Reactor types and reactor concepts

Classifications
Natural nuclear fission reactor Although mankind has only tamed nuclear power recently, the first nuclear reactors were naturally occurring. A natural nuclear fission reactor can occur under certain circumstances that mimic the conditions in a constructed reactor. Fifteen natural fission reactors have so far been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa. First discovered in 1972 by French physicist Francis Perrin, they are collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. These reactors ran for approximately 150 million years, averaging 100 kW of power output during that time. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorized as early as 1956 by Paul Kuroda at the University of Arkansas. Such reactors can no longer form on Earth: radioactive decay over this immense time span has reduced the proportion of U-235 in naturally occurring uranium to below the amount required to sustain a chain reaction. The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundated with groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place. The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down again and preventing a meltdown. The fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands of years. These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic radioactive waste disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through the earth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposal fear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into the environment.

Classification by type of nuclear reaction A. Nuclear fission. Most reactors, and all commercial ones, are based on nuclear fission. They generally use uranium as fuel, but research on using thorium is ongoing. This article assumes that the technology is nuclear fission unless otherwise stated. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that are used to sustain the fission chain reaction: Thermal reactors use slow or thermal neutrons. Most power reactors are of this type. These are characterized by neutron moderator materials that slow neutrons until they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, that is, until they are thermalized. Thermal neutrons have a far higher probability of fissioning uranium-235, and a lower probability of capture by uranium-238 than the faster neutrons that result from fission. As well as the moderator, thermal reactors have fuel (fissionable material), containments, pressure vessels, shielding, and instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor's systems. Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to sustain the fission chain reaction. They are characterized by an absence of moderating material. Initiating the chain reaction requires enriched uranium (and/or enrichment with plutonium 239), due to the lower probability of fissioning U-235, and a higher probability of capture by U-238 (as compared to a moderated, thermal neutron). In general, fast 1

reactors will produce less waste and the waste they do produce will have a vastly shorter halflife, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russian naval propulsion units. Construction of prototypes is continuing (see fast breeder or generation IV reactors). B. Nuclear fusion. Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally with hydrogen as fuel. Not suitable for power production. Radioactive decay. Examples include radioisotope thermoelectric generators and atomic batteries, which generate heat and power by exploiting passive radioactive decay.

C.

Classification by moderator material Used by thermal reactors. Graphite moderated reactors Water moderated reactors Heavy Water moderated reactors Light water moderated reactors (LWRs). Light water reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operating temperatures if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That negative feedback stabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy water reactors tend to be more thoroughly thermalised than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, these types can use natural uranium/unenriched fuel. Classification by coolant Water cooled reactor Pressure water reactor Most commercial and naval reactors use pressure vessels. Pressure vessels are almost always lined up to reactors and are only isolated from reactors during special maintenance or tests. Pressurised channels (Chernobyl type). Channel-type reactors can be refuelled under load. Boiling water reactor, e.g. ABB-Atom design Pool-type reactor Liquid metal cooled reactor. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. All fast neutron reactors that have been used for power generation have been liquid metal cooled reactors, but research continues in gas cooled reactors. Gas cooled reactor These are cooled by a circulating inert gas, usually helium. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide have also been used. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the

reactor. Some reactors run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine. Older designs usually run the gas through a heat exchanger to make steam for a steam turbine. Classification by generation Generation I reactor Generation II reactor Generation III reactor Generation IV reactor Classification by phase of fuel Solid fueled Fluid fueled Gas fueled Classification by use Power plants Propulsion, foremost nuclear marine propulsion Various proposed forms of rocket propulsion Other uses of heat, e.g H2 production for use in a hydrogen economy. Desalination Heat for domestic (gesta reactor) and industrial heating Production reactors for transmutation of elements Breeder reactors. Fast breeder reactors are capable of enriching Uranium during the fission chain reaction (by converting fertile U-238 to Pu-239) which allows an operational fast reactor to generate more fissile material than it consumes. Thus, a breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with natural or even depleted uranium. Creating various radioactive isotopes, such as americium for use in smoke detectors, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment. Production of materials for nuclear weapons such as weapons-grade plutonium Providing a source of neutron radiation and positron radiation (e.g. Neutron activation analysis and Potassium-argon dating) Research reactors : Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel. Current technologies A. Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) These are reactors cooled and moderated by high pressure liquid (even at extreme temperatures) water. They are the majority of current reactors, and are generally considered the safest and most reliable technology currently in large scale deployment, although Three Mile Island (known for the Harrisburg accident) is a reactor of this type. This is a thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor and the European Pressurized Reactor. United States Naval reactors are of this type.

B. Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) These are reactors cooled and moderated by water, under slightly lower pressure. The water is allowed to boil in the reactor. The thermal efficiency of these reactors can be higher, and they can be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. Unfortunately, the boiling water puts more stress on many of the components, and increases the risk that radioactive water may escape in an accident. These reactors make up a substantial percentage of modern reactors. This is a thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor and the Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor. C. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR), e.g. the Canadian design, known as CANDU. These reactors are heavy-water-cooled and -moderated Pressurized-Water reactors. Instead of using a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressure tubes. These reactors are fuelled with natural uranium and are thermal neutron reactor designs. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, which makes them very efficient in their use of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWR's have been built in Canada, Argentina, China, India (pre-NPT), Pakistan (pre-NPT), Romania, and South Korea. India also operates a number of PHWR's, often termed 'CANDU-derivatives', built after the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear weapon test. D. Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor RBMK, Chernobyl type) A Soviet Union design, built to produce plutonium as well as power. RBMKs are water cooled with a graphite moderator. RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in that they are refuelable On-Load and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and too large to have containment buildings making them dangerous in the case of an accident. A series of critical safety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these were corrected following the Chernobyl accident. RBMK reactors are generally considered one of the most dangerous reactor designs in use. The Chernobyl plant had four RBMK reactors. E. Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR) and Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGCR) These are generally graphite moderated and CO2 cooled. They can have a high thermal efficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number of operating reactors of this design, mostly in the United Kingdom, where the concept was developed. Older designs (i.e. Magnox stations) are either shut down or will be in the near future. However, the AGCRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a thermal neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume of reactor core. F. Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) This is a reactor design that is cooled by liquid metal, totally unmoderated, and produces more fuel than it consumes. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency, and do not require much high pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to be kept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. Superphnix in France was a reactor of this type, as was Fermi-I in the United States. The Monju reactor in Japan suffered a sodium leak in 1995 and is approved for restart in 2008. All three use/used liquid sodium. These reactors are fast neutron, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types:

 Lead cooled Using lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allows for operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent to neutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so there is less risk of explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic from toxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use a lead-bismuth eutectic mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present some minor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can be transmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead. Sodium cooled Most LMFBRs are of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and work with, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed to water, so care must be taken, but such explosions wouldn't be vastly more violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a SCWR or PWR. G. Aqueous Homogeneous Reactor Triga pulsed reactors allowing bursts of high neutron flux are of this type H. Advanced reactors More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the PWR, BWR and PHWR designs above, some are more radical departures. The former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR), two of which are now operating with others are under construction, and the planned passively safe ESBWR and AP1000 units. The Integral Fast Reactor This reactor was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retired under the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design and it therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors. The Integral Fast Reactor shows great advantages over current reactor design, especially in the areas of safety, efficient nuclear fuel usage and reduced waste. The Pebble Bed Reactor This is a High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGCR) so designed that high temperatures reduce power output by doppler broadening of the fuel's neutron cross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium, which avoids the risk of steam explosions. Moreover, helium does not easily absorb neutrons and become radioactive, or dissolve contaminants that can become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passive containment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that might aid safety is that the fuel-balls actually form the core's mechanism, and are replaced one-by-one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessing expensive.

 SSTAR, Small, Sealed, Transportable, Autonomous Reactor This reactor is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended as a fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down in case the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with, cf. Secure and Prius designs in Sweden. The Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR) This is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator - this design is still in development Advanced Heavy Water Reactor A proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the next generation design of the PHWR type. Under development in the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). Subcritical Reactors These are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number of engineering and economic difficulties. One example is the Rubia Energy Amplifier. Thorium Based Reactors. It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designed for the purpose. In this way, Thorium, which is more plentiful than uranium, can be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourable nuclear properties as compared to traditionally used U-235, including better neutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste. KAMINI A unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built by BARC and IGCAR Uses thorium. FBTR, fast breeder thorium reactor. India is building this to harness the power with the use of thorium. Generation IV reactors Generation IV reactors are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. These designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants. Gas cooled fast reactor Lead cooled fast reactor Molten salt reactor Sodium-cooled fast reactor Supercritical water reactor (SCWR)

The Supercritical Water-cooled Reactor combines higher efficiency than a GCR with the safety of a PWR, though it is perhaps more technically challenging than either. The water is pressurized and heated past its critical point, until there is no difference between the liquid and gas states. An SCWR is similar to a BWR, except there is no boiling (as the water is critical), and the thermal efficiency is higher as the water behaves more like a classical gas. This is an epithermal neutron reactor design. Generation V+ reactors. Very high temperature reactor Designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered or researched at present. Though such reactors could be built with current or near term technology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics, practicality, or safety. Liquid Core reactor. A closed loop liquid core nuclear reactor, where the fissile material is molten uranium cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of the containment vessel. Gas core reactor. A closed loop version of the nuclear lightbulb rocket, where the fissile material is gassious uranium-hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A working gas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light produced by the reaction. In theory, using UH6 as a working fuel directly (rather than as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, and very small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densities would probably produce unmanageable neutron flux. Gas core EM reactor. As in the Gas Core reactor, but with photovoltaic arrays converting the UV light directly to electricity. Fission fragment chemical reactor Reactors for direct chemical conversions Fusion reactors Controlled nuclear fusion could in principle be used in fusion power plants to produce power without the complexities of handling actinides, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but as yet none has 'produced' more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leading the effort to commercialize fusion power.

Appendix 1 Generation IV Reactor Concepts

Gas Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)

The Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) system features a fast-neutron-spectrum, helium-cooled reactor and closed fuel cycle. Like thermal-spectrum, helium-cooled reactors, the high outlet temperature of the helium coolant makes it possible to deliver electricity, hydrogen, or process heat with high efficiency. The reference reactor is a 288-Mwe helium-cooled system operating with an outlet temperature of 850 degrees Celsius using a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are candidates that hold the potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of fission products: composite ceramic fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations may be based on prismatic blocks, pin- or plate-based assemblies. The GFR reference has an integrated, on-site spent fuel treatment and refabrication plant. The GFR uses a direct-cycle helium turbine for electricity generation, or can optionally use its process heat for thermochemical production of hydrogen. Through the combination of a fast spectrum and full recycle of actinides, the GFR minimizes the production of long-lived radioactive waste. The GFRs fast spectrum also makes it possible to use available fissile and fertile materials (including depleted uranium) considerably more efficiently than thermal spectrum gas reactors with once-through fuel cycles.

Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)

The Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) system features a fast-spectrum lead or lead/bismuth eutectic liquid metal-cooled reactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides. The system has a full actinide recycle fuel cycle with central or regional fuel cycle facilities. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a battery of 50-150 Mwe that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300-400 Mwe, and a large monolithic plant option at 1200 Mwe. The term battery refers to the long-life, factory fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion. The fuel is metal or nitride-based, containing fertile uranium and transuranics. The LFR is cooled by natural convection with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 degrees C, possibly ranging up to 800 degrees C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes. The LFR battery is a small factory-built turnkey plant operating on a closed fuel cycle with very long refueling interval (15 to 20 years) cassette core or replaceable reactor module. Its features are designed to meet market opportunities for electricity production on small grids, and for developing countries that may not wish to deploy an indigenous fuel cycle infrastructure to support their nuclear energy systems. The battery system is designed for distributed generation of electricity and other energy products, including hydrogen and potable water.

Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)

The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) system produces fission power in a circulating molten salt fuel mixture with an epithermal-spectrum reactor and a full actinide recycle fuel cycle. In the MSR system, the fuel is a circulating liquid mixture of sodium, zirconium, and uranium fluorides. The molten salt fuel flows through graphite core channels, producing an epithermal spectrum. The heat generated in the molten salt is transferred to a secondary coolant system through an intermediate heat exchanger, and then through a tertiary heat exchanger to the power conversion system. The reference plant has a power level of 1,000 Mwe. The system has a coolant outlet temperature of 700 degrees Celsius, possibly ranging up to 800 degrees Celsius, affording improved thermal efficiency. The closed fuel cycle can be tailored to the efficient burn up of plutonium and minor actinides. The MSRs liquid fuel allows addition of actinides such as plutonium and avoids the need for fuel fabrication. Actinides and most fission products form fluorinides in the liquid coolant. Molten fluoride salts have excellent heat transfer characteristics and a very low vapor pressure, which reduce stresses on the vessel and piping.

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Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)

The Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) system features a fast-spectrum, sodium-cooled reactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient management of actinides and conversion of fertile uranium. The fuel cycle employs a full actinide recycle with two major options: One is an intermediate size (150 to 500 Mwe) sodium-cooled reactor with uranium-plutonium-minor-actinidezirconium metal alloy fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based on pyrometallurgical processing in facilities integrated with the reactor. The second is a medium to large (500 to 1,500 Mwe) sodium-cooled reactor with mixed uranium-plutonium oxide fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based upon advanced aqueous processing at a central location serving a number of reactors. The outlet temperature is approximately 550 degrees Celsius for both. The SFR is designed for management of high-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides. Important safety features of the system include a long thermal response time, a large margin to coolant boiling, a primary system that operates near atmospheric pressure, and intermediate sodium system between the radioactive sodium in the primary system and the water and steam in the power plant. With innovations to reduce capital cost, the SFR can serve markets for electricity. The SFRs fast spectrum also makes it possible to use available fissile and fertile materials (including depleted uranium) considerably more efficiently than thermal spectrum reactors with once-through fuel cycles.

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Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)

The Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR) system is a high-temperature, high-pressure water-cooled reactor that operates above the thermodynamic critical point of water (374 degrees Celsius, 22.1 Mpa, or 705 degrees Fahrenheit, 3208 psia). The supercritical water coolant enables a thermal efficiency about one-third higher than current light-water reactors, as well as simplification in the balance of plant. The balance of plant is considerably simplified because the coolant does not change phase in the reactor and is directly coupled to the energy conversion equipment. The reference system is 1,700 Mwe with an operating pressure of 25 Mpa, and a reactor outlet temperature of 510 degrees Celsius, possibly ranging up to 550 degrees Celsius. The fuel is uranium oxide. Passive safety features are incorporated similar to those of simplified boiling water reactors. The SCWR system is primarily designed for efficient electricity production, with an option for actinide management based on two options in the core design: the SCWR may have a thermal or fast-spectrum reactor; the second is a closed cycle with a fast-spectrum reactor and full actinide recycle based on advanced aqueous processing at a central location.

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Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR)

The Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a graphite-moderated, helium-cooled reactor with a once-through uranium fuel cycle. It supplies heat with core outlet temperatures of 1,000 degrees Celsius, which enables applications such as hydrogen production or process heat for the petrochemical industry or others. The reference reactor is a 600 MWth core connected to an intermediate heat exchanger to deliver process heat. The reactor core can be a prismatic block core such as the operating Japanese HTTR, or a pebble-bed core such as the operating Chinese HTR-10. For hydrogen production, the system supplies heat that could be used efficiently by the thermochemical iodine-sulfur process (Bunsen reaction). The VHTR system is designed to be a high-efficiency system that can supply process heat to a broad spectrum of high-temperature and energy-intensive, nonelectric processes. The system may incorporate electricity generating equipment to meet cogeneration needs. The system also has the flexibility to adopt uranium/plutonium fuel cycles and offer enhanced waste minimization. Thus, the VHTR offers a broad range of process heat applications and an option for high-efficiency electricity production, while retaining the desirable safety characteristics offered by modular high-temperature gas-cooled reactors.

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Appendix II World NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS 2006-07 and Uranium Requirements

Nuclear Electricity generation 2006
Country Argentina Armenia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada* China China: Taiwan Czech Republic Egypt Finland France Germany Hungary India Indonesia Iran Israel Japan Kazakhstan Korea DPR (North) Korea RO (South) Lithuania Mexico Netherlands Pakistan Romania Russia Slovakia Slovenia South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom USA Vietnam WORLD billion kWh 7.2 2.4 44.3 13.0 18.1 92.4 51.8 38.3 24.5 0 22.0 428.7 158.7 12.5 15.6 0 0 0 291.5 0 0 141.2 8.0 10.4 3.3 2.6 5.2 144.3 16.6 5.3 10.1 57.4 65.1 26.4 0 84.8 69.2 787.2 0 2658 billion kWh % e 6.9 42 54 3.3 44 16 1.9 20 31 0 28 78 32 38 2.6 0 0 0 30 0 0 39 69 4.9 3.5 2.7 9.0 16 57 40 4.4 20 48 37 0 48 18 19 0 16 % e

Reactors operable Aug 2007

No. 2 1 7 2 2 18 11 6 6 0 4 59 17 4 17 0 0 0 55 0 0 20 1 2 1 2 2 31 5 1 2 8 10 5 0 15 19 104 0 439 No. MWe 935 376 5728 1901 1906 12595 8587 4884 3472 0 2696 63473 20339 1826 3779 0 0 0 47577 0 0 17533 1185 1310 485 400 1310 21743 2064 696 1842 7442 9086 3220 0 13168 11035 99049 0 372,002 MWe

Reactors under construction Aug 2007

No. 1 0 0 0 0 2 5 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 6 0 1 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 No. MWe 692 0 0 0 0 1540 4540 2600 0 0 1600 1630 0 0 2976 0 915 0 2285 0 0 3000 0 0 0 300 0 4920 840 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27,838 MWe

Reactors planned Aug 2007

No. 1 0 0 1 2 4 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 11 0 1 5 0 0 0 2 2 7 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 2 0 7 0 81 No. MWe 740 0 0 1245 1900 4000 27640 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2800 0 1900 0 14945 0 950 6600 0 0 0 600 1310 7800 0 0 165 0 0 0 4500 1900 0 10180 0 89,175 MWe

Reactors proposed Aug 2007

No. 1 1 0 4 0 2 88 0 2 1 1 1 0 2 15 2 3 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 2 1 18 0 1 24 0 0 1 0 20 0 25 2 223 No. MWe 740 1000 0 4000 0 2200 72000 0 1900 600 1000 1600 0 2000 11100 2000 2850 1200 1100 300 0 0 3200 2000 0 2000 655 21600 0 1000 4000 0 0 1000 0 27000 0 32000 2000 200,445 MWe

Uranium required 2007

tonnes U 135 51 1079 338 255 1836 1454 906 550 0 472 10368 3486 254 491 0 143 0 8872 0 0 3037 134 257 112 64 92 3777 299 145 332 1473 1468 575 0 2003 2021 20050 0 66,529 tonnes U

Sources: Reactor data: WNA to 30/8/07. IAEA- for nuclear electricity production & percentage of electricity (% e) 5/07. WNA: Global Nuclear Fuel Market (reference scenario) - for U. Includes first cores for new reactors. Operating = Connected to the grid; Building/Construction = first concrete for reactor poured, or major refurbishment under way (* In Canada, 'construction' figure is 2 laid-up Bruce A reactors); Planned = Approvals, funding or major commitment in place, or construction well advanced but suspended indefinitely; Proposed = clear intention or proposal but still without firm commitment. TWh = Terawatt-hours (billion kilowatt-hours), MWe = Megawatt net (electrical as distinct from thermal), kWh = kilowatt-hour NB: 66,529 tU = 78,458 t U3O8

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Appendix III: Nuclear History by IAEA 1951: The EBR-1 and the Four Light Bulbs Idaho might not be the first State that comes to mind when people think about the atom, but "the Gem of the Mountains" has played a significant role in developing nuclear power for more than 50 years. In 1951, the National Reactor Testing Station (now known as the Idaho National Energy and Environmental Laboratory, or INEEL) used the world's first nuclearprovided electricity to light one of its buildings. The source of the power was the Station's Experimental Breeder Reactor-1 (EBR-1), a unit that continued in service until decommissioned in 1964. More information on the EBR-1, including tours at the museum site, and on the lab's other projects, can be obtained on the INEEL web site. 1954: The First (World) In the mid-1950's, both the Soviet Union and western countries were expanding their nuclear research to include non-military uses of the atom. However, as with the military program, much of the non-military work was done in secret. On June 27, 1954, the World's first nuclear power plant generated electricity but no headlines--at least, not in the West. The capacity of the world's first nuclear electricity generator was only 5 megawatts (electric), unimpressive when compared to some of today's giants (about a fourth of the World's generators exceed 1,000 megawatts in capacity). Of course, being the first makes the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant no less impressive. Minatom povides a photo of the Obninsk plant on its web site. Also in 1954: the world's first nuclear powered submarine, the USS Nautilus, was launched. 1955: The X-39 Engine and the Aircraft that Never Was (and Likely never Will Be) By 1955, nuclear bombs, nuclear power plants, and nuclear-powered ships and submarines had been developed. Was an atomic-powered aircraft a logical next step? No. But in 1955, the X-39 engine for a proposed atomic-powered bomber was tested in the Heat Transfer Reactor Experiment-1. The original X-39 engine was too heavy to lift by aircraft. The problem was overcome by eliminating the shielding. It will never be known if the Nation could have found a pilot willing to risk significant exposure to radiation while guiding his nuclear-powered bomber down its 10-mile long runway. President Kennedy cancelled the project in 1961. The aircraft was never built but the twin X-39 engines are on display at the Idaho National Energy and Environmental Laboratory. Also in 1955: Arco, Idaho, became the first town to be lit entirely by nuclear power. The BORAX II reactor, a Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) prototype was used. By the end of the 20 th century, 20 percent of the Nation's electricity was supplied by nuclear power. 1956: Calder Hall unit 1 Comes on Line; the longest-operating reactor The oldest commercial nuclear generating unit still in operation in 2001 was the Calder Hall Unit 1 (Capacity, 50 MWE) at Seascale, Cumbria, Great Britain. When Calder Hall 1 began operation in August 1956, there were no commercial jet airliners, no man or woman had flown in space, U.S. refineries exported $600,000,000 worth of petroleum products, and motor gasoline sold for 30 cents per gallon . Unit 1 was later joined by the World's second oldest currently operational unit (Unit 2, February 1957) and the third oldest (Unit 3, March

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1958). Calder Hall outlasted the 20th century, but none of the quartet (which includes Calder Hall 4) will outlast the 21st century. On March 31, 2003, Cader Hall shut down permanently. Update: The World's Oldest Reactor Retires. 1957: The First Nuclear-Powered Surface Ship (World) Launched by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the World's first nuclear-powered surface ship never fired a shot in anger: it had no guns, missiles, depth charges or weapons of any kind. Built in the Admiralty Shipyards of what was then Leningrad, the Soviet icebreaker Lenin was launched on December 5, 1957. The Lenin's career was disrupted in the 1960's by a nuclear accident that killed 30 crewmen. The vessel was repaired and the reactor replaced. It retired in 1989, having completed three decades of service. The first nuclear-powered icebreaker is being converted into a museum, but it has descendents. The Murmansk Shipping Company in Russia has the largest nuclear surface fleet in the world: five Artic-type icebreakers, two icebreakers designed to serve on rivers, and one nuclear-powered container ship. And the Lenin is not the only one that can claim a first. The Artika, which began operation in 1975, was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole. More information on the Lenin and the Artika, and the other eight vessels is available on the Bellona web site. Also in 1957: Shippingport, the first U.S. Nuclear Power Plant, comes on line Before the first U.S. nuclear power plant went on line in 1957, nuclear reactors were already in service in the former Soviet Union and in the United Kingdom. Contrary to the saying that there is no glory in being second (let alone third or fourth), the Shippingport Nuclear Power Plant fully earned a place in history. The Dusquesne Light Company worked in partnership with the Federal Government to build the world's first large scale commercial nuclear power plant. The reactors were designed by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in cooperation with the Division of Naval Reactors of the Atomic Energy Commission. By the standards of the day, it seemed to belong to a different era. President Eisenhower attended the opening ceremonies. Shippingport continued to provide power during the terms of Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, Ford, and Carter before finally retiring in 1982, during President Reagan's first term. It was decommissioned and the Government declared the site safe for public use in 1987. The Federation of American Scientists displays a photograph worth a look, especially by readers who might wonder if this description is too grandiose. 1962: The First U.S. Nuclear-Powered Surface Ship The contrast between the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship, Lenin, and the world's first nuclear-powered commercial vessel, the Nuclear Ship Savannah, is substantial. They can be visualized as two horses, the workhorse Lenin and the show horse Savannah, snubbing each other. The U.S. vessel is the namesake of a vessel launched a century earlier, the first steam-powered vessel to cross the ocean. The nuclear-powered version was a remarkably beautiful and graceful ship, that could (and did) carry cargo. It was an expensive way to carry cargo, however, so the vessel was heavily dependent on the Federal subsidy it received as a unique ship. The nuclear-powered Savannah was conceived by President Eisenhower to promote the "Atoms for Peace" program (a program that also led to the building of the first U.S. nuclear power plant. The ship was launched in 1962 and retired in 1979. Their careers were vastly different, but the show horse and the workhorse share identical fates: put out to pasture as museums.

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Also in 1962: The first Swiss Reactor begins a short life It is quite possible that the first thought that will occur to most readers is, "I didn't know Switzerland had any nuclear reactors." Those familiar with the Swiss nuclear industry may be surprised that Switzerland's oldest reactor is not Beznau 1. Beznau 1 is the oldest of Switzerland's 5 commercial reactors. According to Swissinfo1 , the experimental reactor at Lucens opened in 1962 and generated electricity for the first time in January 1968. The reactor closed permanently following a pressure tube burst in 1969, the same year that Beznau 1 went on line. No tours of the power plant are conductedin fact, visitors to Lucens, Switzerland, may be tempted to ask if this power plant is in a cave somewhere. The answer is yes. 1964: Construction Begins on a Time Machine A vehicle that can carry people back and forth through time remains a product of science fiction, but the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) is, in a sense, a virtual time machine. Construction of the ATR began in 1964, and the reactor first reached criticality in 1967. The impact of years of radioactive exposure of materials in a commercial nuclear reactor can be duplicated in weeks or months by the ATR. Why would anyone want to duplicate years of exposure in such a hurry? One answer is that the Navy used it to test materials and fuels used by nuclear-powered vessels. Now that you've read about the birth of the ATR, leap ahead in time to 2004 and read about the ATR: Still New After 37 Years. 1965: The ML-1: Reactor in a Box The startup date for the ML-1 Mobile Power System is believed to have been some time in 1965. Although the ML-1 reactor itself could be packed into a single box, the complete system required 6 shipping containers. In addition to the reactor, a container was needed for the control room, another for the heat conversion system, and a total of three boxes for the cabling, auxiliary gas storage and handling equipment, and tools and supplies. The containers could then be loaded aboard a train, truck, or large cargo plane. The ML-1 is described by Atomic newsletter was the first nitrogen cooled, water moderated reactor with a nitrogen turbine energy conversion system. 1967: The Last that Became a First Years ago, Hollywood produced a comedy called, "The Wackiest Ship in the Army." It was loosely based of the real life (and highly dangerous) exploits of the USS Kiwi, a spy ship in World War II. The Kiwi was not the Army's only ship. The last nuclear power plant built by the U.S. Army was on a converted liberty ship, the USS Sturgis. The Department of Energy describes the Sturgis as follows: STURGIS Floating Nuclear Power Plant; Designation MH1A, Location: Gatun Lake, Canal Zone; Principal nuclear contractor: Martin; Pressurized water reactor, Capacity: 10,000 net kW(e), Authorized 45,000 kW(t), Initial criticality, 1967; Shutdown (permanently), 1976. The vessel provided power to the Canal Zone. It was the first floating nuclear power plant and, for nearly three decades, appeared to be the last. In 2008 (described in the 2008 highlight), the Russians plan to bring on line the next floating nuclear power plant. More information on the Sturgis, is available from two sources: "MH-1A" First Nuclear Power Barge: Pioneer Barge Built in America" in the August 1996 issue of Atomic

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and "Nuclear Power: An Option for the Army's Future," in the Army Almanac. In the latter source, there is a photo of the ship. 1969: Oyster Creek and Nine Mile Point, the two Oldest U.S Reactors, go on line By the time the 21 st century began, the United States had no commercial nuclear generating units still in operation that were built in the 1950's. The retirement of Haddam Neck 1 (the U.S. record-holder for longevity) in 1996, reduced to 4 the number of operable U.S. reactors built during the 1960's. The record for longevity is now shared by two reactors that went into service one year after Haddam Neck: Oyster Creek 1 in Forked River, New Jersey, and Nine Mile Point 1 in Oswego, New York. Both units are boiling water reactors, both went into service on the first day of December 1969, both were built by General Electric, and both were still producing electricity according to the latest available data (February 2003). Oyster Creek's license was issued before that of Nine Mile Point, making it officially the oldest operating U.S. reactor.

1986: The Reactor that Changed History (plus Three Reactors that did Not) More than a decade has passed since a nuclear accident in the Ukraine made "Chernobyl" a household word throughout the world. Even with the millions (billions?) of words written since the incident in April 1986, many false perceptions continue. For example, the death toll was not in the hundreds. The fire did not destroy the power plant. In fact, three of Chernobyl's four reactors were later returned to service. The number 3 reactor continued operating into the 21st century (depending on how the century is calculated, since it closed in December 2000). As often happens, however, failures are better remembered than successes. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) produced a fact sheet on Chernobyl which may or may not answer all the questions, but at least approaches the subject impartially. 1989: (August 1988 and June 1989) Largest U.S. Reactors Go into Operation When the South Texas Project reactors went on line in 1988 (unit 1) and 1989 (unit 2), they were the largest reactors in the United States at that time. They were the largest ever to go on line in the United States but new construction at Palo Verde may have increased capacity sufficiently to make Palo Verde unit 2 the largest (as of July 31, 2005) in operation now. Only one fourth of the World's commercial nuclear generating units currently in operation have capacities of 1,000 MWE or greater. The United States has 51 such units, the most of any country. The five largest U.S. units are located in the Southwest. The largest reactors are not in the United States, however. (see 2000: The First of the World's Two Largest Reactors Goes On Line) 2000: The First of the World's Two Largest Reactors Goes On Line The United States has the most nuclear reactors, Russia had the first, and the United Kingdom has the longest-operating, but all four of the largest reactors ever built are in France. They were supplied by a French company, Framatome, to Electricite de France. Chooz B1 (with a net capacity of 1,455 megawatts/electric) , was the first of the four to be completed. It went into service in the Ardennes in August 1996. Its twin, Chooz B2, is equal in capacity and is now also in service. They are larger (by 5 megawatts/electric) than the recently completed

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Civaux 1 and 2 reactors. By comparison, the total capacity of all the electric powerplants, nuclear and otherwise, in Vermont and Rhode Island (as of January 1, 1997) is slightly under 1,650 MWE. 2003: Do They Deliver? Japan Offers to Build a Reactor in Galena, Alaska As pro- and anti-nuclear advocates (and many of those in between) ponder when, where, and if the next commercial reactor will come on line in the United States, the possibility arises that it might be in Galena. Where?? Japan's Toshiba Corporation has offered to build a 10 MWe reactor to provide light and heat to Galena, a remote Alaskan village on the Yukon River. The proposal, its possible implications, its prospects and potential hurdles are discussed in "Village invited to test cheap, clean nuclear power," by Joel Gay. The article, which includes a diagram of the proposed reactor, appears on the web page of the Anchorage Daily News. One of the obstacles cited is "public skepticism." For many of the reactors described in this section, public skepticism proved a very significant hurdlebefore they were built. Also in 2003, India Announces a Breakthrough Anil Kakodkar, Chairman of India's Atomic Energy Commission, announced that India plans to build a prototype advanced heavy water reactor (AWHR). The unique design has completed peer review. The estimated construction time is seven years, but a start date has not yet been announced. According to The Times of India, this unique reactor will be fueled by a mix of thorium and uranium and will yield more uranium than it consumes3. 2004: The ATR: Still New After 37 Years Construction work on Idaho's Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) began in 1964, making 2004 its 40 th anniversary. The unit went critical in 1967. Most of the new technologies of the 1960's have long ago disappeared into obsolescence, but the ATR remains the most powerful test reactor in the United States. The ATR has had a very active life, but it is far from ready for retirement. It is currently being used to support the development of the Generation IV reactors for the U.S. Department of Energy, and it will be contributing to NASA's space program. For some spectacular photos of the ATR and a more information on its very active past and future, see Tamara Bailey's article entitled, The Advanced Test Reactor Turns 40 and Still Meeting Research Needs on the INEEL web site. 2008: The Floating Reactor (the Severodvinsk Reactor) In 2008, if all goes according to plan, the world's first commercial floating nuclear power plant will be ready to begin operation... Pravda, the Russian news publication, reported the project was approved by the head of the Ministry for Nuclear Power, Alexander Rumyantsev. Sevmash Enterprise, which specializes in submarine construction, will build the vessel. Rosenergoatom, the Russian nuclear firm, will supply the reactors. Two such floating power stations are planned, each anticipated to cost $100 to $120 million. The first one will supply power to the city of Severodvinsk, approximately 50 miles west of Archangel.

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