9 EE 334 Powfbdzer Flow Solutions

EE 334 Power systems
Power Flow Solutions

Prof. S. V. Kulkarni
Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni
Topic 9 : Power Flow Solutions
Power flow studies : useful in planning and designing future
expansion of power systems.
Also useful in determining best operating condition of an
existing system.
Information obtained from load flow study : the magnitude and
phase angle of voltage at each bus and the real and reactive
power flowing in each line.
Lines are represented by their per-phase nominal- equivalent
circuits (medium-length line representation)
Introduction
2
Nominal- equivalent circuit
3
V
R
Y/2
I
R
Y/2
Z = R + jX
V
S
I
S
+
_
+
_
Y bus is used for power-flow studies.
Other essential information: transformer ratings and
impedances, tap settings
Voltage at any bus:
Net current injected at bus i,
4
( )
i i i i i i
j V V V sin cos + = =
cos sin
ij ij ij ij ij ij ij ij ij
Y Y Y j Y G jB = = + = +
1 1 2 2
1
n
i i i in n ij j
j
I Y V Y V Y V Y V
=
= + + + =


Let and be the net real and reactive powers entering the
network at bus i,
The power flow problem is handled more easily through the use
of rather than
i = 1, 2, 3, n
5
i
P
i
Q
*
i
I
* *
1
n
i i i i i ij j
j
P jQ V I V Y V
=
= =

*
i i i i i
S P jQ V I = + =
i
I
Equating real and imaginary parts,
i = 1, 2, 3,..n
i = 1, 2, 3,..n
The above equations represent 2n power flow equations at n
buses of a power system (n real power flow equations and n
reactive power flow equations)
Each bus is characterized by four variables:
resulting in a total of 4n variables
Hence, this system of equations can be solved for 2n variables
if the remaining 2n variables are specified
6
, , ,
i i i i
P Q V
1
cos( ) (1)
n
i i j ij ij j i
j
P V V Y
=
= +

1
sin( ) (2)
n
i i j ij ij j i
j
Q V V Y
=
= +

Hence, two variables for each bus are fixed a priori
Still the solution is not straight-forward since these are non-linear
algebraic equations
The solution can only be obtained by using an iterative numerical
technique
Depending upon which two variables are fixed a priori, the buses
are classified into 3 categories:
(i)
7
i
P
i
Q
di
Q
di
P
gi
P
gi
Q
i
V
i
PQ bus (load bus)

At this bus, the net powers and are known
and (demand) are known from load forecasting
and (generation) are usually zero
Two unknowns are and
(ii) PV bus / generator bus / voltage controlled bus
At this bus the voltage magnitude is kept constant: voltage
controlled bus.
Real power generation is controlled by adjusting the prime
mover, and the voltage magnitude is controlled by adjusting the
generator excitation.
Therefore, at each PV bus, and are specified.
If this bus is also loaded, and are known
Generator reactive power required to support the specified
voltage magnitude is unknown
(net) and are the unknown variables at a PV bus
8
gi
P
i
V
di
P
di
Q
gi
Q
i
Q
i

(iii) Slack bus / swing bus / reference bus
Real and reactive powers at this bus are not specified
Voltage magnitude and phase angle (normally set equal to zero)
are specified
Usually, there is only one bus of this type in a given network
Need for this bus: real and reactive powers cannot be fixed a
priori at all buses as the net complex power flow into the
network is not known
System losses are not known till the power flow analysis is completed
9
Hence, it is necessary to have one bus at which complex power
is unspecified so that it supplies the difference,
where loss of lines and transformers
Currents in transmission lines cannot be calculated until and
are known at every bus.
Losses cannot be specified in advance.
The bus connected to the largest generating station is usually
taken as the slack/swing bus.
10
V

( )
gi di L
P P P +

L
P
By shifting all the variables on one side, equations 1 and 2 can
be written in vector form:
where u = vector of 2n unspecified variables
v = vector of 2n specified variables
For a realizable solution, all the specified and unspecified
variables must lie within practical limits (governed by operating
constraints and specifications of various equipment)
11
( , v) 0 f u =
(1) ( 5 or 10% voltage variation)
(2) A few of the variables must satisfy the
jkn inequality constraint.
(imposed by stability considerations)
(3)
(imposed by limitations of P and/or Q generation
sources)
Also, equality constraints must be satisfied,
12
min max
i i i
V V V
i
max
i j i j

( ) ( )
min max
;
gi gi gi
P P P
( ) ( )
min max
gi gi gi
Q Q Q
gi di L gi di L
P P P Q Q Q = + = +


The power flow problem is now defined as follows:
Specify at all the PQ buses
Specify (i.e ) and at all the PV buses
Specify and (= 0) at the slack bus (1)
Thus 2n variables of v vector are specified
Now the 2n equations can be solved iteratively to determine the
values of 2n variables of vector u
At the end of power flow solution, we obtain
- voltage magnitudes and angles at the PQ buses
- reactive powers and voltage angles at the PV buses
- active and reactive powers at the slack bus
13
i i
P jQ +
i
P
i
V
i
V
i
gi
P
An iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linear algebraic
equations
PQ buses
To start with, a solution vector is assumed (flat voltage start or
uniform voltage profile)
(Here, it is assumed that buses 2 to n are PQ buses).
RHS: the most recently calculated values of voltages should be used
Gauss-Seidel method
14
1
1
n
i i ij j
j
ii
j i
V I Y V
Y
=
(
(
=
(
(

1
1
; 2,3,......
n
i i
ij j
j
ii i
j i
P jQ
Y V i n
Y V
(
= =
(
(

1
n
i ij j
j
I Y V
=
=

Voltages at buses i = 2, 3, n are updated in a sequence during
each iteration
V
1
Slack bus voltage is fixed, therefore not updated
Example (4-bus system):
The entire process is repeated till the changes in voltages at all
buses are less than a pre-decided small number
Therefore, generalizing,
15
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 1 0
3 3
3 31 1 32 2 34 4
0
33
3
1 P jQ
V Y V Y V Y V
Y
V

(
= + +
(
(

( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1 1
1
i n
m m m
i i
i ik k ik k
m
k k i
ii
i
P jQ
V Y V Y V
Y
V

= = +
(
=
(

Acceleration Factor :
The number of iterations required may be reduced considerably if
the voltage in an iteration is corrected by using an acceleration
factor and the previous iteration value:
=1.6 usually, and not greater than 2 - otherwise the algorithm
may diverge
16
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 1
(accelerated)
m m m m
i i i i
V V V V
+ +
= +

Here, voltage magnitudes are specified and Q
i
s are unknown
Therefore, only the angle of the voltage at i
th
bus is updated
PV buses
17
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
* *
1 1
1
1 * 1
( )
1
1
1
1
1 1
Im
Im
1
(corrected)
i
n n
i i ij j i i i i i ij j
j j
i n
m m m
m
i ij j ij j
j j i
m
i n
m m m
i i
i ij j ij j
m
j j i
ii
i
m
m
i
i i
m
i
Q V Y V P jQ V I V Y V
Q V Y V Y V
P jQ
V Y V Y V
Y
V
V
V V
V
= =

= =

= = +
(
= = =
`
(
)

(

= +
`
(

)
(
=
(

=


By making suitable approximations, it is possible to linearize
power flow equations in order to obtain quick solutions.
This approach is adopted for planning studies wherein power
flow solutions are required repeatedly (high degree of accuracy
is not essential)
Approximations
Line resistances are neglected, i.e P
L
=0
is small (<30
o
, from stability consideration),
sin( )
All buses except the slack bus are PV buses i.e voltage magnitudes
at all buses are known and specified .
An approximate power flow solution approach
18
0 0
90 and 90
ij ii

j i

j i

{ }
( ) , in radians
j i j i

19
* *
1
1 1
1
1
2
1
| | | || | cos( ) | | | || | cos[90 ( )]
| | | || | ( ) (3)
| | | || | sin( )
| | | || | cos( ) | | |
n
i i i i i ij j
j
n n
i i j ij ij j i i j ij i j
j j
n
i j ij i j
j
n
i i j ij ij j i
j
n
i j ij i j i
j
j i
P jQ V I V Y V
P V V Y V V Y
V V Y
Q V V Y
V V Y V
=
= =
=
=
=
= =
= + =
=
= +
= +
| (4)
ii
Y
Since |V
i
| are specified in (3), it represents a set of linear
algebraic equations in (which are (n-1) in number) as at
slack bus is specified
The equation corresponding to slack bus (n=1) is redundant as
the real power injected at this bus is fully specified
Equation (3) can be now solved explicitly (i.e non-iteratively)
for which when substituted in (4) give Q
i
s , the
reactive power bus injections.
20
) 0 with (
2 2
1
= =

= =
L
n
i
gi
n
i
di
P P P P
1
2 3
, ...
n


Equations (3) and (4) are decoupled, and therefore need not be
solved simultaneously
Decoupling:- since all V
i
s are specified
Earlier some V
i
s were not specified and were function of Q
i
therefore there was coupling between (3) and (4)
(3) and (4) are solved sequentially
Computational burden is reduced
- 2n to (n1) equations
- non-iterative solution
21
We need to solve n non-linear algebraic equations
Let initial values of unknowns be
Suppose that are the corrections, to be added to
satisfy the set of equations
Expanding using Taylor series,
The Newton-Raphson Method
22
( )
1 2
, , ......, ; 1, 2,3...,
i n i
f x x x K i n = =
0 0 0
1 2
, ,.....,
n
x x x
0 0 0
1 2
, ,.....,
n
x x x
( )
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 2
, ,......, ; 1, 2,3...,
i n n i
f x x x x x x K i n + + + = =
( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2
1 2
1 2
.....
, ,.....,
higher order terms
i i i
n
i n i
n
f f f
x x x
f x x x K
x x x
(
| | | | | |

( + + +
| | |
+ =

(
\ \ \
(
+

derivative of f
i
w.r.t x
1
, evaluated at
Neglecting higher order terms,
23
0
1
i
f
x
| |
|
\
( )
0 0 0
1 2
, ,.....,
n
x x x
0 0 0
1 1 1
0 0
1 2
1 1
0 0
2 2
0 0
0 0 0
1 2
. . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . .
n
n n
n n n
n
f f f
x x x
f x
f x
f x
f f f
x x x
(
| | | | | |

(
| | |

( ( (
\ \ \
( (
(

( (
(
( (
(
+
( (
(
( (
(
( (
(
(
(

(
| | | | | | (
| | | (

\ \ \

.
.
.
.
i
n
K
K
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(

In matrix notations,
is known as Jacobian matrix
These are linear algebraic equations.
24
0 0 0
f J x K + =
0
J
0 0 0
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
n n n n
K f K x
K f J x J
K f K x
( (
=
( (
= =
( (
( (
=

0 0
1 1
1
0
0 0
n n
x K
J
x K
( (

( (
( =
( (
( (

The approximate values of corrections can be obtained by
inverting Jacobian or by using LU factorization.
25
( ) ( ) ( )
1 0 0
1
or generalizing,
m m m
x x x
x x x
+
= +
= +
Iterations are continued until
26
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
1
cos
sin
n
i i j ij ij j i
j
n
i i j ij ij j i
j
i i i
specified calculated
i i i
specified calculated
P V V Y
Q V V Y
P P P
Q Q Q
=
=
= +
= +
=
=

( )
( )
( )
(a specified value) = 1, 2, ....,
m m
i i i
K f x K i n = <
For three bus system, 1 slack bus, 2 and 3 PQ bus
Jacobian
27
2 2 2 2
2 3
2 3
2 2
3 3 3 3
2 3
2 3
3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3
2 3
3 3
3 3 3 3
2 3
2 3
P P P P
V V
P
P P P P
V V
P
Q V Q Q Q Q
V V
Q V
Q Q Q Q
V V

(
(

(

( (

(
( (

(
( (
=
(
( (
(
( (

(

(

(

The elements of an n bus system are,
28
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1
1
sin
sin
cos 2 cos
cos
n
i
i j ij ij j i
j
i
j i
i
i j ij ij j i
j
n
i
j ij ij j i i ii ii
j
i
j i
i
i ij ij j i
j
P
V V Y
P
V V Y
P
V Y V Y
V
P
V Y
V
=
= +
= +
= + +
= +

29
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
cos
cos
sin 2 sin
sin
n
i
i j ij ij j i
j
i
j i
i
i j ij ij j i
j
n
i
j ij ij j i i ii ii
j
i
j i
i
i ij ij j i
j
Q
V V Y
Q
V V Y
Q
V Y V Y
V
Q
V Y
V
=
= +
= +
= +
= +

Voltage magnitudes are fixed (specified) at PV buses
Voltage magnitude variable is removed
Suppose 2PQ bus, 3PV bus,
V
3
= 0 , because V
3
is fixed, also Q
3
does not exist at bus 3
since Q
3
is not specified
PV Bus
30
2 2 2
2 3 2
2 2
3 3 3
3 3
2 3 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 3 2
P P P
V
P
P P P
P
V
Q V
Q Q Q
V

(

(

(

( (
(

( (
=
(
( (

(
( (

(

(

(

Assume a 3 bus system:1slack, 2PQ, 3PV
Assume for 1
st
iteration, also assume
Calculate
Calculate mismatches
Calculate elements of 3x3 Jacobian
Invert Jacobian and calculate
Newton-Raphson algorithm
31
o
1 1
0 V V
0
3
0 =
2, 3, 2,
, , &
cal cal cal
P P Q
0 0 0
2 3 2
, & P P Q
1
2 2
3 3
2 2
P
J P
V Q

(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(

2
0 o
1 0 V
Update values of ,
Continue the procedure till there is convergence (all P and Q
or and |V| are less than a chosen small number).
32
2 3 2
, & V
1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2
, , V V V = + = + = +
In N-R method, the Jacobian matrix has to be processed (e.g.
LU factorization) in each iteration.
To reduce the computational burden, it can be calculated every
few number of iterations.
Computations can be reduced further by a decoupled power
flow method- a modified but approximate version of the N-R
method
It is based on the following two characteristics of power flow in
a network
- change in modifies P and not Q
- change in |V| mainly affects Q and to a very less extent P
The Decoupled Power Flow Method
33
These above characteristics have been verified in case of
regulating transformers and transmission lines
There is strong interdependence between real powers and bus
voltage angles, and between reactive powers and voltage
magnitudes in steady state conditions
Weak coupling between the two sets of variables viz. (P) and
(QV) is used in the decoupled power flow method in which
equations with P and QV variables are solved sequentially
The elements of the Jacobian matrix representing the weak
couplings are ignored
34
For earlier case of 3-bus system,
35
2 2
2 3
2 2
3 3
3 3
2 3
2 2
2
2
0
0
0 0
P P
P
P P
P
Q V
Q
V

(
(

(

( (

(
( (

(
( (

=
(
( (
(
( (

(

(
(


Two sets of equations in matrix form are:
and
36
1
2 2
2 3 2 2
3 3 3 3
2 3
P P
P
P P P

(
(

( (
(
=
( (
(

(

[ ] [ ]
1
2
2 2
2
Q
V Q
V
=
(
(

GS method: less number of arithmetic operations per iteration.
The network matrix is sparse
The solution technique is simple
Therefore, it requires less time per iteration.
NR method: elements of the Jacobian have to be computed in
each iteration; the time required is more
GS method: rate of convergence is slow as compared to the NR
method
The NR method needs 3 to 5 iterations to reach an acceptable
solution for a large system (irrespective of the size of the
system)
Comparison of GS and NR algorithms
37
Power flow with regulating transformers
38
Ideal Transformer
I
n
m m
I
S S
m
n Z
1
Y=
1: a
V
V
a
n
m
n
V
m
Off-nominal tap ratio, a may be real (e.g., 1.04) or imaginary
(e
j/60
or 3
shift).
Lossless transformer
39
,
m m m n n n
S V I S V I

= =
( )
or
Now, (1)
Multiplying both sides by
m n
m m m n
m n m n
n n m m n
S S
V I aV I
I aI I a I
I V aV Y aYV YV
a

=
=
= =
= = +

If a is a real number, and we can draw an equivalent
circuit for this case:
40
2
2
(2)
*
Now,
n m m n
m m mm mn m
n n nm nn n
a I I aa YV a YV
V I Y Y V
a Y a Y
aa a
V I Y Y V
aY Y

= =
(
( ( ( (
= = =
(
( ( ( (
(

a a
=

m
a Y
n
( a a ) 1 Y
V
n
m ( 1 a ) Y
V
But if a is imaginary (as in a phase shifting transformer), the Y bus is
not symmetrical, and we cant draw a equivalent circuit.
1. I. J. Nagrath and D. P. Kothari, Modern Power System Analysis, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing company Ltd, New Delhi, 2002
2 J. J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson, Power System Analysis, Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2003.
3. H. Saadat, Power System Analysis, McGraw Hill, 1999.
4. S. V. Kulkarni and S. A. Khaparde, Transformer Engineering: Design,
Technology, and Diagnostics, Second Edition, CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group, New York, September 2012.
References
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EE 334 Power systems

Power Flow Solutions

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

PQ bus (load bus)

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

Ketan Badgujar EE 334 Power systems Prof. S. V. Kulkarni

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