable, but shows a general increase in neck length.

The variation of organisms within a species increases the likelihood that at least some members of the species will survive under changed environmental conditions. The great diversity of organisms is the result of billions of years of selection for favorable variations that has filled available niches of our planet with life forms.

Human Impact Review Interrelationships

The Earth has limited to resources to support populations of humans and other organisms. Our ever increasing human numbers is depleting many of our planet's resources and placing severe stress on the natural processes that renew many of our resources. Ecosystem Processes Natural ecosystems are involved in a wide variety of natural processes influencing humans and other organisms. The activities of humans in the environment are changing many of these natural processes in a harmful fashion. Some of these natural processes and a brief description of a human influence on these processes is indicated in the table which follows.

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact Human Influence on Some Ecosystem Processes Ecosystem Process Generation of Soils Human Influence Agricultural practices have exposed soil to the weather resulting in great loss of topsoil. The cutting of forests and other human activities have allowed increased uncontrolled runoff leading to increased erosion and flooding. Untreated sewage wastes and runoff from farms and feedlots have led to increased water pollution. Some industries and nuclear plants have added thermal pollution to the environment. The release of some gases from the burning of fossil fuels may be slowly increasing the Earth's temperature. (Greenhouse Effect). The use of packaging material which does not break down, burning of refuse, and the placing of materials in landfills prevents the return of some useful materials to the environment.

Control of the Water Cycle

Removal of Wastes

Energy Flow

Nutrient Recycling

Some Detrimental Human Activities Humans are part of the Earth's ecosystem. Human activities can either deliberately or inadvertently alter the balance of an ecosystem. This destruction of habitat, whether accidental or intentional, is threatening the stability of the planet's ecosystems. If these human influences are not addressed, the stability of many ecosystems may be irreversibly affected. Some of the ways that humans damage and destroy ecosystems are indicated in the table below. Some Ways Humans Adversely Influence Ecosystems Human Influence Population growth Overconsumption Advancing Technologies Direct Harvesting Pollution Atmospheric Changes Effect on Ecosystems Our increasing numbers are using excessive amounts of the Earth's limited resources. Industrialized societies are using more resources per person from our planet than people from poor nations. Often we introduce technology without knowing how it will influence the environment This has resulted in a large loss of rainforest and the many products associated with its biodiversity. Land, air, water, and nuclear pollution have had many adverse influences on ecosystems. These include the addition of Greenhouse gases mostly due to the burning of fossil fuels and depletion of our stratospheric ozone layer. Other pollutants also have negative effects on living things.

Technological Developments
Human technologies which degrade the environment result in a loss of diversity in the living and nonliving environment. Biodiversity refers to the differences in living things in an ecosystem. 9

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact Many of our technologies and resource use practices have resulted in an irreversible loss of biodiversity. Some examples of human activities which have negatively influenced other organisms include our land use practices and pollution. Excessive land use decreases the space and resources available to other species on the planet. Air, soil, and water pollution changes the composition of these environmental resources, making them harmful and unusable for other species and sometimes ourselves. Endangered Species Endangered species are those species which are threatened with destruction due to habitat destruction or other factors. Animals which were once endangered but are presently successfully reproducing and increasing their numbers are the bison, gray wolves and egrets. Other endangered animals which are currently responding to conservation efforts and beginning to make a comeback are the whooping crane, bald eagle, and peregrine falcon. Even with these successes, the future of many endangered species remains in doubt. Exotic Species The importation of some organisms have caused problems for native organisms. Organisms which are imported into an area from another region are called exotic species. Many examples of this are found world-wide. Some common examples of exotic species having negative effects would include the rabbits and deer which were imported into Australia. These exotic species won the competition with many native herbivorous marsupials and became nuisance species. The starling was brought into the United States from Europe. The starling has out competed many of our native songbirds. We also have alien invasive species which have caused problems in New York State. These include the plants such as the Water Chestnut, Eurasian Water milfoil, and Purple Loosestrife and animals such as the Alewife and Zebra Mussel.

The Purple Loosestrife

Purple loosestrife is a plant native to Europe. It was brought to North America in the early 1800's by immigrants who valued its beautiful purple flowers. It is now a serious pest of wetlands. Once purple loosestrife enters a wetland, it takes over. Common native wetland plants, such as cattails, cannot compete with purple loosestrife. Once these native plants are choked out, the wildlife that depends on them for food and shelter are also eliminated.

Use of Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels are becoming rapidly depleted. The use of these fuels are adding to our air pollution problems. The search and demand for additional fossil fuel resources also impact ecosystems in a negative way. Industrialization has brought an increased demand for and use of energy. One of the ways the increased burning of fossil fuels has had a harmful influence of the environment is by causing an increased incidence of acid precipitation.

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How does Acid Precipitation occur?

Most acid rain influencing New York State is caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide pollution from the burning of fossil fuels in the Western and Midwestern United States. These gases combine with water vapor in the atmosphere and fall back to the earth over New York and the Eastern United States as acid precipitation.

Some Problems Associated With Acid Precipitation

Destruction of limestone and marble monuments due to increased chemical weathering Acidification of aquatic ecosystems destroying the life in them Damage forests and other plants in a variety of ways

Our increased burning of fossil fuels and the release of excess carbon dioxide to the atmosphere associated with their combustion is also contributing to the Greenhouse Effect or global warming. It is believed the increase in level of carbon dioxide and some other gases is not allowing much infrared or heat radiation to escape the planet into outer space. This is causing our planet to slowly warm. The graphs in the table below show the link between increasing earth carbon dioxide levels and the increase in global average temperatures.

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Relationship Between Global Temperature and Carbon Dioxide Levels

Some Consequences of Global Warming

Rising sea levels and coastal flooding Changed precipitation patterns which may result in droughts in some regions and increased levels of crop failure An increase in insect borne diseases in temperate regions such as New York State as milder winters fail to kill the disease carrying insects. (The increase in the incidence of West Nile virus may be an example of this.)

Ozone Depletion CFC's (chlorofluorocarbons) are very active chemicals associated with certain human manufacturing processes and products. This CFC pollution from refrigerants and plastics are destroying our thin ozone shield high up in our atmosphere or in the stratosphere. This layer of ozone normally shields us from excessive incoming ultraviolet radiation. Some consequences of this ever increasing ozone depletion appear to be an increased incidence of skin cancers and cataracts in the human population. 12

Week 6 Evolution & Human Impact Nuclear Energy While nuclear energy avoids many of the pollution drawbacks associated with the increased burning of fossil fuels, there are many risks associated with the use of nuclear fuels for energy. Environmental dangers exist in reference to obtaining, using, and storing the wastes from these fuels. Many of the waste products of used nuclear fuel stay in the environment for thousands of years and release radiation which is harmful to humans or other living things. Additionally, the water used to cool many nuclear reactors must be released eventually to the environment. The thermal pollution associated with this released heat into the water is potentially dangerous to the aquatic life in the area where this hot water is released. Other Factors Influencing Environmental Quality Many different factors besides industry and resource use have influences on environmental quality. Some factors include population growth and distribution, resource use, the capacity of technology to solve environmental problems, as well as economic, cultural, political, and ethical views.

Some Examples of Political or Cultural Views Influencing Environmental Quality

Wealthy people in the developed world tend to have fewer children. Some countries like China have laws concerning the number of children a couple may have without penalty. In some countries such as many in Latin America, families tend to be larger as birth control violates religious and societal norms. In some poor cultures in third world countries, having many children is seen as a means of having economic security in old age.

Improvements
Through a greater awareness of ecological principles and application of these principles to our natural environment, humans can help assure there will be suitable environments for succeeding generations of life on our planet. Individuals in our societies will always have to make decisions on proposals involving the introduction of new technologies. Individuals in these societies need to make decisions which will assess the risks, benefits, tradeoffs, and costs of these new technologies. The economic rewards of these technologies must be properly balanced with any adverse consequences these new technologies may have on the environment. It may be impossible to completely assess the consequences of introducing a new technology, but critical questions in reference to its introduction must be asked. While the overall impact of humans on the planet's ecosystems have been negative, humans have done many things to improve the overall quality for living things in ecosystems we have damaged or destroyed. Activities having possible adverse effects on the environment in New York State are subject to review by SEQR (State Environmental Quality Review Act). Some other ways in which humans have attempted to minimize negative impacts or improve the ecosystems we are all a part of are listed in the table which follows.

Some Positive Influences of Humans on the Ecosystem

Sustaining endangered species by using habitat protection methods such as wildlife refuges and national parks. Passing wildlife management laws, such as game laws and catch restrictions. Adding lime to Adirondack lakes in an effort to neutralize their acid pollution so the original living things in these lakes can be reintroduced. 13

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Design new products which meet basic needs without generating pollution. Inspection of all materials before entering the country to prevent pest introduction. Increased use of biodegradable packaging materials which will recycle themselves quickly to the environment. Use fuels which contain less pollutants, such as low sulfur coal and oil. Remove pollutants by using such devices as afterburners or catalytic converters before they enter the air.

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Evolution Regents Questions

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Environmental Issues/Human Impact Regents Questions

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