SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Copyright P. Kundur This material should not be used without the author's consent

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Synchronous Machines
Outline
1. Physical Description 2. Mathematical Model 3. Park's "dqo" transportation 4. Steady-state Analysis
) phasor representation in d-q coordinates ) link with network equations

5. Definition of "rotor angle" 6. Representation of Synchronous Machines in Stability Studies

neglect of stator transients magnetic saturation

7. Simplified Models 8. Synchronous Machine Parameters 9. Reactive Capability Limits Appendix Concepts of Active and Reactive Power

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Physical Description of a Synchronous Machine

Consists of two sets of windings:

) 3 phase armature winding on the stator distributed with centres 120 apart in space ) field winding on the rotor supplied by DC

Two basic rotor structures used:

) salient or projecting pole structure for hydraulic units (low speed) ) round rotor structure for thermal units (high speed)

Salient poles have concentrated field windings; usually also carry damper windings on the pole face. Round rotors have solid steel rotors with distributed windings

Nearly sinusoidal space distribution of flux wave shape obtained by:

) distributing stator windings and field windings in many slots (round rotor); ) shaping pole faces (salient pole)

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Rotors of Steam Turbine Generators

North American manufacturers normally do not provide special damper windings

) solid steel rotors offer paths for eddy currents, which have effects equivalent to that of amortisseur currents

European manufacturers tend to provide for additional damping effects and negative-sequence current capability
) wedges in the slots of field windings interconnected to form a damper case, or ) separate copper rods provided underneath the wedges

Figure 3.3: Solid round rotor construction

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Rotors of Hydraulic Units

Normally have damper windings or amortisseurs

) non-magnetic material (usually copper) rods embedded in pole face ) connected to end rings to form short-circuited windings

Damper windings may be either continuous or noncontinuous Space harmonics of the armature mmf contribute to surface eddy current
) therefore, pole faces are usually laminated

Figure 3.2: Salient pole rotor construction

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Balanced Steady State Operation

Net mmf wave due to the three phase stator windings:

) travels at synchronous speed ) appears stationary with respect to the rotor; and ) has a sinusoidal space distribution

mmf wave due to one phase:

Figure 3.7: Spatial mmf wave of phase a

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Balanced Steady State Operation

The mmf wave due to the three phases are:

MMFa = Kia cos 2 MMFb = Kib cos 3 2 MMFc = Kic cos + 3

ia = Im cos(s t ) 2 ib = Im cos s t 3 2 ia = lm cos s t + 3

MMFtotal = MMFa + MMFb + MMFc = 3 KIm cos( s t ) 2

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Balanced Steady State Operation

Magnitude of stator mmf wave and its relative angular position with respect to rotor mmf wave depend on machine output
) for generator action, rotor field leads stator field due to forward torque of prime mover; ) for motor action rotor field lags stator field due to retarding torque of shaft load

Figure 3.8: Stator and rotor mmf wave shapes

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Transient Operation

Stator and rotor fields may:

) vary in magnitude with respect to time ) have different speed

Currents flow not only in the field and stator windings, but also in:
) damper windings (if present); and ) solid rotor surface and slot walls of round rotor machines

Figure 3.4: Current paths in a round rotor

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Direct and Quadrature Axes

The rotor has two axes of symmetry For the purpose of describing synchronous machine characteristics, two axes are defined:
) the direct (d) axis, centered magnetically in the centre of the north pole ) The quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees ahead of the d-axis

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of a 3-phase synchronous machine

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Mathematical Descriptions of a Synchronous Machine

For purposes of analysis, the induced currents in the solid rotor and/or damper windings may be assumed to flow in two sets of closed circuits
) one set whose flux is in line with the d-axis; and ) the other set whose flux is along the q-axis

The following figure shows the circuits involved

Figure 3.9: Stator and rotor circuits

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Review of Magnetic Circuit Equations (Single Excited Circuit)

Consider the elementary circuit of Figure 3.10

ei = e1 = d dt d + ri dt

= Li

The inductance, by definition, is equal to flux linkage per unit current

L=N

where P = permeance of magnetic path = flux = (mmf) P = NiP

= N2P i

Figure 3.10: Single excited magnetic circuit

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Review of Magnetic Circuit Equations (Coupled Circuits)

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.11

e1 = e2 = d1 + r1i1 dt d2 + r2i2 dt

1 = L11i1 + L 21i2 2 = L21i1 + L 22i2

with L11 = self inductance of winding 1 L22 = self inductance of winding 2 L21 = mutual inductance between winding 1 and 2

Figure 3.11: Magnetically coupled circuit

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Basic Equations of a Synchronous Machine

The equations are complicated by the fact that the inductances are functions of rotor position and hence vary with time The self and mutual inductances of stator circuits vary with rotor position since the permeance to flux paths vary
Iaa = L al + Igaa = L aa 0 + L aa 2 cos 2 2 Iab = Iba = L ab 0 + L ab 2 cos 2 3 = L ab 0 L ab 2 cos 2 + 3

with = r x t

The mutual inductances between stator and rotor circuits vary due to relative motion between the windings
Iafd = L afd cos Iakd = L akd cos Iakq = L akq cos + = L akq sin 2
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Basic Equations of a Synchronous Machine

Dynamics of a synchronous machine is given by the equations of the coupled stator and rotor circuits Stator voltage and flux linkage equations for phase a (similar equations apply to phase b and phase c)
ea = da R aia = pa R aia dt

a = laaia labib lacic + lafdifd + lakdikd + lakqikq

Rotor circuit voltage and flux linkage equations

e fd = pfd + R fdifd 0 = pkd + R kdikd 0 = pkq + R kqikq

fd = L ffdifd + L fkdikd 2 2 L afd ia cos + ib cos + ic cos + 3 3 kd = L fkdifd + Lkkdikd 2 2 L afd ia cos + ib cos + ic cos + 3 3 kq = Lkkdikq 2 2 + L akq ia sin + ib sin + ic sin + 3 3
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The dqo Transformation

The dqo transformation, also called Park's transformation, transforms stator phase quantities from the stationary abc reference frame to the dqo reference frame which rotates with the rotor
2 2 cos cos + cos 3 3 id 2 2 2 i = sin sin sin + q 3 3 3 1 i0 1 1 2 2 2 ia ib i c

The above transformation also applies to stator flux linkages and voltages

With the stator quantities expressed in the dqo reference frame ) all inductances are independent of rotor position (except for the effects of magnetic saturation) ) under balanced steady state operation, the stator quantities appear as dc quantities ) during electromechanical transient conditions, stator quantities vary slowly with frequencies in the range of 1.0 to 3.0 Hz The above simplify computation and analysis of results.
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Physical Interpretation of dqo Transformation

The dqo transformation may be viewed as a means of referring the stator quantities to the rotor side In effect, the stator circuits are represented by two fictitious armature windings which rotate at the same speed as the rotor; such that:
) the axis of one winding coincides with the d-axis and that of the other winding with the q-axis ) The currents id and iq flowing in these circuits result in the same mmf's on the d- and q-axis as do the actual phase currents

The mmf due to id and iq are stationary with respect to the rotor, and hence:
) act on paths of constant permeance, resulting in constant self inductances (Ld, Lq) of stator windings ) maintain fixed orientation with rotor circuits, resulting in constant mutual inductances

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Per Unit Representation

The per unit system is chosen so as to further simplify the model The stator base quantities are chosen equal to the rated values The rotor base quantities are chosen so that:
) the mutual inductances between different circuits are reciprocal (e.g. Lafd = Lfda) ) the mutual inductances between the rotor and stator circuits in each axis are equal (e.g., Lafd = Lakd)

The P.U. system is referred to as the "Lad base reciprocal P.U. system"

One of the advantages of having a P.U. system with reciprocal mutual inductances is that it allows the use of equivalent circuits to represent the synchronous machine characteristics

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P.U. Machine Equations in dqo Reference Frame

The equations are written with the following assumptions and notations:
) t is time in radians ) p = d/dt ) positive direction of stator current is out of the machine ) each axis has 2 rotor circuits

Stator voltage equations

e d = p d qr R aid e q = p q + dr R aiq e 0 = p 0 R ai0

Rotor voltage equations

e fd = p fd + R fdifd 0 = p 1d + R 1di1d 0 = p 1q + R 1qi1q 0 = p 2q + R 2qi2q

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P.U. Machine Equations in dqo Reference Frame (cont'd)

Stator flux linkage equations

d = (Lad + Ll ) id + Lad ifd + Lad i1d q = (Laq + Ll ) iq + Laq i1q + Laq i 2 q 0 = L0 i0

Rotor flux linkage equations

fd = L ffdifd + L f 1di1d L adid 1d = L f 1difd + L11di1d L adid 1q = L11qi1q + L aqi2q L aqiq 1q = L aqi1q +L 22qL 2q L aqiq

Air-gap torque

T e = diq qid

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Equivalent Circuits for Direct and Quadrature Axes

Equivalent circuits representing the complete machine characteristics including the effect of voltage equations are shown in Figure 3.18 where:

L fd = L ffd L f 1d L1q = L11q L aq

L1d = L11d L f 1d L 2q = L 22q L aq

Figure 3.18: Complete equivalent circuits

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Steady State Analysis Phasor Representation

For balanced, steady state operation, the stator voltages may be written as:
e a = Em cos(t + ) eb = Em cos(t 2 3 + ) e c = Em cos(t + 2 3 + )

with = angular velocity = 2f = phase angle of ea at t=0 Applying the d,q transformation,
e d = Em cos(t + ) e q = Em sin(t + )

At synchronous speed, the angle is given by = t + 0 with = value of at t = 0 Substituting for in the expressions for ed and eq,
e d = Em cos( 0 ) e q = Em sin( 0 )
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Steady State Analysis Phasor Representation (cont'd)

The components ed and eq are not a function of t because rotor speed is the same as the angular frequency of the stator voltage. Therefore, ed and eq are constant under steady state. In p.u. peak value Em is equal to the RMS value of terminal voltage Et. Hence, e d = E t cos( 0 )

e q = E t sin( 0 )

The above quantities can be represented as phasors with d-axis as real axis and q-axis as imaginary axis

Denoting i, as the angle by which q-axis leads E

e d = E t sin i e q = E t cos i
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Steady State Analysis Phasor Representation (cont'd)

The phasor terminal voltage is given by

~ E t = ed + je q in the d-q coordinates

= E R + jE l

in the R-I coordinates

This provides the link between d,q components in a reference frame rotating with the rotor and R, I components associated with the a.c. circuit theory Under balanced, steady state conditions, the d,q,o transformation is equivalent to
) the use of phasors for analyzing alternating quantities, varying sinusoidally with respect to time

The same transformation with = t applies to both

) in the case of machines, = rotor speed ) in the case of a.c. circuits, = angular frequency

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Internal Rotor Angle

Under steady state

e d = q idR a = L qiq idR a = X qiq idR a

Similarly
e q = d iqR a = X did + X adifd iqR a

Under no load, id=iq=0. Therefore,

q = L qiq = 0 d = L adifd ed = 0 e q = L adifd

~ and E t = e d + jeq = jLadifd

Under no load, Et has only the q-axis component and i=0. As the machine is loaded, i increases. Therefore, i is referred to as the load angle or internal rotor angle.

It is the angle by which q-axis leads the phasor Et

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Electrical Transient Performance

To understand the nature of electrical transients, let us first consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 3.24 with e = Emsin (t+). If switch "S" is closed at t=0, the current is given by

e=L
solving
R

di + iR dt

i = Ke

( L)t

Em sin(t + ) Z

The first term is the dc component. The presence of the dc component ensures that the current does not change instantaneously. The dc component decays to zero with a time constant of L/R

Figure 3.24: RL Circuit

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Short Circuit Currents of a Synchronous Machine

If a bolted three-phase fault is suddenly applied to a synchronous machine, the three phase currents are shown in Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.25: Three-phase short-circuit currents

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Short Circuit Currents of a Synchronous Machine (cont'd)

In general, fault current has two distinct components:

a) a fundamental frequency component which decays initially very rapidly (a few cycles) and then relatively slowly (several seconds) to a steady state value b) a dc component which decays exponentially in several cycles

This is similar to the short circuit current in the case of the simple RL circuit. However, the amplitude of the ac component is not constant
) internal voltage, which is a function of rotor flux linkages, is not constant ) the initial rapid decay is due to the decay of flux linking the subtransient circuits (high resistance) ) the slowly decaying part of the ac component is due to the transient circuit (low resistance)

The dc components have different magnitudes in the three phases

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Elimination of dc Component by Neglecting Stator Transients

For many classes of problems, considerable computational simplicity results if the effects of ac and dc components are treated separately Consider the stator voltage equations

e d = p d q idR a e q = p q + d iqR a
transformer voltage terms: pd, pq speed voltage terms: q , d

The transformer voltage terms represent stator transients:

) stator flux linkages (d, q) cannot change instantaneously ) result in dc offset in stator phasor current

If only fundamental frequency stator currents are of interest, stator transients (pd, pq) may be neglected.

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Short Circuit Currents with Stator Transients Neglected

The resulting stator phase currents following a disturbance has the wave shape shown in Figure 3.27 The short circuit has only the ac component whose amplitude decays Regions of subtransient, transient and steady state periods can be readily identified from the wave shape of phase current

Figure 3.27: Fundamental frequency component of short circuit armature current

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Synchronous Machine Representation in System Stability Studies

Stator Transients (pd, pq) are usually neglected

) accounts for only fundamental frequency components of stator quantities ) dc offset either neglected or treated separately

The definition of standard parameters (Ld, Ld', Td0', Td0'', ...) widely used to represent synchronous machines is based on this concept
) represent effective inductances and time constants associated with fundamental frequency components

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Equation of Motion (Swing Equation)

The combined inertia of the generator and primemover is accelerated by the accelerating torque:

J
where Tm = Te = J =

dm = Ta = Tm Te dt

mechanical torque in N-M electromagnetic torque in N-m combined moment of inertia of generator and turbine, kgm2 angular velocity of the rotor in mech. rad/s time in seconds

m = t =

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Equation of Motion (cont'd)

The above equation can be normalized in terms of per unit inertia constant H
2 1 J 0 m H= 2 VA base

where 0m = rated angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical radians per second

Equation of motion in per unit form is

2H
where

d r = Tm Te dt

m r = 0m
Tm = Tm0m VA base

= per unit rotor angular velocity = per unit mechanical torque = per unit electromechanical torque

Te =

Te 0m VA base

Often inertia constant M = 2H used

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Magnetic Saturation

Basic equations of synchronous machines developed so far ignored effects of saturation

) analysis simple and manageable ) rigorous treat a futile exercise

Practical approach must be based on semiheuristic reasoning and judiciously chosen approximations
) consideration to simplicity, data availability, and accuracy of results

Magnetic circuit data essential to treatment of saturation given by the open-circuit characteristic

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Assumptions Normally Made in the Representation of Saturation

Leakage inductances are independent of saturation Saturation under loaded conditions is the same as under no-load conditions Leakage fluxes do not contribute to iron saturation
) degree of saturation determined by the air-gap flux

For salient pole machines, there is no saturation in the q-axis

) flux is largely in air

For round rotor machines, q-axis saturation assumed to be given by OCC

) reluctance of magnetic path assumed homogeneous around rotor periphery

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The effects of saturation is represented as

L ad = K sdL adu L aq = K sqL aqu

(3.182) (3.183)

Ladu and Laqu are unsaturated values. The saturation factors Ksd and Ksq identify the degrees of saturation.

As illustrated in Figure 3.29, the d-axis saturation is given by The OCC. Referring to Figure 3.29,

I = at 0 at K sd = at at + I

(3.186) (3.187)

For the nonlinear segment of OCC, I can be expressed by a suitable mathematical function:

I = A sat eBsat (at TI )

(3.189)

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Open-Circuit Characteristic (OCC)

Under no load rated speed conditions id = iq = q = e d = 0

E t = e q = d = L adifd

Hence, OCC relating to terminal voltage and field current gives saturation characteristic of the d-axis

Figure 3.29: Open-circuit characteristic showing effects of saturation

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Figure 3.31 Equivalent circuits identifying nonlinear elements and air-gap flux linkages

The d- and q-axis air-gap flux linkages are given by

ad = d + Llid = (e q + R aiq ) + Llid aq = q + Lliq = ( e d R aid ) + Lliq

Therefore, total air-gap flux the air-gap voltage

(3.192) (3.193)

in per unit is equal to

~ ~ ~ Ea = Et + (R a + jX l ) I t

(3.194)

The saturation factor Ksd can thus be determined, for given values of terminal voltage and current by first computing Ea and then using Equations 3.187 and 3.189.

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For salient pole machines, since q-axis flux is largely in air, Laq does not vary significantly with saturation
) Ksq=1 for all loading conditions

For round rotor machines, there is saturation in both axes

) q-axis saturation characteristic not usually available ) the general industry practice is to assume Ksq = Ksd

For a more accurate representation, it may be desirable to better account for q-axis saturation of round rotor machines
) q-axis saturates appreciably more than the daxis, due to the presence of rotor teeth in the magnetic path

Figure 3.32 shows the errors introduced by assuming q-axis saturation to be same as that of d-axis, based on actual measurements on a 500 MW unit at Lambton GS in Ontario
) Figure shows differences between measured and computed values of rotor angle and field current ) the error in rotor angle is as high as 10%, being higher in the underexcited region ) the error in the field current is as high as 4%, being greater in the overexcited region
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Figure 3.32: Field current and internal angle errors with conventional saturation representation

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The q-axis saturation characteristic is not readily available

) It can, however, be fairly easily determined from steady-state measurements of field current and rotor angle at different values of terminal voltage, active and reactive power output ) Such measurements also provide d-axis saturation characteristics under load ) Figure 3.33 shows the d- and q-axis saturation characteristics derived from steady-state measurements on the 500 MW Lambton unit

Figure 3.33: Lambton saturation curves derived from steady-state field current and rotor angle measurements

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Example 3.3

Considers the 555 MVA unit at Lambton GS and examines

) the effect of representing q-axis saturation characteristic distinct from that of d-axis ) the effect of reactive power output on rotor angle

Table E3.1 shows results with q-axis saturation assumed same as d-axis saturation
Table E3.1
Pt 0 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.9 Qt 0 0.2 0.436 0 -0.2 Ea (pu) 1.0 1.033 1.076 1.012 0.982 Ksd 0.889 0.868 0.835 0.882 0.899 i (deg) 0 25.3 39.1 54.6 64.6 ifd (pu) 0.678 1.016 1.565 1.206 1.089

Table E3.2 shows results with distinct d- and q-axis saturation representation
Table E3.2
Pt 0 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.9 Qt 0 0.2 0.436 0 -0.2 Ksq 0.667 0.648 0.623 0.660 0.676 Ksd 0.889 0.868 0.835 0.882 0.899
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i (deg) 0 21.0 34.6 47.5 55.9

ifd (pu) 0.678 1.013 1.559 1.194 1.074

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Synchronous Machine Parameters

Synchronous machine equations and equivalent circuits we have developed are in terms of inductances and resistances of stator and rotor circuits
) fundamental parameters

Fundamental parameters specify electrical characteristics completely

) however, they cannot be directly determined from measured machine responses

Traditional approach to assigning machine data

) in terms of derived parameters related to observed behaviour from the terminals under specified conditions

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Standard Parameters
Traditional approach to assigning machine data. Derived parameters related to time responses of terminal quantities Following a disturbance:
) currents are induced in rotor circuits ) currents in some circuits decay faster than others

Parameters associated with

) rapidly decaying components (subtransient constants) ) slowly decaying components (transient constants) ) sustained components (synchronous constants)

Standard parameters
) effective inductances seen from stator terminal during sustained, transient, and subtransient conditions

Ld, Ld', Ld'' ; Lq, Lq', Lq''

) time constants associated with the decay of transient and subtransient currents

T 'd0, T ''d0 ; T 'q0, T ''q0 T 'd, T ''d ; T 'q, T ''q

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(open circuit) (short circuit)

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Relationship Between Standard and Fundamental Parameters

d-axis parameters
L d = L ad + Ll L d = Ll + L d = Ll + 0 = Td 0 = Td = Td = Td L adL fd L ad + L fd L1dL fdL ad L adL fd + LadL1d + L1dL fd

L ad + L fd R fd 1 L fdL ad L + 1 d R1d L L + fd ad L adLl + L fd L + L ad l LlL fdL ad L1d + + + L L L L L L fd a d fd l ad l

1 R fd 1 R1d

Similar expressions apply to q-axis

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Simplified Models for Synchronous Machines

Neglect of Amortisseurs
) first order of simplification ) data often not readily available

Classical Model (transient performance)

) constant field flux linkage ) neglect transient saliency (x'd = x'q)
x d

Et

Steady-state Model
) constant field current ) neglect saliency (xd = xq = xs)
Et

Eq

xs

Eq = Xadifd

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Simplified Model with Amortisseurs Neglected

First order of simplification of Synchronous Machine Model

) minimizes data requirements since parameters related to damper circuits often not readily available

With amortisseurs neglected, the stator voltage equations are unchanged. The remaining equations simplify as follows Flux linkages:
d = L did + L adifd q = L qiq fd = L adid + L ffdifd
(5.7) (5.8) (5.9)

Rotor voltage:
e fd = pfd + R fdifd

or
pfd = e fd R fdifd
(5.10)

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Alternative Form of Machine Equations

In the literature on synchronous machines, Equations 5.7 to 5.10 are often written in terms of the following variables:
EI = L adifd = voltage proportional to ifd E q = Efd = L ad fd = voltage proportional to fd L ffd L ad e fd = voltage proportional to e fd R fd

In terms of the new variables, Equations 5.7 to 5.10 reduce to the following form:
d = L did + EI q = L qiq E q = E I (L d L d )id pE q = 1 (E EI ) 0 fd Td

The above form is used to represent synchronous machines in many stability analysis software, particularly the older ones.
) This is a carry-over from the techniques used in the network analyzer days

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In this formulation, E'q is the state variable, instead of fd

) It can be readily shown that E'q is the q-axis component of voltage behind transient reactance

Therefore, the use of E'q as the state variable allows a simple enhancement to the classical model to account for field circuit dynamics It is, however, important to recognize that the parameters Ld, Lq, L'd and T 'do which appear in this formulation are functions of magnetic saturation
) This is often ignored and saturation effects accounted for by considering the effects on EI only ) Could lead to significant differences in results

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Reactive Capability Limits of Synchronous Machines

In voltage stability and long-term stability studies, it is important to consider the reactive capability limits of synchronous machines Synchronous generators are rated in terms of maximum MVA output at a specified voltage and power factor which can be carried continuously without overheating The active power output is limited by the prime mover capability The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by three considerations
) armature current limit ) field current limit ) end region heating limit

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Armature Current Limit

Armature current results in power loss, and the resulting heat imposes a limit on the output The per unit complex output power is
~ * S = P + jQ = Et ~ I t = Et It (cos + j sin )

where is the power factor angle

In a P-Q plane the armature current limit, as shown in Fig. 5.12, appears as a circle with centre at the origin and radius equal to the MVA rating

Fig 5.12: Armature current heating limit

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Field Current Limit

Because of the heating resulting from RfdI2fd power loss, the field current imposes the second limit The phasor diagram relating Et, It and Eq (with Ra neglected) is shown in Fig. 5.13 Equating the components along and perpendicular to the phasor Et
X adifd sin i = X slt cos X adifd cos i = Et + X slt sin

Therefore
P = E tlt cos = X ad E tifd sin i Xs X ad E2 Q = E tlt sin = E tifd cos i t Xs Xs

The relationship between P and Q for a given field current is a circle centered at on the Q-axis and with as the radius. The effect of the maximum field current on the capability of the machine is shown in Fig. 5.14 In any balanced design, the thermal limits for the field and armature intersect at a point (A) which represents the machine name-plate MVA and power factor rating

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Field Current Limit

Fig. 5.13: Steady state phasor diagram

Fig. 5.14: Field current heating limit

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End Region Heating Limit

The localized heating in the end region of the armature affects the capability of the machine in the underexcited condition The end-turn leakage flux, as shown in Fig. 5.15, enters and leaves in a direction perpendicular (axial) to the stator lamination. This causes eddy currents in the laminations resulting in localized heating in the end region The high field currents corresponding to the overexcited condition keep the retaining ring saturated, so that end leakage flux is small. However, in the underexcited region the field current is low and the retaining ring is not saturated; this permits an increase in armature end leakage flux Also, in the underexcited condition, the flux produced by the armature current adds to the flux produced by the field current. Therefore, the end-turn flux enhances the axial flux in the end region and the resulting heating effect may severely limit the generator output, particularly in the case of a round rotor machine Fig. 5.16 shows the locus of end region heating limit on a P-Q plane

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End Region Heating Limit

Fig. 5.15: Sectional view end region of a generator

Fig. 5.16: End region heating limit

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Reactive Capability Limit of a 400 MVA Hydrogen Cooled Steam Turbine Generator

Fig. 5.18 shows the reactive capability curves of a 400 MVA hydrogen cooled steam turbine driven generator at rated armature voltage
) the effectiveness of cooling and hence the allowable machine loading depends on hydrogen pressure ) for each pressure, the segment AB represents the field heating limit, the segment BC armature heating limit, and the segment CD the end region heating limit

Fig. 5.18: Reactive capability curves of a hydrogen cooled generator at rated voltage
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Effect of Changes in Terminal Voltage Et

Fig. 5.17: Effect of reducing the armature voltage on the generator capability curve

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APPENDIX Concepts of Active and Reactive Power

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Power in an A.C. Circuit

Let us first look at simple dc circuits:

Energy is stored in inductance L and capacitance C

With A.C., energy is stored and discharged twice every cycle Instantaneous power, p = ei

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Concepts of Active and Reactive Powers

Consider the single phase circuit shown in Fig. A.1 with

e = Em Sin t i = Im Sin (t - )
Instantaneous power

i e

Fig. A.1

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Figure A.2 shows plots of e, i, p, pp and pq.

Active Power (pp) represents the component of p utilized for permanent irreversible consumption. It has an average value of P. Reactive Power (pq) is utilized in establishing either a magnetic or electrostatic field; it is stored in inductance or capacitance and then returned to the source. It has a zero average value.

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1 2

ACTIVE POWER REACTIVE POWER

pp = P (1 - cos 2 t) pq = -Q sin t

Fig. A.2 Plots of e, i, p, pp and pq

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3-Phase Power

Under balanced conditions, with

ea = Em sin t ia = Im sin ( t - )
We have p = ea ia + eb ib + ec ic = 3 EI cos = 3 x average active power per phase

Total instantaneous power is constant We are tempted to assume that reactive power is not important in a 3-phase network:
) not appropriate to do so; ) power in each phase is of significance

We commonly refer to 3-phase reactive power as being equal to 3 times single phase Q
) instantaneous values of Q in all three phases add up to zero; similar to sum of the 3-phase currents being equal to zero

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Reactive Power - Sign Conventions

By convention, the Q associated with:

) inductive load is positive ) capacitive load is negative An inductive load absorbs Q A capacitive load supplies Q

A synchronous machine:
) when overexcited, supplies reactive power ) when underexcited, absorbs reactive

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Complex Power

Complex power, S, is defined as:

The reason for using conjugate of I in the complex multiplication is to arrive at the agreed upon convention for reactive power
) Q is positive with I lagging E

S = E I = P2 + Q 2
The magnitude of the complex power, S, is normally used to specify the rating of equipment

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Special Comments on Reactive Power

Although the Reactive Power associated with an element has a zero average value, it represents real power required to store and discharge magnetic energy in an inductance or electrostatic energy in a capacitance, twice every cycle. In a network the interchange of energy takes place between the source, inductive elements and capacitive elements. The net energy associated with reactive power is the sum of various inductive and capacitive stored energies. The oscillatory transfer of reactive power between points in a power system results in voltage drops and losses in generation and transmission equipment. As efficiency and voltage regulation are very important, the transfer of reactive power over the system is of prime importance.

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General Observations on Active and Reactive Power Flow

In a practical transmission system, normally:

) the active power flow is determined primarily by angular differences between bus voltages; and ) the reactive power flow by magnitude differences of bus voltages

Active Power is supplied only by generators:

) the desired flow of active power from a generator is achieved by control of prime mover mechanical torque. ) Increasing the mechanical torque advances the generator rotor and hence, the "internal voltage" with respect to other system voltages.

Sources of Reactive Power:

) synchronous machines (over excited) ) static capacitors ) capacitance of transmission lines

Consumers of Reactive Power:

) synchronous machines (under excited) ) induction motors ) inductive static loads ) inductance of transmission lines, transformers ) AC/DC and DC/AC converters
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At any junction:
P=0 Q=0

They can be added arithmetically

For a system:
) a balance sheet of active and reactive power can be drawn; ) the total injected P and Q are equal to the total extracted P and Q, plus any P and Q losses.

Under steady-state conditions;

) P and Q flow over a network are fairly independent of each other and are influenced by different control actions.

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