Contents Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Foundations, Soils and Superstructures 1 1.2 Classification of Foundations 3 1.2.

1 Shallow Foundation 3 1.2.2 Deep Foundations 4 1.3 Selection of Type of Foundation 4 1.4 General Guidelines for Design 4 1.5 Modeling, Parameters, Analysis and Design Criteria 6 1.6 Soil Maps 7 2 Engineering Properties of Soil 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Basic Soil Relations 9 2.2.1 Grain Size Distribution 11 2.2.2 Plasticity and the Atterberg s Limits 13 2.3 Soil Classification 15 2.4 Permeability 15 2.4.1 Quick Sand Condition and Critical Hydraulic Gradient 16 2.5 Over Consolidation Ratio 16 2.6 Relative Density 18 2.7 Terzaghi s Effective Stress Principle 19 2.8 Compaction of Soils 20 2.9 Consolidation and Compressibility 21 2.9.1 Compressibility Characteristics and Settlement of Soils 22 2.9.2 Time Rate of Consolidation 24 2.10 Shear Strength of Soils 26 2.10.1 Direct Shear Test 27 2.10.2 Vane Shear Test 27 2.10.3 Triaxial Shear Test 29 2.10.4 Unconfined Compression Test 30 2.10.5 Correlations 31 2.10.6 Sensitivity and Thixotropy 32 2.11 Soil Exploration and Sampling 32 2.11.1 Purposes of Soil Exploration 32 2.12 Site Investigation Boring, Sampling and Testing 33 2.12.1 Minimum Depth of Bore Holes 33 2.13 Split Spoon Sampler and Standard Penetration Test 35 2.14 Cone Penetration Test 39 2.15 Field Vane Shear Test 43 2.16 OtherIn SituTests 43 2.17 Summary 43 2.18 Examples 43 Exercise Problems 48 3 Bearing Capacity, Settlement, Stresses and Lateral Pressures in Soils 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.1.1 General and Local Shear Failure of Soils 49 3.1.2 Punching Shear Failure 49 3.1.3 Failure Due to Large Settlements 50 3.1.4 Allowable or Design Soil Pressure 50 3.2 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations 51 3.2.1 Prandtl s Theory for Shallow Foundations 51 3.2.2 Terzaghi s Theory for Shallow Foundations 52 3.2.3 Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Smooth Base 54 3.2.4 Factors of Safety 55 3.2.5 General Bearing Capacity Solutions 55 3.2.6 Effect of Ground Water Table 55 3.2.7 Other Factors 56 3.3 Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations 57

3.3.1 Types of Deep Foundations 57 3.3.2 Bearing Capacity 58 3.4 Correlation of UBC and ASP with SPT Values and CPT Values 59 3.4.1 SPT Values 59 3.4.2 Correlation toNValues 60 3.4.3 CPT Values 61 3.5 UBC and Probable Settlements Using Field Plate Load Test 62 3.5.1 Spring Constant from Total Deformation 62 3.5.2 Settlement 63 3.5.3 Ultimate Bearing Capacity 64 3.6 Elastic Stress and Displacement Distribution in Soils 65 3.7 Settlement Analysis 72 3.7.1 Immediate Settlement 73 3.7.2 Settlement Due to Consolidation 73 3.7.3 Settlement Due to Secondary Consolidation 74 viii Contents 3.8 Lateral Earth Pressure 74 3.8.1 Fundamental Relationships Between Lateral Pressure and Backfill Movement 74 3.8.2 Rankine s Theory 76 3.8.3 Coulomb s Theory of Earth Pressure 80 3.9 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest 86 3.10 Other Theories of Lateral Pressure 86 3.11 Examples 87 3.11.1 Examples in Bearing Capacity (Sections 3.2 to 3.5) 87 3.11.2 Examples in Stress Distribution in Soils (Section 3.6) 92 3.11.3 Examples in Settlement Analysis (Section 3.7) 99 3.11.4 Examples in Lateral Pressures (Sections 3.8 to 3.10) 104 Exercise Problems 114 4 Rational Design of Shallow Foundations 119 4.1 Introduction 119 4.2 Shallow Foundations 120 4.3 Conventional Design and Rational Design 121 4.4 Procedures for the Design of Footings 122 4.4.1 Depth of Footings 123 4.4.2 Proportioning the Size of the Footing 124 4.4.3 Stress on Lower Strata 125 4.4.4 Settlement of Footings 126 4.4.5 Design Considerations for Eccentric Loading 128 4.4.6 Inclined Loads 131 4.4.7 Footings on Slopes 134 4.4.8 Uplift of Footings 135 4.5 Conventional Structural Design of Footings 136 4.6 Foundations in Difficult Soil Formations 137 4.6.1 Sites with Possible Soil Erosion 137 4.6.2 Foundations with Susceptibility of Corrosion 137 4.6.3 Sites with Water Fluctuation or Near Large-Scale Mining Operations 138 4.6.4 Foundations in Loose Sand 139 4.6.5 Foundations on Loess or Other Collapsible Soils 139 4.6.6 Foundations on Clays or Silts 139 4.6.7 Foundations on Expansive Soils 140 4.6.8 Foundations on Garbage Land Fills or Sanitary Landfills 140 4.7 Modeling Soil Structure Interactions for Rational Design of Foundations 140 4.7.1 Elastic Foundations 140 4.7.2 Soil Structure Interaction Equations 141 4.7.3 Brief Review of the Foundation Models 146 4.7.4 Winkler s Model 151

4.8 Evaluation of Spring Constant in Winkler s Soil Model 151 4.8.1 Coefficient of Elastic Uniform Compression Plate Load Test 151 Contents ix 4.8.2 Size of Contact Area 156 4.8.3 Winkler s Soil Medium with or without Tension 157 4.8.4 Sensitivity of Responses onks 157 4.8.5 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for Different Plate Sizes and Shapes 157 4.8.6 Poisson s Ratio of the Soil Medium 160 4.8.7 Evaluation of Young s Modulus 160 4.8.8 ks for Foundations Subjected to Dynamic Loads 160 4.9 Soil Structure Interaction Equations 162 4.10 Summary 163 5 Analysis of Footings on Elastic Foundations 165 5.1 Introduction 165 5.2 Literature Review 165 5.2.1 Analytical Solutions 165 5.2.2 Numerical Methods and Finite Difference Method 166 5.2.3 Finite Element Method 166 5.3 Analysis of BEF 167 5.3.1 General Solution 168 5.4 Infinite Beams on Elastic Foundations 170 5.4.1 Semi-Infinite Beams on Elastic Foundations Subjected to Patx0 172 5.5 Finite Beams on Elastic Foundations 173 5.5.1 MIP for General Loads and Beam Configurations 176 5.5.2 Effect of External Loads General Solution of the Nonhomogeneous Equation 179 5.5.3 Method of Superposition with MIP 186 5.5.4 General Comments on Exact Solutions of BEF 186 5.5.5 Approximate Categorization of BEF for Simplification and Idealization of Analysis 186 5.6 Plates on Elastic Foundations 187 5.6.1 Analysis of Rectangular PEF 187 5.6.2 Bending of Rectangular PEF 187 5.6.3 Circular PEF 193 5.7 Summary 196 Exercise Problems 196 Appendix 5.A Matrix of Influence Functions (Method of Initial Parameters) 201 6 Numerical and Finite Difference Methods 203 6.1 Introduction 203 6.2 Trial Solutions with Undetermined Parameters 203 6.2.1 Stationary Functional Method 205 6.2.2 General Comments 205 6.2.3 Trial Solutions with Undetermined Functions 208 6.2.4 Observations 208 x Contents 6.3 Finite Difference Method 209 6.3.1 Finite Difference Operators 210 6.3.2 Application to Engineering Problems 212 6.3.3 Errors in FD 215 6.3.4 Improvizations of FDM Iterative Methods, Relaxation,h 2 Extrapolation and so on 215 6.4 FDM Applications to General BEF Problems 216 6.4.1 Representation of Derivatives Using Central Differences 216 6.4.2 Representation of Applied Loads 217 6.4.3 Equivalent Nodal Loads 218 6.4.4 Subgrade Reaction and Contact Pressures 222 6.4.5 FD Analysis for BEF Problems 223

6.5 Boundary Conditions 226 6.5.1 Free Ends 227 6.5.2 Simply Supported Ends 229 6.5.3 Fixed Ends 230 6.6 Calculation of Bending Moments 232 6.6.1 Boundary Nodes 232 6.6.2 Internal Nodes 233 6.7 Shear Forces 234 6.7.1 Boundary Nodes 234 6.7.2 Internal Nodes 236 6.8 Vertical Reactions 237 6.8.1 Supports at Boundary Nodes 237 6.8.2 Internal Supports 240 6.9 Simplification for Prismatic Beams 240 6.9.1 FDO for Prismatic BEF 240 6.9.2 Free Ends 242 6.9.3 Simply Supported Ends 242 6.9.4 Fixed Ends 243 6.9.5 Solutions of Simultaneous Equations 243 6.10 FDM for Rectangular Plates on Elastic Foundations 248 6.10.1 PEF with Free Edges 249 6.11 FDM for Circular and Annular Plates on Elastic Foundations 256 6.12 BEF Software Package 256 6.13 Summary 256 Exercise Problems 257 7 Finite Element Method 261 7.1 General Philosophy 261 7.2 Finite Element Procedure 263 7.2.1 Finite Element Deformation Patterns 264 7.2.2 Transformation of Coordinates 265 7.3 Formulation of Finite Element Characteristics (Stiffness Analysis) 266 7.4 Beam Elements 270 7.4.1 Incorporating Soil Reaction for BEF Analysis 273 Contents xi 7.5 Plate Elements for Bending Theory 274 7.5.1 Introduction 274 7.5.2 Displacement Formulation of the Plate Problem 275 7.5.3 Continuity of Requirement for Shape Function 278 7.5.4 Nonconforming Shape Functions 278 7.5.5 Stiffness and Load Matrices 280 7.5.6 Stiffness Matrix for Isotropic Plates 281 7.5.7 Incorporating Soil Reaction for PEF Analysis 281 7.5.8 Circular, Ring Shaped and Plates of General Shapes 283 7.5.9 Finite Grid Method and Boundary Element Method 283 7.5.10 General Comments on FEM 284 7.6 Summary 284 7.7 Examples 284 7.7.1 FEM Analysis of BEF 284 7.7.2 FEM Analysis of PEF 287 7.7.3 General FEM Examples of Soil Structure Interaction 292 Exercise Problems 295 Appendix 7.A Stiffness and Stress Matrices for Plate Elements 296 7.A.1 Stiffness Matrix 296 7.A.2 Stress Matrix 297 7.A.3 Load Matrix 299 8 Parameters and Criteria for Foundation Design 301 8.1 Introduction 301 8.2 Design Considerations 301 8.3 Codes, Practices and Standards 302 8.4 Design Soil Pressure 302

8.5 Gross and Net Values of the Safe Bearing Capacity and Allowable Soil Pressure 303 8.6 Presumptive Bearing Capacity 303 8.6.1 Design Loads and Factors of Safety 304 8.7 Settlements and Differential Settlements 304 8.7.1 Total Settlement 305 8.7.2 Differential Settlement 306 8.8 Cracks Due to Uneven Settlement 307 8.9 Suggestions to Reduce Large Differential Settlements 308 9 Deep Foundations Piles, Drilled Piers, Caissons and Pile-Raft Systems 309 9.1 Introduction 309 9.2 Piles 310 9.2.1 Timber Piles/Plain Timber Piles 311 9.2.2 Concrete Piles 312 9.2.3 Composite Piles 314 9.2.4 Steel Piles 314 9.3 Functions of Piles 314 9.4 Design of Pile Foundations 314 xii Contents 9.5 Type and Length of Piles 315 9.6 Pile Load Capacity 316 9.6.1 Dynamic Pile Driving Formulae and Wave Equation 316 9.6.2 Static Method 317 9.6.3 TheaMethod 320 9.6.4 ThebMethod 321 9.6.5 ThelMethod 321 9.6.6 Allowable Pile Capacity 321 9.6.7 Pile Load Tests 322 9.6.8 Correlation with SPT and CPT Values 324 9.7 Lateral Load Capacity of Piles 325 9.8 Stresses on Lower Strata Due to Pile Foundations 325 9.9 Settlement Analysis 327 9.10 Design of Piles and Pile Groups 328 9.11 Drilled Piers or Drilled Caissons 328 9.11.1 Construction of Drilled Piers 330 9.11.2 Other Design Details 330 9.11.3 Bearing Capacity and Shaft Resistance 330 9.11.4 Stresses in Lower Strata 332 9.11.5 Other Design Considerations 332 9.11.6 Construction Problems 332 9.12 Non-Drilled Caissons 333 9.12.1 Types of Caissons 334 9.12.2 Design Considerations Bearing Capacity and Shaft Friction 334 9.12.3 Concrete Seal 335 9.13 Pile-Raft Systems 336 9.13.1 Analysis of Pile-Raft Systems 337 9.13.2 General Observations 338 9.14 Examples 338 Exercise Problems 347 10 Design of Piles and Pile Groups 351 10.1 Introduction 351 10.2 Use of Pile Foundations 351 10.3 Types of Piles and Pile Groups 351 10.4 Efficiency of Pile Groups 352 10.5 Analysis and Design of Pile Foundations 354 10.5.1 Loads and Pile Configuration 354 10.5.2 Loads 355 10.5.3 Pile Configuration 356 10.5.4 Checks Imposed on the Pile Group 356 10.6 Lateral Capacity of Piles 357

10.6.1 Single Pile 358 10.6.2 Additional Considerations 359 10.6.3 Methods of Analysis 361 10.6.4 Beam on Elastic Foundation Approach 361 Contents xiii 10.6.5 Short Piles Brinch Hansen s Method 365 10.6.6 Structural Checks 366 10.7 Pile Group 367 10.7.1 Methods Available 367 10.8 Settlement of Piles 367 10.8.1 Point-Bearing Piles on Bedrock 368 10.8.2 Point-Bearing Piles in Sand and Gravel 368 10.8.3 Point-Bearing Piles on Hard Clay 369 10.8.4 Friction Piles in Sand and Gravel 369 10.8.5 Friction/Adhesion Piles in Clays 370 10.8.6 Settlement Under Axial Load Single Pile 370 10.8.7 Settlement Under Axial Load Pile Group 371 10.8.8 Methods of Computation 371 10.9 Settlement Under Lateral Load 375 10.10 Design of Pile Caps 375 10.11 Uplift 376 10.12 Batter Piles 377 10.13 Design of Pile Foundations 379 10.14 Summary of Assumptions and Guidelines for Design 379 10.15 Example 381 10.15.1 Types of Piles 381 10.15.2 Concrete Data 381 10.15.3 Soil Data 383 10.15.4 Loads From the Superstructure 383 10.15.5 Modulus of Piles About the Axes Passing Through the CG of the Pile Group 383 10.15.6 Loads 383 10.15.7 Moments 384 10.15.8 Combination of Loads and Moments for Maximum Load on Pile 384 10.15.9 Combination of Loads and Moments for Minimum Load on Pile 385 10.15.10 Maximum Load on Pile Without Wind 385 10.15.11 Design of Reinforcement in Pile 386 10.15.12 Pile Cap 386 10.15.13 Check for Vertical Load Capacity of Pile 386 10.16 Construction Guidelines 387 10.16.1 Construction Details 387 Exercise Problems 389 11 Machine Foundations 393 11.1 Introduction 393 11.1.1 Design of Foundations in a Dynamic Environment 393 11.2 Types of Machine Foundations 394 11.3 General Requirements of Machine Foundations and Design Criteria 394 11.4 Dynamic Loads 395 xiv Contents 11.5 Physical Modeling and Response Analysis 396 11.5.1 Dynamic Interaction of Rigid Foundations and Soil Media 397 11.5.2 Idealization of Foundation Dynamics Problems 400 11.5.3 Resonant Frequency 401 11.5.4 Apparent Mass of Soil 402 11.5.5 Spring Constants and Damping Coefficients 402 11.5.6 Barkan s Approach 402 11.6 Analysis by Lysmer and Richart 403 11.6.1 Introduction 403

11.6.2 Other Modes 406 11.6.3 Analog Models for Dynamic Analysis of Single Piles 406 11.7 General Analysis of Machine Foundation Soil Systems Using Analog Models 408 11.8 General Equations of Motion 409 11.8.1 Machine Block Foundation Soil System 409 11.8.2 Machine Pile Foundation Soil System 413 11.8.3 Some Simplifications for MFS 415 11.9 Methods of Solution 417 11.9.1 Observations 417 11.10 General Remarks 418 11.11 Framed Foundations 418 Exercise Problems 418 Appendix 11.A Elements of Vibration Theory 420 11.A.1 Introduction 420 11.A.2 SDF Translational Systems 420 11.A.3 General Solutions 421 11.A.4 Damped Free Vibrations Viscous Damping 424 11.A.5 Forced Vibrations 428 11.A.6 Multi Degree of Freedom Systems 446 Appendix 11.B Stiffness and Damping Parameters 450 11.B.1 Introduction 450 11.B.2 Analog Parameters of Lysmer and Richart 450 11.B.3 Other Parameters 450 11.B.4 Parameters of Machine Foundation for Computations 450 Appendix 11.C General Guidelines for Design and Construction of Machine Foundations 453 11.C.1 Introduction 453 11.C.2 Data for Analysis and Design 453 11.C.3 Guidelines for Design 453 11.C.4 Miscellaneous Guidelines 457 11.C.5 Construction Guidelines 458 11.C.6 Guidelines for Providing Vibration Absorbers 466 12 Structural Design of Foundations 471 12.1 Introduction 471 12.2 Analysis of Foundations 471 Contents xv 12.3 Structural Design 472 12.3.1 Bending Moment 472 12.3.2 Shear Force 473 12.3.3 Development Length 475 12.3.4 Deflection and Cracking 475 12.3.5 Transfer of Load at Base of Column 475 12.3.6 Tensile Reinforcement 477 12.4 Isolated Footings 478 12.4.1 Eccentrically Loaded Footings 479 12.5 Wall Footings 483 12.6 Combined Footings 483 12.7 Strap Footings 484 12.8 Raft Foundations 486 12.8.1 Conventional Design of Rafts 489 12.9 Circular and Annular Footings 490 12.10 Construction Guidelines for Footings 491 12.10.1 Relative Depth of Footings 491 12.10.2 Dewatering 491 12.11 Construction of Raft Foundations 492 12.12 Examples of Structural Design 492 Exercise Problems 492 Appendix 12.A Details of RC Design 494 12.A.1 Introduction 494

12.A.2 Factored Loads 494 12.A.3 Yield Stress 495 12.A.4 Maximum Depth of Neutral Axis 496 12.A.5 Limiting Values of Tension Steel and Moment of Resistance 496 12.A.6 Maximum and Minimum Tension Reinforcement 497 12.A.7 Moment of Resistance 497 12.A.8 Design Tables 498 12.A.9 Shear Reinforcement 498 12.A.10 Bond and Development Length 499 12.A.11 Clear Cover for Reinforcement 500 12.A.12 Spacing of Reinforcement 501 12.A.13 Reinforcement Requirements in Beams and Slabs 502 12.A.14 Reinforcement in Piles 503 12.A.15 Under-Reamed Piles 503 12.A.16 Pile Caps 504 Appendix 12.B Expressions for BM and SF for Circular and Annular Slabs, and Foundations 505 12.B.1 Introduction 505 12.B.2 Slab Freely Supported at the Edges and Carrying UDL 505 12.B.3 Slabs Fixed at Edges and Carrying UDL 507 12.B.4 Slab Simply Supported at the Edges with Load W Uniformly Distributed Along the Circumference of a Concentric Circle 508 xvi Contents 12.B.5 Slab Simply Supported at Edges, with UDL Inside a Concentric Circle 509 12.B.6 Slab Simply Supported at Edges, with a Central Hole and Carrying UDL 511 12.B.7 Slab Simply Supported at the Edges with a Central Hole and Carrying W Distributed Along the Circumference of a Concentric Circle 512 12.B.8 Application of Expressions to Foundations 513 Appendix 12.C Structural Design of Shallow Foundations 514 12.C.1 Introduction 514 12.C.2 Input of Soil Parameters for Structural Design 514 12.C.3 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction for the Analysis 514 12.C.4 BEF Solutions for Circular and Annular Rafts 515 12.C.5 Examples of Structural Design 515 Appendix 12.D Comparative Features of Concrete Codes for Foundation Design 589 12.D.1 Introduction 589 12.D.2 Partial Safety Factors and Load Combinations 589 12.D.3 Steel Details 590 12.D.4 Concrete Details 590 12.D.5 Maximum Depth of Neutral Axis 590 12.D.6 Limiting Moment of Resistance and Tensile Reinforcement Area 590 12.D.7 Limiting Tensile Steel in Rectangular Sections 596 12.D.8 Minimum Tension Reinforcement 596 12.D.9 Maximum Tension Reinforcement 599 12.D.10 Shear Reinforcement 599 12.D.11 Punching Shear 600 12.D.12 Bond Stress and Development Length 602 12.D.13 Clear Cover for Reinforcement 604 12.D.14 Spacing of Reinforcement 606 12.D.15 Design Examples Using Different Code