Dr. Chih-Peng Li ()
Table of Contents
Introduction Propagation Path Loss Model
Friis Free Space Model Hata Model
Table of Contents
Dopplers Effect
Dopplers Shift vs. Coherent Time Fast Fading vs. Slow Fading.
Rayleigh Distribution
Level Crossing Rate
Ricean Distribution Computer Simulation of Multipath Interference Channel Models in WCDMA Fading Counteraction Diversity Schemes
Introduction
Main Components of Radio Propagation Propagation Path Loss. ( ~ 1/r2 in free space) Large Scale: Propagation models that predict the strength for an arbitrary separation distance. Small Scale: Propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuation of the received signal strength over very short travel distance (~ ) or short time duration (~s).
c = = 30cm ~ 15cm f
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As with most large-scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received power decays as a function of the T-R separation distance raised to some power.
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Pr (d ) : received power which is a function of the T - R separation. Gt : the transmitter antenna gain. Gr : the receiver antenna gain. d : the T - R separation distance in meters. L : the system loss factor not related to propagation. : the wavelength in meters.
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G=
4Ae
The effective aperture Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna. The miscellaneous losses L (L1) are usually due to transmission line attenuation , filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. L=1 indicates no loss in the system hardware.
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Hata Model
L50 (urban)(db) = 69.55 + 26.16 log f c 13.82 log hte a (hre ) + (44.9 6.55 log hte ) log d
An empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by Okumura Valid from 150M to 1500Mhz. hte : 30m ~ 200m (base station antenna height) hre : 1m~10m (mobile antenna height) d : T-R separation distance (in km) a (hre) : correction factor for effective mobile antenna height.
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Hata Model
For small to medium sized city: a (hre ) = (1.1 log f c 0.7)hre (1.56 log f c 0.8)dB For large city:
a (hre ) = 8.29(log1.54hre ) 2 1.1dB for f c 300MHz a (hre ) = 3.2(log11.75hre ) 2 4.97 dB for f c 300 MHz
CM = 0dB for medium sized city and suburban areas = 3dB for metropolitan centers
f : 1500MHz ~ 2000MHz hte : 30m ~ 200m hre : 1m ~ 10m d : 1km ~ 20km
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A mobile radio channel may be modeled as a linear filter with a time varying impulse response, where the time variation is due to receiver motion in space. The filtering nature of the channel is caused by the summation of amplitudes and delays of the multiple arriving waves at any instant of time.
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y (d , t ) = x(t ) h(d , t ) =
x( )h(d , t )d
where h(d , t ) is the channel impulse resonse. x(t ) is the transmitted signal. y (d , t ) is the received signal at position d .
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Delay Spread
Delay spread and coherence bandwidth are used to describe the time dispersive nature of the channel. Received Signal:
h (t ) =
a i ( t T i )
i =1
Delay Spread corresponds to standard deviation of Ti . Excess delay is the relative delay of the i-th multipath component as compared to the first arriving component.
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a a
k k k
2 k
P ( ) P ( )
k k k k
RMS (room mean square) Delay Spread: the square root of the second central moment of the power delay profile. 2 2
=
2
( )
k k
a k2 a
2 k
2 k
k k
P (
)
k
2 k
P (
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Coherence Bandwidth
Time domain focus on excess delay. Frequency domain focus on coherence bandwidth Bc. Bc is defined related to rms delay spread 1/(Bc) Bc (Coherence Bandwidth) A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat (i.e. a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase.). The range of frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.
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Coherence Bandwidth
Version 1: the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation is above 0.9
1 Bc = 50
Version 2: the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation is above 0.5
Bc =
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Flat Fading
Ts : reciprocal BW (e.g. symbol period) Bs : BW of the TX modulation : rms delay spread Bc : Coherence BW
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B S << BC
and
TS >>
Flat Fading
The mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. The multipath structure of the channel is such that the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at the receiver. The strength of the received signal changes with time, due to fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath.
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Flat Fading
Typical flat fading channels cause deep fades, and thus may require 20 or 30 dB more transmitter power to achieve low bit error rates during times of deep fades as compared to systems operating over nonfading channels. Also known as amplitude varying channel. Also referred to as narrowband channels since the bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading bandwidth. The most common amplitude distribution of flat fading channel is the Rayleigh distribution.
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Doppler Effect
Doppler is a frequency shift, cause by movement of the mobile antenna relative to the base station
- f = V/ (at 250 km/h and 900 MHz, f = 208 Hz)
f - f
f + f
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l = d cos = vt cos
Phase Change : =
2l
2vt
cos
Coherence Time
Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain. Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant. Coherence time is the time duration over which two received signals have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
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Coherence Time
Version 1: T c 1 f m m : the maximum Doppler shift, m = / Version 2: the time over which the time correlation > 0.5
Tc 9 16 f m
Version 3: Geometric mean of version 1 and version 2.
9 0.423 Tc = = 2 fm 16f m
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Slow Fading
Low Doppler spread. Coherence time > Symbol period. Channel variations slower than base-band signal variations
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Fast Fading
TS>TC and BS<BD. The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. The coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal. Signal distortion due to fast fading increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Fast fading only deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion. In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates (or very fast motion speed).
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Slow Fading
TS<<TC and BS>>BD Channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal s(t). The channel may be assumed to be static over one or several reciprocal bandwidth intervals. The Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband signal. The velocity of the mobile and the baseband signaling determines whether a signal undergoes fast fading or slow fading.
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Rayleigh Distribution
Rayleigh Distribution
Rayleigh distributions are commonly used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat fading signal, or the envelope of an individual multipath component. Envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution.
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Rayleigh Distribution
Consider a carrier signal s at a frequency 0 and with an amplitude a: s = a exp( j t )
0
Rayleigh Distribution
Because (1) n is usually very large, (2) the individual amplitudes ai are random, and (3) the phases i have a uniform distribution, it can be assumed that (from the central limit theorem) x and y are both Gaussian variables with means equal to zero and variance
2 x
2 y
Because x and y are independent random variables, the joint distribution p(x,y) is
x2 + y2 exp p ( x, y ) = p ( x ) p ( y ) = 2 2 2 2
p ( r , ) = J p ( x, y )
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Rayleigh Distribution
r sin r2 r = r ; p(r , ) = exp 2 r cos 2 2 Thus, the Rayleigh distribution has a pdf:
2
x / r x / cos J = y / r y / sin
p(r ) =
r r2 2 exp 2 p(r , )d = 2 0
r0 otherwise
The probability that the envelope of the received signal does not exceed a specified value R is given by the corresponding cumulative distribution function (CDF) R R2 P ( R ) = Pr( r R ) = p ( r ) dr = 1 exp 2 2 0
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Rayleigh Distribution
Mean:
rmean = E [ r ] = rp ( r ) dr =
0
= 1 .2533
Variance:
2
2
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p ( R , r )d r =
2 f m e
r is the tim e d erivative o f r ( t ) (i.e. th e slo p e) p ( R , r ) is th e joint d en sity fu n ctio n o f r an d r at r = R f m is th e m ax im u m D op p ler frequ en cy
Clarke, R. H., A Statistical Theory of Mobile-Radio Reception, Bell Systems Technical Journal, Vol. 47, pp. 957-1000, 1968.
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where i is the duration of the fade and T is the observation interval of the fading signal.
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2 R 2 = 2 2
where p(r) is the pdf of a Rayleigh distribution. The average fade duration as a function of and fm can be expressed as 2 e 1 = f m 2
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Ricean Distribution
[( x + A) + jy ] exp( j 0t ) r exp[ j ( 0t + )] r = ( x + A) + y
2 2 2
x + A = r cos y = r sin
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A2 [dB] K (dB) = 10 log 2 2 The parameter K is known as the Ricean factor and completely specifies the Ricean distribution. As A0, K- dB, and as the dominant path decreases in amplitude, the Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution.
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Rayleigh
t1
Rayleigh
tn-1
Rayleigh
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The number of frequency components (N0) needed is at least 8 (N is at least 34 where N0 =0.5*(N/2-1) and N/2 is an odd integer).
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781
-9
781
-9
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A B 82
5 s 1 s 4010-3 s-1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Fading Counteractions
Long-Term (large scale) Fading Counteraction: Macroscopic diversity (Space diversity) S-diversity S+I-diversity S/I-diversity
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Fading Counteraction
Short-Term (small scale) Fading Counteraction: Microscopic diversity. Space diversity - spacing is between receiving antennas. Polarization: orthogonality of the polarized wave components. Angle: directional antenna. Frequency: two or more different carriers. Time: time separation. Hopping: frequency hopping and time hopping.
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Combining Schemes
Switched Combining
Pure Selection: the received signals are continuously monitored so that the best signal can be selected. Threshold Selection: the received signals are scanned in a sequential order, and the first signal with a power level above a certain threshold is selected.
Gain Combining
Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC): each one of the M signals has a gain proportional to its own signal-to-noise ratio. Equal Gain Combining: all of the signals have a gain equal to one.
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