SASTA Proceedings of The 37th Annual Congress 1963

PROCEEDINGS OF THE
THIRTY'SEVENTH ANNUAL CONGRESS

1963
OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR TECHNOLOGISTS' ASSOCIATION
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963
in
THE SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR TECHNOLOGISTS' A S S O C I A T I O N
The South African Sugar Technologists' Association was founded in 1926. It is an organisation of technical workers and others directly interested in the technical aspect of the South African Sugar Industry. It operates under the aegis of the South African Sugar Association, but is governed under its own constitution by a Council elected by its members. The office of the Association is situated on premises kindly made available to it by the South African Sugar Association at the latter's Experiment Station at Mount Edgecombe.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS
THE SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR TECHNOLOGISTS' ASSOCIATION OFFICERS OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR TECHNOLOGISTS'ASSOCIATION LIST OF MEMBERS AND GUESTS iv v vi
OPENING ADDRESS by M R . H. R. P. A. KOTZENBERG, Secretary for Commerce and
Industries
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS
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1 4 8 12 14
INTERIM REPORT ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION,
by J. P. N. Bentley .
TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMMITTEE (AGRICULTURE) REPORT,
by T. G. Cleasby
THIRTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL SUMMARY OF MILLING RISULTS OF SUGAR FACTORIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA,
by C. G. M. Perk 1962 to 31ST MAY, 1963, by J. L. du Toit . . . . . . . . . . . .
WEATHER REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1ST JUNE,
33 3 8 42 47. 49 59
PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT IN MELT-SULPHITATION REFINING AT UMFOLOSI, by
J . D . Thurruinn
STEAM CONSUMPTION TESTS ON VACUUM PANS,
by G. N. Allan
A Low COST, Low POWER, TELEMETRY SYSTEM, by W. Taljaard . . . . THE BULK TERMINAL BEING CONSTRUCTED AT MAYDON WHARF, DURBAN, by J. de K.
ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN CANE CARRIERS,
Bosch
. by D. . L. . Hughes . 2), by E. J. Buchanan,
MUTUAL MILLING CONTROL PROJECT (PROGERSS REPORT NO
K. Douwes Dekker and A. van Hengel

REPORT ON A TOUR OF THE QUEENSLAND SUGAR INDUSTRY.
62 by A. van Hengel and 71 101 108 113 118 by G. M. Thomson 123 . . . . 1 2 7 130 . . . . . . . . . 1 3 4 1962/63, . . 143 . 153 158
171
F . A . Kramer
CALCULATION OF MILL SETTINGS, IMPROVING THE CANE KNIVES,
by G. G. Ashe by T. G. Cleasby
by D. J. L. Hulett
THE FEEDING VALUE OF MOLASSES,
A LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM IN RELATION TO FARM PLANNING IN THE NATAL CANE BELT,
by Q. V. Mann by H. M. Dicks . .
THE MOSAIC TOLERANCE OF FIVE SUGARCANE VARIETIES IN NATAL, COMPETITION IN FERTILISER TRIALS,
FLAME PHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATIONS OF CATIONS IN CANE LEAVES AND STALKS, by
K. E. F. Alexander
THE ESTIMATION OF THE WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SUGARCANE IN NATAL, by G. D.
Thompson, C. H. O. Pearson and T. G. Cleasby . b y G . D . Thompson and J . M . Gosnell .
THE RESULTS OF HERBICIDE TRIALS CONDUCTED IN THE CANE BELT OF NATAL,
THE GREEN LEAF-SUCKER OF SUGARCANE, NUMICIA VIRIDIS, MUIR,
by J. Dick
A SUMMARY OF THE FIELD TEST RESULTS OF THE: HYDROGRAB CANE LOADER, by
G. S. Bartlett
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'" AssociationApril 1963
OFFICERS
1963-1964
Life Patron W. S. MURPHY President J. R. GUNN Hon-Secretary (Mrs.) M. WELLS Former Presidents 1926-27 1927 28 192829 1929 30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 1936-37 1937-38
M. MCMASTER M. MCMASTER
Vice-President L. F. CHIAZZARI Hon. Technical Secretary W. O. CHRISTIANSON
H. H. Dodds H. H. Donixs
G. S. MOBERLY G. C. DYMOND G. C. DYMOND B. E. D. PEARCE E. CAMDEN-SMITH G. C. WILSON G. C. WILSON J. RAULT
1938-39 1939 40 1940-41 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49 1949-50
P. MURRAY P. MURRAY E. P. HEDLEY F. W. HAYES A. MCMARTIN G. BOOTH G. S. MOBERLY G. S. MOBERLY W. BUCHANAN W. BUCHANAN J. L. DU TOIT H. H. DODDS
1950-51 1951-52 1952 53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63
A. G. G. G. G. J. J. J. J. J.
MCMARTIN C. DYMOND C. DYMOND C. DYMOND C. DYMOND B. B. P. P. P. GRANT GRANT N. BENTLEY N. BENTLEY N. BENTLEY
J. L. DU TOIT J. L. Du TOIT J. L. Du TOIT
Former Vice-Presidents 1926-27 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33

1933-34 E
C A
L. E. ROUILLARD
H. H. DODDS
G. S. MOBERLY G. S. MOBERLY
G. C. DYMOND A. C. WATSON A. C. WATSON C-G. C. DYMOND
M D E N
1934-35 1935-36 1936-37
B. E. D. PHARCE E. CAMDEN-SMITH J. RAULT
1937-38 1938-39 1939-40 1940-41 1941-42 1942-43 1943-44 1944-45 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49
P. MURRAY E. P. HEDLEY E. P. HEDLEY F. W. HAYES A. MCMARTIN G. BOOTH F. B. MACBETH G. BOOTH W. BUCHANAN G. C. DYMOND G. C. DYMOND G. C. DYMOND
1949-50 J. L. DU T o n
1950-51 O. W. M. PEARCE 1951-52 O. W. M. PEARCE 1952-53 K. DOUWES-DEKKER 1953-54 J. B. GRANT 1 9 5 4 - 5 5 K . DOUWES-DEKKER
1955-56
C
DYMOND
G A L B R A I T H
1956-57 W. G. GALBRAITH
1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 J. L. DU TOIT J. L. DU TOIT J. L. DU TOIT J. DICK J. P. N. BENTLEY J. P. N. BENTLEY
Council of the Association

J. B. ALEXANDER W. J. G. BARNES G. S. BARTLETT J. P. N. BENTLEY L. F. CHIAZZARI K. DOUWES-DEKKER
D. HULETT
J. RAULT J. WILSON
W. O. CHRISTIANSON
T. G. CLEASBY J. DICK
J. L. DU TOIT
J. B. GRANT J. R. GUNN
South African Sugar Technologists' Association

Thirty-Seventh Annual Conference
The Thirty-seventh Annual Congress of the South African Sugar Technologists' Association was held at the S.A. Sugar Association's Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe, on 1st to 5th April, 1963. The following members and guests present: J. L. DU TOIT (President)
ALEXANDER, K. E. F. ALEXANDER, J. B. ALLAN, C. N. ALMOND, F. L. ASHE, G. ATKINSON, P. J. A ' I I W E L L , A. C. BARNES, A. C. BARNES, W. J. G. BARTLETT, G. S. BEATER, B. E. BENTLEY, J. P. N. BENWELL, N. F. BOSCH, J. DE K. BOUIC, G. BOULLE, P. F. BOWES, N. J. BOWLES, R. E. BOYD-SMITH, N. BRASSEY, T. B. BRETT, P. G. C. BRUNIQUEL, J. BRUYN, J. BUCHANAN, E. J. BUCK, W. R. BYARD, W. E. CAMDEN-SMITH, D. W. CAMDEN-SMITH, R. CARGILL, J. M. CARTER, R. A. CHIAZZARI, L. F. CHRISTIANSON, W. O. CLEASBY, T. G. CLENDINNING, L. COLLIER, O. P. COLLINGWOOD, D. J. CRAIG, P. G. DA VIES, W. F. DE BROGLIO, A. DEDEKIND, E. DE ROBILLAID, M. DICK, J. DICK, J . McD. DICKS, H. M. DODOS, H. H. DOUWES-DEKKER, K. K. HULETT, DEON HUNTER, J. W. RABE, A. RAILTON, R. RAULT, J. REID, T. J. ROYSTON, J. H. SARGENT, N. V. SAUNDERS, G U Y SHERRARD, C. D. SHUKER, G. W. SMEDLEY, L. TALJAARD, W. TARBOTTON, G. S. TERNENT, M. J. THOMAS, M. THOMPSON, G. D. THOMSON, G. M. THUMANN, J. D. TOMLINSON, K. TURNER, L. E. VAN VAN VAN VAN DER SPUY, L. B. D Y K , B. C. HENGEL, A. NIEKERK, G. J.
JEHRING, G. JOHNSTONE, F. KARLSON, M. A. K I N G , N. C. KOTZENBERG, H. R. P. A. KRAMER, A. LAX, R. LEE, G. LENFERNA, G. LINK, F.
Du Torr, B.
FARQUHARSON, J. FENWICK, J. N. FLEWELLEN, G. C. FOURMOND, T. FRANKLIN, J. FROESLER, H. P. GALBRAITH, W. G. GOSNELL, G. GRAHAM, W. G R A N T , J. B. GRICE, L. D. C. GRINDLEY, L. R. GRINDLEY, N. R. G U N N , J. R.
MACKAY, J. G. M A I N , J. W. M A N N , Q. V. M A U D , R. R. MORRISON, E. MURPHY, E. S. NAPIER, J. N E L , G. NICKSON G. OLIVIER, V.
HALSE, C. G. HALSE, R. H. HARMSWORTH, J. R. HARRIS, W. HEMPSON, W. J. HENDRY, D. W. W. HIBBERT, A. W. H I L L , M. HILLIARD, J. T. HUGHES, D. L.
WAGNER, C. L. WALSH, W. H. WARNE, D. E. WILSON, J. W R I G H T , B. F. YOUNG, C. M.
PACKHAM, G. PEARSON, C. H. O. PERK, C. G. M. POPE, R. J. POYNTON, G.
ZONDERWATER, A. J. M
THIRTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL CONGRESS

Proceedings of the Thirty-seventh Annual Congress of the South African Sugar Technologists' Association, held at the South African Sugar Association's Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe on the 1st to 5th April, 1963.
J. L. DU TOIT {President) was in the Chair.

OPENING CEREMONY The President: Ladies and GentlemenI have great pleasure in asking Mr. H. R. P. A. Kotzenberg, Secretary for Commerce and Industries to open our Thirty-seventh Annual Congress. Mr. Kotzenberg: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: I sincerely appreciate your Associaiton's invitation to be present here today and consider it an honour to be able to open your 37lh. Congress. According to the annals of your Association's history, the only previous occasion on which the Secretary for Commerce and Industries opened your Congress was in 1938, when Mr. E. P. Smith, deputising for the then. Minister, the late Mr. A. P. J. Fourie, performed this task. Although a quarter of a century has intervened between the two occasions, I would like to give you the assurance that I and my Department are constantly taking a keen interest and pride in the work done and progress made by your Association and the Sugar Industry as suchpride in your achievements and sometimes also embarrassment at your success in. having so much sugar produced. Some people maintain that because of the abrupt termination of our sugar selling arrangements in the United Kingdom, 1961 was one of the most eventful years in the history of the S.A. Sugar Industry. Even so, as far as the sugar industry is concerned, the past year has certainly been no less eventful. The problems brought about by the events of 1961 have been tackled and mastered by your Industry with an initiative and perseverence very gratifying to us all. The success achieved in this connection is best illustrated by the Industry's export performance of 553,383 short tons during 1962, which was considerably higher than the previous highest export of 333,329 short tons achieved in 1961. The 1962 export tonnage was achieved under circumstances completely different from those encountered before and, what makes it more noteworthy, is the fact that it was done in spite of the more difficult international sugar marketing conditions which prevailed during last year. The present indications are that the Industry's 1962 export performance may be surpassed in 1963 and that exports may exceed. 670,000 tons. Let us hope that this and even more will be achieved. Let us hope that if and when, a new I.S.A. is negotiated, common sense and a realistic approach to the international supply and demand position will not result in restriction on those countries which have proved their ability to produce the sugar so needed to feed the world. When the Honourable the Minister of Economic Affairs opened the Fourth Annual Industrial Field Mechanisation Demonstration and Show in October, 1962, he predicted not only a further rise in the world market price, which at that time stood at R52.00 per ton, but also expressed the optimistic view that the rise in the price would be accelerated. Although events have since shown that the Minister's predictions were well-founded at the time, I am sure that not even he then expected the world price would be more than doubled in the course of about 4 1/2 months. After the first shock of the period December, 1961, to February, 1962, when sugar was available at the exceptionally low figure of R.40 per ton on the free market, it became clear that supply and demand was much closer to being in balance than the price level indicated. Various factors contributed to the improvement in prices. A substantial fall in production in Cuba was recorded in 1962, whilst crops in various other parts of the world were also disappointing. On the other hand, a steady expansion in the international demand for sugar has taken place over the last few years. One would like to assume that the present relatively high world market price would be maintained for some time to come, but it would certainly be unwise to base our plans for the future on the assumption that prices at this level will be maintained in the long run. One factor is clear, and that is that the Republic has, on the strength of its export performance over the latest year, established a very strong case for a greatly increased export quota. Whether such a quota will justify a further relaxation of quantitative control of production, only the future will show. Whatever arrangements are made for the international marketing of sugar, it is essential, if the Republic is to remain in the running, that every grower should be constantly aware of the necessity for the industry to bring about economies in production costs. With the introduction of control measures three seasons ago and the imposition of industrial cuts, many tons of cane had perforce to be left uncut on the lands and many canegrowers found it difficult to make ends meet. The present indications are, furtunately, that no cut in farm mean peaks for the
1963/64 season will be necessary and, if 1 may say it softly, the possibility exists that there may even be an overall, albeit perhaps temporary, shortfall on production quotas. Such an eventuality may force growers, within the limits of their available quotas, to cut also three and four-year old cane left on the lands. Looking at the position generally, 1 consider that not only growers, but also the whole industry, should be able to consolidate their position during the coming 1963/64 season. This brings me to an. aspect with which the entire sugar industry is vitally concerned and one which, 1 notice from reports of your Association's activities, Mr. Chairman, has also received a considerable measure of attention by yourself and your membertechnologists. I am referring here to the importance for the grower to concentrate his cane-growing activities on the best part of his available lands in order to produce the maximum quantity of cane per acre, irrespective of the size of his registered quota land, at the minimum cost, while at the same time endeavouring to utilise any spare acreage for some supplementary farming venture. In order that this object may be achieved, a fundamental re-assessment of farming practices and costs of production will be necessary. It is particularly necessary to stress this aspect in view of the finding of the Experiment Station "that many operations normally practised at the time of crop re-establishment are apparently either completely unnecessary or are carried to unnecessary extremes, thus involving excessive expenditure of labour, and time without any attendant benefits. If to the savings here are added those which can be effected by correctly timing all essential operations, it seems that, overall, the standard costs of reestablishment could probably be halved". This is an extremely serious statement to have been made by a responsible body such as the Experiment Station and leads one to the inevitable conclusion that there may be many other operations and practices in cane production which may call for investigation and study with a view to determining the most economical way of producing cane. The individual cane grower can accomplish much in this respect by means of proper systems of management and bookkeeping, an intelligent study of biological factors and the attainment of optimum input-output ratios. The financing of research and experiments on a larger scale is, however, too heavy a burden to be shouldered by the individual grower and I can only urge every member of your Association and everybody in a responsible position in the Sugar Industry to double their efforts in this connection and to place this vital information at the disposal of the individual grower and the industry as a whole. I concede that a rationalisation drive in any walk of life is beset with practical difficulties, and one is inclined to hold on to that which is known rather than to venture into the unknown, especially when it is realised that errors of judgment can result in substantial losses. It is, therefore, to be expected that a certain amount of conservatism on the part of our cane-growers will have to be overcome. In this respect the miller-cum-planter has a very important functionif not an obligationto fulfill.
He is, in the first instance, in a better position to finance and undertake experiments in co-operation with the Experiment Station and the Sugar Milling Research Institute and, through his close relationship with many growers, is in a very favourable position to set an example to the individual grower by showing the latter what rewarding results can be attained by means of improved methods. I know, Mr. Chairman, that your Associationor, shall I say, the entire South African Sugar Associationtakes a great pride in the establishment of research facilities such as the Mount Edgecombe Experiment Station and the Sugar Milling Research Institute, especially in view of the fact that they have been established and developed as model institutions without any financial assistance from the Government. One cannot but give recognition to the results achieved in the arduous and time-absorbing tasks covering a wide field related to the growing of sugar cane and the production of sugar. The activities of the Experiment Station include, amongst others, the analysis of various types of soil; the determination of the nutritional requirements of cane; research regarding fertilizers; the giving of advice; the distribution of selected varieties of cane; the production and propagation of new varieties of cane; the study of pests and diseases; the development of more efficient and economic measures of pest and disease control; and the study of numerous other problems facing the cane farmer. The Experiment Station also participates in various schemes for the establishment of alternative crops. The wide range of lectures and discussions dealt with annually at your Association's Congresses is an adequate illustration of the high standard and the wide scope of its activities. I should now like to deal briefly with some aspects of sugar-cane agronomy and, first of all, to say something about the use and application of fertilizers as seen against the background of production control. It is not unnatural that growers, in an attempt to reduce their production costs, should, amongst others, try to effect savings on the use of fertilizers. Such a step is completely justified provided it is achieved by reducing the acreage which has to be cultivated to maintain the quota of the grower concerned. But it is rather disturbing to note from the report of the Experiment Station for the year 1961/62 that the objective of reducing expenditure on fertilizers is apparently being pursued to the point where the production potential of the soil is being impaired. Further more, statistics show that almost the same tonnage of fertilizer was consumed on the 621,248 acres under cultivation in 1961/62 as that which was used on 422,422 acres in 1951/52. Superficially, something seems to have gone wrong here, and the Experiment Station is confronted with a major task of convincing the grower of the need to maintain soil fertility in spite of production control in order not to endanger future production potential. Another matter which should also receive attention, and which is to be encouraged amongst growers, is the sampling of soils, cane, etc. Here, again, your Association's statistics indicate a drastic decline in
advisory samples handled, namely, from a total of 10,179 in 1958-59 to 4,794 in 1961-62. One can only hope that your efforts to bring home to growers the advantages of a regular analysis according to a set programme will be met with a more favourable response. Judging from the contents of various articles, reviews and speeches which have been written and delivered since the introduction of production control in the sugar industry, it is obvious that the present methods of production leave much scope for improvement. As I have already stated, it is of paramount importance that cane cultivation be confined to soil best suited for that purpose, leaving soil less suited for cane growing to be used for alternative crops. Growers would also do well to devote careful attention to the more intensive use of irrigation as a means of combating the risks and losses of periodical droughts. I appreciate, of course, that the feasibility of this suggestion depends on a number of factors such as the availability of water for irrigation purposes, the reliability of precipitation, etc. I am also not suggesting that irrigation should be resorted to regardless of costs or as a means of increasing production, despite the existence of restrictions. However, I do feel that it might be worth investing something in research in order to establish at what point the cost of irrigation is offset by the increased yield per acre plus the income likely to be derived from the cultivation of alternative crops on the land which thus becomes available for purposes other than canegrowing plus t h e savings likely to result from the avoidance of periodical losses through drought. We must guard against the danger of production control being instrumental in causing a measure of inertia, thus undermining initiative. Provided expenditure on improvements is planned primarily with the object of consolidating t h e existing cane production quotas, such improvements can only be to the advantage of the cane grower. This brings me to another matter which is of vital concern to the country today, namely, the desirability of investigating the possibilities of cultivating alternative crops. In this particular field the technologist and the agronomist can play an important role. To a certain extent success has already been achieved in the cane-growing area as a result of the cultivation of cotton and kenaf. I do hope that the experiments with the cultivation of these crops will be continued and will eventually prove that these fibres can be produced economically in our country. Cattle and dairy farming has also been successfully undertaken in the canegrowing area while, furthermore, conditions are favourable for the development of a coffee industry in Natal. Tea is also looming up on the horizon. Coffee and cotton, are at present being imported to the extent of some R14 million per annum. If these crops could be grown economically in Natal, it would save the country a considerable sum in foreign exchange. However, it is hardly possible for me to stress too strongly the need that the cultivation of alternative crops on any appreciable scale in this area, should be based on economically sound conditions and circum-
stances. Our country simply cannot afford to have production undertaken at any cost, more particularly where it concerns basic raw materials such as fibres for bags and cotton for our textile industry. I mention the possibilities of alternative crops not because I have lost faith in the future of sugar. I. merely wish to stress that we should take stock of our position and ensure that we are not caught napping in a dynamic world where a constant process of adjustment is the order of the day. In this respect your Association could, and should, fulfil an important role. Mr. Chairman, allow me in passing also to refer briefly to the specific activities and achievements of the Sugar Milling Research Institute. When reading through its annual reports one is struck by the wide scope of the Institute's activities. Most of the Institute's publications are of a technical nature. It requires a great deal of study and expert knowledge of sugar technology from any one who wants to express an authoritative opinion on their contents, and for this reason I would prefer not to pronounce on the technical merits of the Institute's activities but to confine myself to the economic aspects of the matter. I note with concern that the Institute has found it necessary to mention in its report that its research projects are to some extent being hampered by the difficulties experienced in getting the necessary cooperation from the mills in instances where it is necessary to follow up at the mill the research work done in the laboratory. This is certainly regrettable since I am sure you will agree that what may at first sight appear to be unimportant tinkering may well ultimately lead to a revolution in production methods. We cannot afford to close our eyes to the fact that technological advancement is one of the most important factors in modern times. The expansion of the Industry's exports to various new destinations under very competitive world market conditions brought in its wake new requirements regarding quality standards laid down by certain buying countries. The Industry is confronted with the problem of ensuring that the prescribed standards are complied with both at the time of shipment and at the time of delivery. This has particularly been the case with exports to Japan. The Goodwill and Technical mission to Japan in October last year certainly did very valuable work for the Industry and served South Africa well in solving the technical and other problems set by those overseas importers. The tributes received by Dr. Douws Dekker and the technologists included in the delegation are, in no small measure, due to the teamwork and devotion to duty of the technologists in the Industry as a whole. Furthermore, I am convinced that the leaders of your Industry would not have achieved such a commendable measure of success in its search for new export markets if it had not been for the spirit of co-operation and devotion to duty displayed by the management and personnel of the milling and refining industry under the watchful eye and expert advice of the Milling Research Institute.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists* AssociationApril 1963
In this respect the Sugar Industry has set a worthy example of what can be achieved in exploring new markets under changing conditions. In conclusion, Mr. Chairman, 1 should like to say that your organisation, by reason of its activities and achievements, occupies an almost unique position in South African agriculture. What you have accomplished bears testimony to the ability of private initiative to promote its own progress and prosperity through its own collective efforts. You have not looked to the Government to do your research work for you or to solve your problems for you, but you have taken the initiative and have tackled the job yourselves which, to my mind, is the correct approach. The principal aim of research should be to improve production methods and thus to reduce production costs with a view to strengthening our competitive position in world markets. I feel sure that this consideration will also be foremost in your minds during your discussions at this Congress, and that your deliberations will contribute materially towards the attainment of this very important objective. It is now my great pleasure and honour to declare this Congress formally opened and to wish you all possible success in your discussions. Mr. W. J. G. Barnes: It is a very great privilege for me to thank Mr. Kotzenberg for opening our Congress this morning. I am sure that we have all listened to his address with great interest and we have followed his thoughts with close attention for Mr. Kotzenberg knows our industry and our problems very well indeed and his views and comments are very valuable to us all. I would like to pay tribute to Mr. Kotzenberg and his staff for the way in which they are doing their job for South Africa. We, in the sugar industry, are in close touch with the Department of Commerce and Industries and I am pleased indeed to have this opportunity of stating our high regard for the advice, the assistance and the encouragement which we receive from the Department at all times. Mr. Kotzenberg has always given his close attention to our problems; and, of course, he has many personal friends in the industry as a result of the high level of mutual confidence which now exists between us. 1 think that in his heart of hearts he is proud of the sugar industry and, in particular, proud of the results of our export drive over the past year. We are delighted to have him with us on this occasion, of course; but he is an extremely busy man and, knowing this, I would just like to say how very much indeed we appreciate his decision to come up here and to open our Congress.
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS Ladies and Gentlemen, Perhaps you will allow me to start this address on a somewhat personal note. With this conference T come to the end of my fourth term of office as President of the South African Sugar Technologists' Association, for in addition to having been President for the last three years, I also had a term of office during the year 1948/49 after having been Technical Secretary to this Association, for the preceding eight years. These were to me very happy years and the South African Sugar Technologists' Association has certainly meant a great deal to me. I have received nothing but encouragement, assistance and co-operation from fellow South African sugar technologists and at a later stage the happy association was extended to the international level. I believe the secret for this happy state of affairs both, nationally and internationally is the same. We are dealing here with groups of people who seek knowledge not for personal reasons, for self-enrichment or self-aggrandisement but knowledge that will be put to use to benefit others. It is to be expected therefore that associations of this kind must be above personalities and selfinterest and politics. And that is how I found the South African Sugar Technologists' Association as well as the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists. There were no company secrets and trade secrets, no sugar politics and national politics; but a willingness to give and to impart and for others to learn and to benefit. I am most grateful for the connection I have had with our Association and the opportunity of attending International Conferences. I wish to thank my fellow technologists for having elected me on a number of occasions to this high office. I thank them for all they have meant to me and done for me. I certainly got far more out of our Technologists' Association than I put into it. The least enjoyable part of being President of the Technologists' Association is undoubtedly giving a presidential address; but even here one learns with experience. It is certainly not necessary to deal with some abstruse subject and today 1 wish to talk about mundane matters. 1 wish to speak to you about events taking place around us in this industry. We are all aware of these things happening but I feel sure they are not unimportant and that a trend of development is often indicated which may have far reaching consequences and may affect the future of our Association and our Industry. Two years ago I referred in my presidential address to the sharp contrasts inherent in our country and industry, to the ups and downs so often experienced and to our fluctuating fortunes from time to time. I can think of no better example of contrast and change than the past year. A year ago marketing prospects were poor and. the free market price of sugar low. There was a large amount of three year old cane on the land, a legacy of crop restrictions the year before, and indications were that the cut in farm mean peaks would reach a record figure. Before the end of the season, however, there were actual shortfalls in production. World sugar prices soared
to the highest figure in many years and the industry was able to export no less than 553,383 tons sugar, compared with a total production of only 512,000 tons 15 years ago when I was first elected president of this Association. The improved economic outlook for the industry is certainly most gratifying and we technologists rejoice at the opportunities offered once more by full production. During the year the 11th Congress of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists was held in Mauritius and on that occasion some 30 members of the South African Sugar Technologists' Association attended the conference. Admittedly Mauritius is reasonably close to our own country and. the costs involved in visiting the island consequently relatively low, but 1 nevertheless consider the size of our delegation (we were incidentally the largest foreign delegation) as in some measure indicative of our interest in sugar technology and our eagerness to learn what there is to be learned from others. This was by far the biggest delegation from here ever to visit an international sugar conference, but our numbers have been on the increase during recent conferences and there has been. an. even greater increase in the number of South African Sugar Technologists visiting other countries on special missions. This trend of development is to be welcomed and the industry cannot but benefit from these missions as indeed it has. Wherever we have gone, we have experienced nothing but co-operation and hospitality. It was therefore a fitting gesture, a pleasure and a privilege for us to extend an invitation to delegates of the 11th I.S.S.C.T. Conference to visit our industry here in South Africa. To us this post-conference tour was one of the high-lights of 1962 and from all accounts our visitors found it most instructive and enjoyable. If ever there was any doubt that South Africa could play its full part in the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists then surely this tour must have dispelled that doubt completely. The goodwill and co-operation experienced from all concerned made the organisation, of the tour a pleasure. We have facilities of accommodation and travel second to no other sugar cane producing country and our industrial achievement often attained under difficult circumstances was a revelation to many. I for one am now looking forward with confidence to the day in the not too distant future when, our industry will be the host to a full congress of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists. Many of the delegates were most impressed, by the training scheme and aptitude tests for unskilled labour at one of our sugar factories. Hospitalization and living quarters were also most favourably commented on and a delegate from Latin America told me that he had visited very many sugar countries but that he had never seen a country where more was being done for labour. I mention these few facts not in a selfrighteous manner but rather because I consider it so important that we do everything possible to develop our human resources. It is indeed pleasing to receive these favourable comments from visitors for our
whole future is largely dependent on the development, certainly not exploitation, of all our human resources and there are fortunately many indications that our industry is moving along this road. Higher education falls in the same category. For our industry to prosper it must be able to attract highly qualified personnel. It must also be willing to make its contribution to the training of these men. During the year the decision was taken to award annually a number of bursaries to students at the Cedara College of Agriculture and to provide an additional short course with special emphasis on sugarcane agriculture. The existing Technical Education Course (Factory) is at present being revised and centralised. The South African Sugar Industry has since 1958 provided for a system of scholarships at the University of Natal and there are no ties whatsoever attached to these scholarships, although the intention certainly is to attract some of the talented young men back into the industry but then in open competition, with other interested parties. This is a noble gesture, a contribution to a University which is playing an increasingly important part in our industry and it is above all an investment in the human resources of our industry. No industry, let alone a great national industry such as the South African Sugar Industry, can afford not to invest in education and thus in the future of our country as a whole. I believe no industry can ever over-invest in this direction. We have a great future but very many difficult problems and we need highly trained men and the full development of all our human resources and through them our natural resources. It has been, said that South Africa is losing many excellently qualified men and it is often also stated that the sugar industry is an exclusive or closed industry, difficult for others to enter. I do not quite know what is meant by the latter statement and I am not in a position to discuss the merits of either statement. I do want however to state very emphatically that as far as sugar technologists are concerned, a closed shop has never existed and quite apart from what may or may not have happened in other parts of the Republic, here, and I am again speaking as a sugar technologist, our losses have been practically nil and our gains during the past decade and a half enormous. We all know how dependent our industry was a hundred years ago on. immigrants and what a valuable part technologists from abroad played here during the intervening years; but I am now referring to an influx of highly trained and often very experienced men who entered our industry much more recently and are still doing so. They have come during a period of industrial and research expansion when their skill and experience and energy were most urgently needed here and they have made, and are still making, outstanding contributions. I wish to pay a tribute to their achievements and to extend a welcome to others who may have contributions to make and who are willing to accept our industry and our country as their industry and their country. What has happened in the sugar industry in. recent years augurs well for the future of South Africa as a whole.
We have been, most furtunate in getting our skilled man-power supplemented by immigration but as I stated it remains essentia! to develop our own resources. It is also imperative to develop our natural resources to the full. If our visitors last year were impressed with our achievements and perhaps envious of our best conditions, then they were also appalled by some of our terrain, the soil and our rainfall or should I say inadequacy of soil and rainfall. It is however significant that much more interest is now being shown within the industry in farm planning with special emphasis on the conservation, of soil, moisture and fertility. A paper on farm planning will be presented to this conference and I recently attended a farmer's day in the Dumisa area where it was stated that the district of Dumisa was the first in Natal and the second in the Republic to be completely planned. I feel this is a move in the right direction. There is definitely a need for farm planning also in areas, somewhat unlike Dumisa, where only sugarcane is grown. Soil erosion is reduced but by no means completely avoided by the growing of sugarcane and our soil in the sugar belt is our most precious possession. With our natural low rainfall we get spectacular increases in sugarcane yield from the judisious application of water but irrigation can be very expensive. Moisture conservation and irrigation should all be planned carefully with full consideration of the economies thereof. Farm planning, as indeed planning in general, cannot be done intelligently without detailed information. Last year I spoke at some length on research in the industry and I wish to do no more than to refer to it today. Research is on the increase in the industry and so it should be. Because of our climate and position we have to face many problems which are peculiar to us and for which we have to find our own solutions. Apart from farm planning industrial planning is necessary and whether it is finding solutions to our problems or whether it is planning for the future we need detailed knowledge knowledge which we can only obtain by means of research. While the industry must and does accept responsibility for its own research, there are many problems of a more fundamental nature which affect both the growing of the crop and the manufacture of the product. Here knowledge acquired must necessarily find application in all cane growing countries and although this type of research may be rather expensive for individual industries to undertake, it is of the greatest importance. This work must be undertaken but at the same time costly and unnecessary duplication must be avoided. Tt was for this reason that the 11th Congress of the I.S.S.C.T. adopted a resolution to appoint a committee to explore the possibility of centralization and co-ordination of fundamental research in sugarcane and cane sugar production. This is to my mind one of the important developments of the past year. The responsible committee consists of eminent sugar technologists and scientists and one cannot but feel confident in the outcome of their deliberations. One sometimes wonders whether our own technologists and scientists could not have played an even greater part in our industry by taking a more active
part, or being allowed to take a more active part, in planning and determining future policy. Whatever the position might have been in the past, it is certain that the future will demand the presence of the expert in the highest councils of industry. Here again very significant developments took place in the sugar industry during the past year. I can mention several examples to illustrate the most desirable trend but one will suffice. During the year Mr. W. J. G. Barnes was appointed chairman of the South African Sugar Association. Mr. Barnes is not the first technologist to be so elected, but to the best of my knowledge he is the first council member of the South African Sugar Technologists' Association to be elevated to this high position. On behalf of the South African Sugar Technologists' Association, I wish to congratulate Mr. Barnes most heartily on his election. It is also an honour to our Association and Mr. Barnes has paid us an even greater tribute by continuing to serve us on council notwithstanding his many and arduous duties as chairman of the South African Sugar Association. We have here, I believe, an assessment of the value of our Association to the sugar industry and it is for us to play our part to the full in that industry. Our country is today one of the first 6 or 7 cane sugar producers of the world. Our production topped the one and a quarter million mark this year and I feel sure this figure could be increased to over two million tons within a decade if called upon to do so. We know, however, of countries which have produced or are still producing some five million tons of sugar a year and no doubt they too can step up their production for the potential world output of sugar is truely enormous. We have, however, no desire or ambition to compete quantity wise with the few giants in sugar production. Our average yield of sugar per acre per month has increased most satisfactorily but is still just short of 0.2 tons per acre per month while the figure for Hawaii is more than twice as high. This margin can and will be narrowed down but we are competing here against rather severe odds of climate and terrain. It is wonderful to be the biggest producer of sugar in the world. It is infinitely better to have the highest yield of sugar per acre per month; but best of all is that country which can produce sugar the most efficiently and here our own industry surely occupies a place of honour as one of the leaders. It must be our ambition to make our country the undisputed leader in this field. I do not here necessarily equate efficiency with cheapness of product and certainly not with the exploitation of the worker. I consider efficiency here as getting the best and the most out of any set of circumstances by the application of knowledge and endeavour. I believe we can make real progress towards leadership in efficiency by developing some of these favourable trends already present in our industry. I have commented on some of these trends and there are others. It should be our endeavour to minimise the violent fluctuations which tend to disrupt the industry. Industrial planning and farm planning fall into this
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' Association -April 1963
category. We shall have to conserve, develop and utilize all our natural resources to the full. We shall have to bring the full impact of research to bear on our problems. Our unskilled labour is capable of development and training and they are intitled to it. Let us hope our industry will continue to benefit from fresh ideas introduced by eminent technologists and scientists from abroard but we also have to realise that it is in education and higher education of our own people that our future lies. Our own strength will always be incomplete without international cooperation and we shall have to play a greater part and accept greater responsibility in international sugar technology. It is for our own technologists to play their part in building the future of our industry and it is for our own industry to utilize to the full those with knowledge and vision and faith. Mr. J. P. N. Bentley: The past year has, without doubt, been one of the most eventful in the history of our Association and it is indeed fitting that Mr. duToit should occupy the Presidential chair during this momentous period. In his modest manner he has said that he "Certainly got far more out of our Technologists Association than he put into it". May I say with all humility that this is a distortion, of the facts for not only has he been President for four terms, vice-President for a similar number, and technical secretary for eight years, but he has been a member of council, for 23 years, has probably attended more international gatherings than any other South African, past or present, and has been a regular contributor to the proceedings of our Society and to the International Society. Add to this a scientific approach to the problems he encounters and a clarity of expression which enables people like myself to understand dissertations on subjects quite outside the field of our normal experience and you will appreciate why I say that Mr. du Toit has probably contributed more than any other member to the welfare and progress of our Association. That is why we, as members, were so very pleased that he should occupy the Presidential chair during such an eventful period in our affairs. We had complete confidence in his ability to prove to those members of the International Society who visited us after the 11th International Congress in Mautitius that many of their preconceived ideas were based on falsehoods and that there was a great deal of good both technical and social in our Industry. It is now an accepted fact that this tour of our industry was an unqualified success and I would like to take this opportunity to publicly express the appreciation of our members to you and to Mrs. du Toit for all the hard work, the planning, the patience and the courteous consideration with which you controlled the
organising committee, welcomed the guests on arrival and accompanied them, wherever they went. Even if you did feel tired and worn out by the end of the tour, you will, always have the saticfaction of knowing that this, the first international tour of our sugar industry, was an outstanding success and drew unsolicited praise from those taking part. Not only was it an eventful year for our Association, but as you have said Mr. President, it was an eventful year for our Industry. From a technology point of view, one would have to go a long way back into history to find conditions as difficult as those we have just experienced. At the same time, we have been able to find new markets for our sugar and it is essential to the continuing prosperity of our Industry that these markets be retained and if possible expanded. To do this we must supply a sugar to the quality standards demanded by our customers and we must be able to make this sugar by processes which are competitive with those of other world producers. It goes without saying that other things being equal the better the condition of the cane when it arrives at the factory the more competitive can we become on the world markets and I believe that it is time an incentive was offered to cane growers which would justify their taking added precautions and possibly added expense to see that this basic requirement is achieved. In the same way an incentive to millers to produce sugars with improved refining qualities will ensure the continued support of our Industry by our many friends overseas. A payment system which would reward the production of a quality product is both desirable and feasible and can do nothing but good for the future of our Industry. At a time when it seems all too often that the God of finance is in control of men's souls, it is refreshing to hear the scientific approach towards human problems and your reminder that we as technologists strive always to achieve the best possible results with the materials we have available will give encouragement to those who cannot always find an immediate answer to their difficulties. As you have said, if we all continue to play our full part in building up the store of knowledge within our Industry and aim to become the most efficient producer of sugar by development and not exploitation of our human resources, then we surely have achieved something of which we can justly be proud. In conclusion, may I express to you our sincere appreciation of the valuable address you have presented to us today, highlighting as it does, some of the basic driving forces that help to make our Industry the important one it is both within South Africa and amongst the other world cane sugar producers.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril, 1963
INTERIM REPORT ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION

(FACTORY)
By J. P. N. BENTLEY, Convener S.A.S.T.A. Education Committee Historical From 1928 to 1952 the South African Sugar Technologists' Association operated a training course in sugar technology on behalf of the S.A. Sugar Association. This course led up to the standard of the Finals of the City and Guilds of London's examination in Sugar Technology, but lack of interest eventually resulted in the abandonment of the course. Nevertheless some energetic individuals continued studying and arrangements were made for them to write the City and Guilds examinations. However, in 1957 the City and Guilds stopped conducting examinations in sugar technology and it became apparent that we must follow the lead of every other major sugar producing country and renew our efforts to ensure that our industry received the trained men it required. In 1958 the S.A.S.T.A. submitted a new training proposal which was accepted by the S.A.S.A. and immediately put into effect. This programme has now been in operation for almost five years and is slowly overcoming the resistance and prejudice which the sugar industry characteristically displays towards innovations. The first of these courses started in 1959 with twentythree students. Only eight successfully passed the three four-months theoretical training periods and these eight are now entering the final year of their practical training. All these students have already been absorbed by the companies that sponsored their training. The second course in 1961 started with twelve students and will finish at the end of 1965 with only five or six successful trainees. At the beginning of this year a third course of fifteen students was enrolled. This course has a higher proportion of new-comers to the industry and a higher proportion of matriculants than previous courses and it will be interesting to observe the progress these young men make. From time to time pressure has been exerted on the committee responsible for this training programme to lower the standard but this has always been strongly resisted and in fact the tendency in the future must be to raise the standard as improved efficiency can only be expected where better training and greater knowledge produce a finer understanding of the problems encountered. As there is apparently a wide divergence of views on what should be and what is being done, it would be as well to detail the programme the education committee envisage. Object of the Course To train sugar technologists to the standard of factory overseer, and enable them to control all aspects of sugar manufacture. This includes taking an active part in diagnosing the causes of day to day difficulties that occur and being able to apply remedial action. The ability to take an intelligent interest in scientific experiments, studies, recommendations or publications is also necessary so that improved techniques can be applied with maximum effectiveness. Length of Course It is considered that five years practical training is essential to attain the standard required and we have set out in Appendix " A " the suggested programme that should be followed. At the same time the student is required to attend the Natal Technical College for three four-monthly theoretical training periods, commencing at the end of January and closing at the end of May each year. On successfully completing the theoretical part of the course, he will be awarded a Certificate in Sugar Technology issued by the Department of Education Arts and Science. Staff Required at Factories As it is impossible to allow staff members to be relieved from their normal duties at factories for any length of time without disrupting the standard of process supervision already in existence, it is considered essential that each factory participating in this training scheme should carry at least one staff member supernumerary to its normal requirements. Standard Required A matriculation standard with mathematics, physics and chemistry as major subjects is considered necessary. Students with lower educational standards have been accepted in the past, but these have invariably found great difficulty in keeping up with the rest of the class and most of them have been unable to complete the course. Salary Scales To attract the right type of student, a starting salary of R50.00 per month plus C.O.L. is advocated, and an annual increment of R 10.00 per month is recommended conditional on successful completion of each phase of the course. Future Prospects A survey of the Sugar Industry has revealed that there is a very serious shortage of young men in the industry with the right training to efficiently supervise a process as complicated as that of making sugar. We are trying to alleviate this shortage and amongst those we train today we expect to find some with the enthusiasm and the ability to attain senior positions in the industry in years to come. We are not trying to train bench chemists or pan boilers, but Sugar
Technologists who will have an all round knowledge of sugar manufacturing plant and processes and will also have sufficient basic scientific background to enable them to apply intelligent thought to the problems they encounter. At the conclusion of the five-year training period, those factories which can absorb the students they have trained into their own organisation will no doubt do so, while those factories which have no suitable openings at the time, should have no hesitation in making available to other members of the industry qualified men they cannot themselves offer suitable employment to. Numerous problems have been encountered in administering this training programme. One of the most serious was the apathy displayed in certain quarters towards the course and the students. While at the Technical College and under the direct control of lecturers appointed by the S.M.R.I., or in the case of physics, chemistry and mathematics, Technical College staff, the Education Committee could ensure that the required standards were maintained. However, once the student returned to the factory where he worked the Committee had no control over the practical experience he obtained and in certain instances no apparent effort was made by the managements concerned to ensure that the student did receive the proper training. It has also been said that no factory has yet been embarassed by a shortage of overseers and there is a danger of training too many at our present rate. If a carpenter can be turned into an overseer overnight this may be so but the Education Committee does not view this practice in a favourable light and there is no doubt that the loss of trained men from the industry during the next twenty years due to retirals alone will absorb all the students we are training at the present rate. Add to this the need to improve the standard of knowledge within the industry and it becomes apparent that our training programme should be much more strongly supported if we are to ensure that the industry is properly staffed in the years ahead Much thought has gone into ways and means of eliminating the shortcomings of the present training procedure and it has now been suggested that more effective results would be obtained by centralising the training scheme. Under such an arrangement the students would become the responsibility of one central body and when not undergoing theoretical training, they would be allocated by this body to various factories, not necessarily the same factories each year, and the controlling organisation would ensure that the student was trained along the lines of a predetermined programme. The burden of operating the course has fallen mainly on the shoulders of Mr. van Hengel, Dr. Graham and the staff of the Department of Pharmacy of the Natal Technical College. Unfortunately the S.M.R.I, are finding it increasingly difficult to make available the services of the senior members of their staff so that it will be necessary in the near future to consider the appointment of a suitably qualified
person to take over the duties of lecturer in Sugar Technology and Factory Control. Under a centralised training scheme this would become a full time post and include supervision of all practical training. In conclusion your Committee would like to pay tribute to the hard work done by the past chairman of the Education Committee, Dr. van der Pol, who was the chief architect of the present course and only resigned this position when he transferred to Swaziland from where he found it difficult to impart the necessary drive that is essential to keep a training scheme such as this from coming to a halt. Appendix A Practical Training Programme 1st Year Routine laboratory analysis and calculation of all necessary data for the preparation of daily and weekly laboratory returns. General factory routine during spare time. 2nd Year Pan boiling including seed preparation, massecuite testing, use of instruments and visits to other factories where different procedures are in use. 3rd Year First three months on milling plant keeping records of speeds, steam pressures etc. mutual milling control data assisting in breakdowns. Second three months. Boilers, their operation control instrumentation, safety precautions feed water and its analysis. Last two months, juice weighing and clarification liming etc. 4th Year First three months, juice clarification and mud filtration. Second two months, evaporation. Last three months, centrifugals including molasses analysis. 5th Year Pan boiling revision, massecuite testing and curing. Assisting Chief Chemist with new work or application and testing of new ideas. Six months with Central Board on cane testing.
Mr. Bentley in introducing the report had said that it was felt that members should know what had been accomplished over the past few years, so that opportunity could be given to discuss and criticise what had been done by the Committee. Mr. du Toit (The Chairman), said the discussion might give a lead to the South African Sugar Association to adopt the centralised scheme envisaged in the report.
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Mr. Grant did not agree that the Industry had displayed resistance and prejudice towards innovations in the past, as over the past 30 to 40 years he had seen much money and time spent by individuals, particularly the late Mr. Patrick Murray, in introducing innovations which proved successful in practice. He said the course was a very good one as it would not only provide trained factory overseers, but it also opened the door to even higher positions. He asked what the advantage was between the present scheme, whereby students were sponsored by the various milling companies, as compared with the central scheme controlled by the S.M.R.I. At present the factory officials tried to give students an insight into the various departments of the sugar manufacturing process. Mr. Bentley said that as far as engineering apprentices were concerned there was one individual to supervise the proper training of these young people. It was desired to incorporate the best features of that scheme into the training of sugar students. In the past difficulty had been experienced in persuading factories to enter students for the course. Generally, factories felt they could not spare employees for the four months necessary, but the Committee was trying to get students who were not required when the factories were working and in the proposed centralised scheme, students would have no obligation to be at factories when they were crushing. They would also be sent, probably, to different factories each year. While at a factory co-operation would be sought from the management for the student to be trained in a particular phase so that there would be no interference with the normal operation of the factory. Factories would thus also be provided with additional staff, so that additional work which factories would like to undertake, but which at present they did not have the opportunity to do, could be carried out. Mr. Davies felt that R50.00 per month, as starting salary, did not compare favourably with the inducements offered by other industries and institutions. He said there was a dearth of applicants for process work from the sons of people already employed in the Industry. Mr. Bentley replied that as far as emoluments were concerned, R50.00 per month was the basic figure to which cost of living allowance had to be added, while housing and other amenities must be taken into account. On the occasions when his Company had advertised, it had been overwhelmed by applications. People already employed in the Industry were welcomed to the course if they were capable of following it, but it had unfortunately been found that many employees had had no scientific training at all and could not follow the course as designed, especially if they were advanced in years. It was therefore felt that the future of the training scheme depended on enlisting youths straight from school and starting them off on a properly designed training course.
Mr. Sargent said that opportunities for advancement were becoming more and more limited. Not only were small factories being closed down but often one found one individual acting as Chief Chemist and Process Manager, or even Factory Manager. Mr. Bentley stated that an investigation had been carried out and this revealed that there had been extreme difficulty in filling a number of posts in the industry, because the right men were not available. Probable future requirements in the industry were such that some fifteen new students each year would just about meet what the industry required within the next 20 years. Mr. Girdler considered that under the centralised scheme students would have to be paid by the industry as a whole. Mr. Bentley said that this was what was envisaged and individual factories would not have to pay a particular student, as had been the case up to now. Mr. Boyes suggested that a small pilot factory attached to a sugar factory should be established, so that students, instead of listening to lectures, as for example how to conduct factory tests, could carry out these tests for themselves. A small factory, he felt, would not be so very expensive to establish. Dr. Douwes-Dekker thought that to establish and run a small experimental factory properly would be very expensive and it was better to have students gain their practical training in an existing factory. Mr. Galbraith supported the view that a pilot factory would be useful, as had been found in other countries. Students could then not only be trained in the finer points of sugar manufacture, but could also do research work which could not be carried out in a present factory without disturbing the process. He felt that sugar machinery manufacturers would contribute most of the plant required. Mr. Perk said the big advantage of the central scheme was that students would see a lot of factories, meet a lot of people and hear many different opinions, and thus gain better all-round experience than would be provided in a pilot plant. Mr. Bentley in reply to Mr. Ashe's query, as to how candidates for a course would be selected, said he considered the selection should be made by the controlling committee. If we could reach the standard where we could insist on matriculation with chemistry and physics as major subjects, diplomas could be awarded instead of certificates as at present. The number required could be flexible and depend on the demands of the industry. The course could be started every third year if there was a slackening in demand, as less than fifteen students would not justify a course, and if the demand increased, the increased number of students required could be accommodated accordingly. There was a big reserve of matriculated youths desiring employment in the sugar industry, as he had mentioned previously. Mr. Davies reiterated that he had found over the past 30 years that very few parents working in the
li
industry were willing to put their matriculated sons into the processing side of the industry. The industry should encourage present employees to do this. Mr. Bentley said this was a good argument for the course, as in the past the opening was in the laboratory with the possibility of staying there for life. Now we were giving an opportunity to learn as much as possible about sugar production so that people had an opportunity of rising to the top. Mr. Fournond thought the course should be arranged so that students went from the laboratory to the various factory departments in the sequence of the manufacturing processes. Mr. du Toit said this was a matter for the Committee to arrange. Mr. J. B. Alexander said the Central Refinery felt, that its own students were presently at a disadvantage under the present Course, as the Course dealt mostly with raw sugar manufacture and their practical experience was limited to refinery work. He therefore supported the idea of the centralised Course as described.
Mr. Grant thought it a good idea to have one individual in charge of the students and to send them to different factories so they could become familiar with the different processes employed. He therefore supported the centralised Course. He put the point, however, that students at present employed by factories had the advantage of participating straight away in pension funds, whereas with the centralised scheme some years would be lost to them. Dr. Douwes-Dekker said that Mr. Grant's point would be kept in mind. Mr. du Toit said the Association was grateful to Dr. van der Pol who initiated both the Factory and Agriculture Courses and to Mr. Bentley and Dr. Cleasby who had carried the work further with such success. He called for a vote as to whether or not an expression of opinion from the Association should be sent to the South African Sugar Association supporting the centralised scheme. The support of the centralised scheme was carried unanimously by a show of hands.
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TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMMITTEE (AGRICULTURE)

REPORT ON TRAINING COURSES IN SUGARCANE AGRICULTURE STARTED IN 1963 By T. G. CLEASBY The South African Sugar Industry has reached a standard of technical achievement of which it can be justifiably proud and which enables it to hold its own with any other agricultural industry. In agriculture this started with the formation of the South African Sugar Experiment Station in 1925, primarily to improve the commercial varieties of sugarcane. Since this time the Experiment Station has grown out of all recognition and the number of technically qualified staff has increased to carry out research in all branches of agriculture. The development of the technical or scientific side of agriculture took another step forward from 1955, when the milling companies began employing qualified, staff as agronomists or agricultural chemists to supplement the research work being done by the Experiment Station, with particular reference to local problems; also, to provide Field Management with reliable data on which field policy can be decided. There is therefore a wealth of technical information available today from the agricultural research being carried out within the industry. This, however, is only one side of the story, as is admirably pointed out by Dr. F. C. Bawden, F.R.S., Director of Rothamsted Experimental Station, in his address to the 11th I.S.S.C.T. Congress in Mauritius on "The Role of research in the Development of Modern Agriculture". Research and technical knowledge is only of value if the farmer has the ability to interpret it and use it intelligently for his own good and for the good of his agricultural industry. This, in a nutshell, is the overwhelming case for technical education in agriculture. It is no different to that in any other industry. Fortunately, this has been appreciated by the South African Sugar Industry, which, for a number of years, has discussed the possibility of starting a course of training in sugarcane agriculture. The main difficulty has been to decide the exact nature of such a course, coupled with the fact that the two agricultural training centres in Natal, namely the University of Natal and The College of Agriculture at Cedara, are situated outside the Sugar Belt. The South African Sugar Association passed the problem to the South African Sugar Technologists who in turn gave the responsibility for starting technical training in agriculture to the Technical Training Committee (Agriculture). This committee came to the conclusion that the problem was in two parts: firstly, to provide personnel already employed in the industry with an opportunity to improve their technical knowledge, and secondly, to attract young men with a sound basic training in agriculture into the industry. It is also felt that the second part was just as important, if not more important, than the first. With this in mind, the Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) has planned three separate courses which culminate in a comprehensive short course in sugarcane agriculture lasting between six and eight weeks at the end of each year. It is a pleasure to be able to report that an encouraging number of students have been enrolled for all three courses which were started in January, 1963. These courses, however, could not have got under way without the outside assistance of The Natal Technical College, Durban, The Director of Agricultural Technical Services for Natal and The College of Agriculture, Cedara. The Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) is very grateful indeed, for the co-operation it has received from these bodies. The three courses mentioned above have been designated courses A, B and C. Course A is designed to encourage young men with a good basic training in agriculture into the sugar industry. It consists of the full two year diploma course at the College of Agriculture, Cedara, followed by the comprehensive short course in sugarcane agriculture. In order to encourage students to take this course, the South African Sugar Association has awarded annually five scholarships of R300 each per annum for two years to students accepted by the College of Agriculture, Cedara. The only conditions attached to the scholarship are that the students will do a total of eight weeks practical work in the sugar industry during their course and that when they receive their diploma they will take the short course in sugarcane agriculture. As a matter of interest, the following students have been awarded scholarships: Second-year students D. W. Thomas, J. A. L. Fisher, J. B. Moolman, R. Hagan, E. Haslop and H. W. Peters. First-year students: J. R. Kennedy, H. N. A. Harris, P. J. Catterall, A. J. Roodt, and B. H. Powell. Course B has been designed for people employed full-time in the sugar industry who wish to improve their technical knowledge but have no particular basic training in agriculture. The course which has been planned is only a beginning and it is fully realised that it can be greatly improved in time, and with more experience. It is a one-year course and the students attend the Natal Technical College, Durban, on Mondays from 9.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m. during the normal Technical College terms from January to October. They receive lectures in botany, chemistry, surveying, soil science and agriculture, designed to give them some basic knowledge which will enable them to get the most out of the short course in sugarcane agriculture. The students will also attend one or two short courses during the year run by the College of Agriculture, Cedara. The ones selected for this year are: "The Prevention of Stock Diseases" and "The control of harmful Pests". Eight students have been enrolled for Course B this year. It is the feeling of the Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) that the number should be limited to about this figure, in order that the first part of the course can be more personal than would be the case with a much larger class.
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Course C is open to students who already have acquired a good basic training in agriculture, such as a university degree or a diploma and students taking this course will only be expected to attend the short course in sugarcane agriculture which will be held at the end of each year. Six applications have been received for this course from people with the above qualifications. The short course in sugarcane Agriculture will be a comprehensive course dealing with all aspects of sugarcane production and also very briefly its manufacture. The lectures will be drawn from technically qualified people employed in the industry and all will be experts in their own field. It is hoped that this course will oiler a unique opportunity to anybody considering furthering a career in sugarcane agriculture. It is also felt by the Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) that the strength of this course will be the fact that the students will be mixed, in one case having a largely theoretical background (Course A and C) and. in the second case practical experience of growing sugarcane (Course B). The short course in sugarcane agriculture will be a full time course lasting from six to eight weeks. Lectures will be given in the botany of sugarcane, sugarcane diseases, sugarcane pests, sugarcane varieties and the breeding of sugarcane, the cultivation of sugarcane and. its irrigation, the work of the South African Sugar Experiment Station, the fertilisation of sugarcane, the manufacture of sugar, the mechanisation of sugarcane cultivation and its transport to the factory, farm and labour management and soils of the sugar belt. Considerable emphasis will be placed on the practical aspects of sugarcane production and every effort will be made to give students the experience of how sugarcane is grown in different parts of the industry. The first short course in sugarcane agriculture will be held in October this year and will be taken by about 20 students from courses A, B and C. No fees are payable for any of the courses run by the Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) as all expenses are being met by the South African Sugar Association. Students are responsible only for getting themselves to and from lectures and for any accommodation they require during the short course in sugarcane agriculture. In this report the need for technical education in agriculture has been mentioned and also the type of education which is being provided at the present time reported. It is the intention of the Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) to endeavour to improve the existing courses in the light of experience and the needs of the industry. It will welcome both suggestions and constructive criticism. In conclusion it is essential that these courses receive the full support of the Cane Growers and Millers to see that promising personnel have an opportunity to improve their technical knowledge so that they can become more useful members of the industry; also, to see that the better qualified personnel that the Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) is encouraging into the industry through the course it is running, can find congenial employment. The Technical Education Committee (Agriculture) has the full support of the South African Sugar Association and is most grateful for the financial
assistance it has received to enable it to make a modest beginning with technical education in agriculture. Mr. du Toit (in the chair) said it was most gratifying that the Committee under Dr. Cleasby had been successful in establishing the Course and in obtaining five scholarships to encourage students. Mr. A. C. Barnes said a great debt was owed also to the Chief of the Department of Agricultural and Technical Services for his co-operation. The Agriculture Course had probably not had the appeal to the planting side of the industry in the past, as had the Technical training scheme to the milling side, but the fundamental importance of the production of the crop had at last been recognised. We could look forward to still greater improvement in crop husbandry as a consequence of the establishment of the Course. Mr. J. B. Alexander said he was particularly interested in section C of the Course, in that it mentioned that technically qualified people employed in the Industry would do the lecturing. He hoped that a superior quality of raw material would thus result. Mr. Fourmond echoed Mr. Alexander's hope that the raw material would improve, as last year's cane was of extremely bad quality, causing much trouble in the factories. Mr. A. C. Barnes said that the cane farmer had been blamed last year for things which were beyond his control. Drought conditions added to cane being left over due to restriction, caused the quality of cane to deteriorate. The conditions he had mentioned led to cane being sent to the factories in poor condition and it was hoped these conditions would not be repeated in the future. Dr. Douwes-Dekker stated that it was gratifying to note that need for improved courses in both factory and agricultural sides of the Industry was so deeply felt by the Technologists' Association and he hoped this feeling would reach the ears of the leaders of the industry. All major industries realised the importance of training their own people. As far as the Factory Training Course was concerned, the S.M.R.I, would do all it could to meet the extra duties required of it, but the trainees needed the assistance of all the factories in which they worked during their five years of training. Mr. Rault said that it was encouraging to see on the same platform a factory manager and an agronomist collaborating in the shaping of a programme of studies for the technical sugar workers of the industry. It was an indication of the progressive spirit which would go far to produce a better informed type of worker, conscious of the inter-dependence of the various aspects and problems of the industry, compensating in some measure for the somewhat separate outlook of agricultural and manufacturing activities. Mr. Wilson said that the Agricultural Committee considered more and more attention should be paid to general agricultural education, for a sound background of general training was more valuable than a restricted outlook based on cane agriculture alone.
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THIRTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL SUMMARY OF MILLING RESULTS OF SUGAR FACTORIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

S E A S O N 1962-1963
By C. G. M. PERK A.GENERAL The 1962-63 season will long be remembered by the Natal Sugar Industry because of the unsatisfactory recovery experienced as a result of the refractory juices to be handled. As a result of the introduction of production restriction in 1960, part of the cane which should normally have been harvested was left standing on the cane fields. Cane estimates determined by the Sugar Industry Central Board before the 1961-62 season amounted to over 15 million tons. Since during that season 9.4 million tons of cane were crushed, it indicates that more than 5 million tons of mature cane had to remain unharvestcd. It could be predicted beforehand that when finally this unwieldy surplus of carry-over.cane was reaped, the brunt of the difficulties would be experienced by the sugar factories handling this left-over cane. It may be that the full effects of the unprecedented drought of 1962 will not be felt until the 1963 season, but the large carry-over of three-year old cane from the previous crop made the effects of the drought already felt by the factories this year. It was very unfortunate that this old cane was extremely vulnerable to the exceptionally dry conditions encountered during the beginning of the crushing season. It made the mortality due to drought very heavy, the material reaching the mills in general of inferior quality and the juices of the carry-over cane even less processable than predicted. The drought was so severe that not only the carryover cane withered, but also the season's new cane. To aggravate conditions, frequent fires occurred in the tinder-dry cane. It may be that with regard to the sucrose content of the cane, it is generally accepted that no material drop will be experienced if the fire cane is crushed within a week, but this does not hold for the processibility of the juices of fire cane. Juices of fire cane start deteriorating within five days after the fire. Processing within five days was not always possible, either because of the extent of the cane fire or because other cane lying waiting had to be given priority. All these facts, viz. crushing carry-over cane and the effects of drought and cane fires, resulted in juices which were very difficult to process; the major offender being the abnormally high alco-gel (gums) content of the juices. This was particularly noticeable in the event of carry-over cane and in the case of fire cane if not processed within the time limit. Note.Gums is a collective name used to indicate the components of the precipitate formed due to the addition of acidified alcohol to juices or other factory products. In juice of fresh cane, the concentration of gums is of the order of 0.3 to 0.4 per cent, on Brix. Investigations carried out by the S.M.R.I, showed, however, that the gum content of the juice increases when cane deteriorates, when values from 10 to 15 times that of fresh cane were found. It was also found by the S.M.R.I. that gums rotate the plane of polarized light; the dextrarotary tendency being approximately 2 1/2 times that of sucrose. However, when applying the Jackson & Gilles method for the determination of the true sucrose content, the result is not affected by the presence of gums. It should be stated that the millability of the cane was not affected to such an extent that milling performance could not be improved. On the contrary, this season's average lost absolute juice percentage was again lower, viz. better than last year's. With regard to the clarification of the juice, it can be said that apparently, viz. when judged on appearance, clarification was not impaired. The overflow of the clarifiers was as clear as might be expected of the clarification systems applied, i.e. defecation and sulphitation. Handling of the mud was normal. However, the fact remains that by either of these two clarification methods, maximum removal of gums is only 50 per cent of the gums initially present in the juice. Since the gum content of the juice was from four to five times higher than normal, the result was that the syrup and subsequently the massescuites and molasses also contained from four to five times more gums than normal, causing "sticky" masses cuites as well as "sticky" molasses. The purity of the juices was unprecedently low or what stresses the point better: the amount of impurities in the juices was unprecedently high. One of these impurities which was in greater abundancy than normal was reducing sugars. Since it is a kind of impurity not removed by clarification, it finds its way to the final molasses, increasing the weight of the latter and increasing the sucrose losses in this waste product. In addition to increasing the quantity of final molasses, the reducing sugars have the property to improve the exhaustibility of the final molasses. However, this property has never such an effect that it can nullify the higher sucrose loss as a result of the increase in final molasses weight. This season as a result of the high gum content, not full advantage could be taken of the improved exhaustibility; the final masse cuite being too "sticky". Hence, only the disadvantage of the high reducing sugars content remained, viz. an increase in final molasses weight and increase in sucrose losses.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'1 AssociationApril 1963
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The high alco-gel content meant that the final massecuite could not be tightened as far as required and it had to be cured at a higher temperature than the optimum, or the cuite had to be diluted with water with a view to transport and/or curing. Another property of the juices of this season has to be mentioned. Normally the ratio between nonsugars in mixed juice to those present in final molasses and bagged sugars, is as 1 to 0.81. This season the ratio was higher indicating that proportionally less nonsugars were removed by the clarification processes. This property had the effect that more final molasses was made than corresponding to the lower purity of the juices. The combined effect of: (i) lower purity of the juices, (ii) reduced removal of nonsugars by clarification, and (iii) the "stickiness" due to a high gum content was a consistently overloaded boiling house and higher sucrose losses in final molasses. However, even worse than the adverse effect on recovery was the fact that the raw sugar quality was adversely affected, as a result of the increased viscosity of the mother liquors. With regard to the unfavourable weather conditions experienced, the following is quoted from "Weather Report for the year 1st June, 1961 to 31st May, 1962": "Since December, 1961 to May 1962 the total rainfall was only 17.53 inches compared to our mean rainfall of 24.03 inches for the six months. The Industry at the end of May was therefore suffering from a bad drought and the indications are that conditions may become quite serious during the winter." To show how serious it became, the rainfall figures for the first four months of the crushing season are shown hereunder, together with the computed mean monthly rainfall figures (in parenthesis): April May June July Total . . . .. 1.99(2.91) inches 0.85(2.04) 0.05(1.49) 0.32(1.06) 3.21 (7.50) inches
B.CANE AND SUGAR PRODUCTIONS IN RECENT YEARS The 1962-63 season was the third season in succession of restricted sugar production. However, from an anticipated cut even higher than in force for 1961, the reduction in the crop under report came down to ten per cent of farm mean peaks and in the coming season it will be probably necessary to mill every ton of available cane in order to meet our new market obligation. For it was the increased export sugar sales which caused the initially high cut (25%) to be reduced to 10 per cent. Finally, the season ended with more sugar produced than in the record season of 1958-59, as the following review will show: Cane and Sugar Productions of the S.A. Mills in Recent Years
Season 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Cane 10,257,876 9,123,395 8,649,616 9,384,090 10,749,410 Sugar 1,128,187 1,043,301 994,363 1,098,812 1,193,279 Tons Cane per ton Sugar 9.09 8.74 8.70 8.54 9.01
Note, Except when otherwise indicated, all tonnages are (short) tons of 2,000 lbs. and all sugars are "telquel".
It should here be mentioned that this season there were live factories exceeding the 100,000 tons of sugar mark, to wit: Umfolozi (125,500 tons), Darnall (122,503 tons), Tongaat (121,450 tons), Z.S.M. & PL (104,500 tons) and Gledhow (103,747 tons). To comply with a resolution taken at the end of the Third Congress of the I.S.S.C.T., the crop results are shown here also in metric tons: Crop Results in Metric Tons (S.A. Factories)
Season 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 Cane 9,305,801 8,276,617 7,846,805 8,513,085 9,751,707 Sugar 1,023,475 946,469 902,071 996,826 1,082,525
During the period April-July (inclusive) less than half the normal amount was registered. To evaluate how far these adverse weather conditions and harvesting of three-year old cane affected the sucrose content of the cane, we refer to Section C (Comparative Results of Cane Harvested during the Optimum Periods of Recent Crops). It will show that it was not so much the sucrose content which was affected, but the purity of the cane juice, rendering the sucrose present in the cane less recoverable.
Production of the Swaziland Factories: In addition to the above mentioned tonnages referring to the South African Factories, the two Swaziland mills manufactured the following tonnages of sugar (again in short tons of 2,000 lbs): 7,236 tons in 1958-59 57,156 tons in 1960-61 80,270 tons in 1962-63 18,750 tons in 1959-60 75,300 tons in 1961-62
All sugar tonnages so far mentioned are based on information received from the South African Sugar Association, which also supplied the data for table 1, recording the sugars made by the different mills. In accordance the tonnages shown in table 2 are also
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Proceedings of The Soulh African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963 Percentages of Cane Varieties Crushed during the past five years Season UBA. P.O.J. Co.281 Co. 290 Co.301 Co.331 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1958/59 0.02 0.01 0.11 0.01 4.94 18.60 2.26 4.04 59.39 0.04 3.91 2.76 0.01 1959/60 0.02 0.01 0 04 0.08 2.31 15.75 3.00 4.74 58.81 0.09 4.74 6.60 0.04 1960/61 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.18 12.81 2.83 4.94 59.06 0.36 4.74 10.42 0.42 1961/62 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.56 8.97 2.36 5.23 55.65 0.42 4.75 17.03 1.11 0.01 0.01 1962/63 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.24 8.89 2.28 4.62 54.00 0.33 3.67 18.04 1.92 0.01 0.22
the official quantities of sugar made. In general these quantities differ only slightly from the figures recorded on the mills1 laboratory reports, with the exception of those of Gledhow and Sezela, which factories record the tonnages of sugar transferred from rawhouse to refinery. Though on table 2 the actual sugars bagged are shown, the figures for losses, recoveries and boiling house performances of Gledhow and Sezela refer to the rawhouse only. The percentages of cane varieties crushed are not those recorded on the laboratory reports, but are those as published by the Sugar Industry Central Board. C COMPARATIVE RESULTS OF CANE HARVESTED DURING THE OPTIMUM PERIODS OF RECENT YEARS, FOR SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR FACTORIES The review shows that the average sucrose content of the cane during the Optimum Period though lower than the three preceding years - is higher than in 1958, and as we go further back also higher than in 1957, equal to that of 1956, but lower again than the mean sucrose content of the period of 1945-55 (inclusive). However, a purity of only 83.76 for the Optimum Period of Harvesting is unprecedented. As said before, this very low purity makes a much greater part of the sucrose present in cane unrecoverable than in the event of normal purities.
Per Per cent Cane cent of Crop Sucrose Fibre 57 43 100 65 35 100 69 31 100 69 31 100 56 44 100 13.77 12.25 13.12 13.99 13.05 13.66 14.11 12.72 13.69 14.11 12.98 13.75 13.86 12.56 13.30 15.73 16.17 15.92 15.76 16.22 15.92 15.16 15.34 15.22 14.46 14.63 14.52 15.32 15.73 15.49 Mixed Juice Purity 85.10 83.50 84.46 86.06 84.68 85.52 86.10 84.37 85.63 86.69 84.52 86.04 83.76 82.78 83.36 Cane/ Sugar Ratio 8.57 9.90 9.09 8.47 9.19 8.74 8.38 . 9.62 8.70 8.23 9.18 8.54 8.58 9.63 9.01
N :Co.292 N :Co.293 N:Co.310 N :Co.334 N:Co.339 N :Co.376 N:Co.382 N :Co.392 N.50/211.
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D.VARIETAL SCENE The table shows the percentages of cane varieties crushed during recent years. Uha Cane introduced in S.A. in 1882 has nearly completely disappeared; its reign beginning to decline about 1935 Co.281 and Co.290 took over the vacancy caused by the disappearance of Uba. The maximum extension of Co.281 was 68% in 1945 and of Co.290 38%, about ten years earlier. Co.301 reached its zenith in 1949 with 42%. Co.331 introduced in 1945 obtained its greatest extension (23%) in 1955; further extension being halted by the introduction of N:Co. 310, which variety achieved its peak in 1957 with 60%. From 1955 onward several newer varieties arrived on the scene; it being N:Co.376 which expanded rapidly. Finally in 1961 the first N-variety appeared i.e. N.50/21I, a cane completely bred in Natal. E.TIME ACCOUNT OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR FACTORIES With a view to the high cut in production, the mills were slow starters this year. Later when information was received on the reduction of the cut they tried to make up for lost time, but not every factory was successful in this. Some factories had even to slow down because of the worsening quality of the juices, resulting in a consistently full house at the low grade end of the factory. Other factories succeeded in increasing their crushing rate, viz. Gledhow which factory had also to crush the cane of Chaka's Kraal and Illovo which had an increased quantity of cane to mill. However, these factories also were limited in their increase in crushing rate by "full house" at the low grade end. The following table compares such items as: average duration of the season, average crushing rate, overall time efficiency (hours of actual crushing as a percentage of available time or hours mill open) and percentages of hours of stoppages.
Season 1958-59 Optimum Period Balance of Crop Total Crop 1959-60 Optimum Period Balance of Crop Total Crop 1960-61 Optimum Period Balance of Crop Total Crop 1961-62 Optimum Period Balance of Crop Total Crop 1962-63 Optimum Period Balance of Crop Total Crop
Season Number of Factories . Tons of Cane Crushed . Total Hours Mills Open . Total Hours Actual Crushing Average of the Average actual number of weeks season, per mill . number of days of crushing, per mill
1960-61 18 8,649,617 83,364 77,316 32 179 112 93 2
1961-62 18 9,384,090 85,053 80,973 33 187 116 95 1
1962-63 17 10,749,410 97,100 90,034 40 221 119 93 3
according to the Illovo system, Mhlume requires additional fuel, while Marromeu can save bagasse. This is why this section is called "Supply and Demand". G.- B.T.U.'S IN BAGASSE AND IN ADDITIONAL FUEL PER LB. OF BRIX PROCESSED Here, in this section, the other table is shown, viz. the table comparing: (a) b.t.u.'s in bagasse fired, per lb. of Brix in mixed juice; the L.C.V. of bagasse calculated with the aid of the von Pritzelwitz van der Horst formula: 7650 18S 86.4W, in which formula S stands for sucrose % bagasse and W indicates the moisture content of the bagasse. (A) b.t.u.'s in fuel oil, coal and wood, again per lb. of Brix in mixed juice. The L.C.V. of fuel oil is assumed to be 18,500 b.t.u./lb., of coal 12,000 b.t.u./lb. and. of fire wood 3,600 b.t.u./lb., viz. the same values as used since 1952. (c) the sum of all b.t.u.'s present in all fuels fired, per lb. of Brix in mixed juice. In addition the table shows as a guidance when comparing (cl) percentages of white sugar made; or refined; mill white
Mean Crushing Rate . Mean Overall Time Efficiency Hours Cane Shortage % Hours Mills Open .
The unusual length of the average season, viz. 5712 hours of mills open, is caused by the greater cane crop and the reduction by one in number of mills crushing, which was not met by a commensurate increase in average crushing rate. F.FUEL: SUPPLY AND DEMAND As in previous years, the following table again shows the ratio between tons of fibre in cane and tons of Brix present in mixed juice. However, this timein order to indicate more clearly the purpose of this table the factories are arranged according to their ratios; starting with the most disadvantageous ratio:
Mhlume Umfolozi Pongola Umbombo Ranches Entumeni Luabo Illovo Gledhow Marromeu Natal Estates .. 0.745 0.826 0.862 0.866 0.938 0.975 1.001 1.009 1.023 1.025 Melville .. . Umzimkulu . Darnall .. . Renishaw . Doornkop . Sezela . Tongaat . Amatikulu . Z.S.M. & PI. . . Felixton . Glendale . 1.053 1.051 1.053 1.061 1.070 1.083 1.087 1.095 1.096 1.103 1.158
(e) degrees of Brix of the Syrup; and (/) overall time efficiency (time crushed mill open).
Mill PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GS DL GL MV TS NE IL RN SZ UK MH UR LB MR a 5,924 6,010 7,526 7,648 6,660 7,554 7,544 8,251 7,251 6,993 7,451 7,582 7,179 7,019 7,416 7,548 7,346 5,191 5,943 6,937 7,341 b 756 2,392 678 172 387 409 332 687 9 678 611 1,269 1,248 1,131 Nil 357 Nil 2,292 948 c 6,680 8,402 8,204 7,820 7,047 7,963 7,876 8,939 7,260 7,671 8,062 8,851 8,426 8,150 7,416 7,905 7,346 7,483 6,891 d 31 44 Nil Nil 46 Nil Jap. A. 42 Nil 74 Export Nil 11 Jap. A. Jap. A. 83 Nil 56 59 51 22 e 61 58 58 52 62 52 58 56 62 53 51 62 59 63 57 61 60 60 64 60 64
% time
f 95 95 94 95 98 96 93 74 94 96 90 92 94 90 94 94 95 92 85 91 91
The table shows that Mhlume has only 0.745 parts of fibre available in cane for each part of Brix in mixed juice to be processed which disadvantageous ratio is a result of a low fibre and a high sucrose content of the cane. Actually Mhlume has the lowest fibre content of all factories, nearly as high a sucrose content of the cane as Pongola and a similar juice purity. There are two reasons for the fibre/Brix ratio being shown and not the fibre/sucrose ratio. Firstly, not all the sucrose in cane has to be processed, but only that part which is recovered by the milling trains. Secondly, there is a more significant correlation between steam consumption and Brix processed than between steam consumption and. sucrose in mixed juice or steam consumption and sugar bagged. The table does not require explanation. It shows clearly that even when the heat consumption of Mhlume is the same as that of for example Marromeu, a factory which also produces mill white
This table confirms the previous one in so far that it shows again that Mhlume mill has the smallest number of b.t.u.'s in natural fuel, i.e. bagasse. Since the mill drive turbines consume far more steam than anticipated, there is far more exhaust steam than required for processing. Hence, owing to heat lost
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in the form of exhaust steam blown into the atmosphere, coal has to be supplied. More or less in the same boat are Z.S.M. & PI. and Umfolozi; mentioning only two of the factories suffering from an excess of exhaust steam. Pongola, Umbombo Ranches and Entumeni are factories with a low b.t.u. consumption; all three factories crushing cane with, a low fibre content. They also have in common that they remelt their A-sugars for production of white sugar. This is also the case with Umfolozi, but as this factory sometimes produces more than 80 per cent of refined, part of the B-sugar has at those times also to be remelted. (The C-sugar is used in the form of magma for the A- and B-strikes.) Also remelting sugars are those factories producing export sugar for the Japanese market and applying the simple defecation process. These factories are Umfolozi (when not refining), lllovo and Doornkop. They remelt all C-sugar and part of the B-sugar. Part of the season Melville has followed this boiling system too. All these facts should be kept in mind when perusing the table under discussion. Since the quantities of bagasse stored at the end of the crushing season were not available, the columns b and c could not be filled in, in the event of Luabo and Morromeu. In the case of Felixton the bagasse sent to the papermill was converted into coal and this quantity subtracted from all coal fired. A similar line of conduct was followed for Natal Estates and Umbombo Ranches; where the kWh used for irrigation purposes were converted into coal and subtracted. A raw sugar factory with a low b.t.u. consumption is Darnall. Satisfactory time efficiency and ditto density of the syrup in addition to good exhaustions of the massecuites are the factors which led to the low b.t.u. consumption.
Brix of Syrup Mill 1960 MH UR LB MR PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GD DL GH MV TS NE IL RN SZ UK 57 62 60 65 59 57 59 55 62 52 60 47 58 54 57 56 58 66 57 57 58 1961 51 64 59 65 62 58 62 54 63 52 57 47 62 53 56 56 58 68 57 55 60 1962 60 64 60 64 61 58 58 52 62 52 58 56 62 53 51 62 59 62 57 60 60 Capacity Imbib. % Cane 301* 275S 361S 201 317 492 342* 300 358S 250 310 390S 288 300S 323 320 386S 283 285S 361S 322 29 29 28 27 31 39 60 44 34 41 37 39 62 31 33 32 35 37 31 40 41
The Density of the Syrup and the Capacity of the Evaporator Though the density of the syrup has already been shown on the previous table, this table reviews the Brix of the syrup in recent years, showing at the same lime the capacity of the evaporation plant of each factory for the last season. Note.The capacity is indicated in sq. ft. of heating surface per ton of cane crushing rate. As some of the factories show a rather high number of available sq. ft. heating surface per ton of cane per hour, the fact should not be overlooked, that some factories have a spare quad, for example Luabo, Umfolozi, Tongaat, while the second quad of Natal Estates is not always in operation. The number of sq. ft. heating surface required per ton of cane crushing rate depends on several factors. Firstly it depends on whether the evaporator operates as a quadruple or as a quintuple effect. Secondly the required sq. ft. depend on the clarification system applied viz. defecation or sulphitation. Thirdly on the imbibition ratio and the dilution of the juice by the filters and fourthly, the evaporation rate depends on the available exhaust steam pressure. Finally it depends on the length of the period between two cleanings and last but surely not least the thoroughness of the cleaning, and the manner in which the evaporator is handled. H.THE MILLING TANDEMS and THEIR LOAD The sequence of the factories in the following table is according to the degree of loading imposed on the milling tandem; the specific feed rate being used as a yardstick for indication of the degree of loading. The table comprises the following columns: (a) The Specific Feed Rate, viz. the rate (lbs. per hour) the fibre is fed into the mills, per cu. ft. of Total Roller Volume. (b) Imbibition per cent fibre to indicate how far the squeezing action of the mill rollers was supplemented by spraying of water and of diluted juices on the layers of intermediate bagasse. (c) The number of imbibition steps. (d) Lost Absolute Juice per cent fibre in final bagasse as a yardstick for evaluation of the milling performance, viz. of the combined action of squeezing and diluting. The heaviest loaded milling tandem is that of Marromeu. It consists of a two-roller crusher followed by five mills driven by two Rubey drop valve engines, commanded by Stork hydraulic governors. The load is heavy, moreover the tandem is preceded by only one set of knives of the ordinary type, i.e. with a pitch of more than one inch. In addition, since the mills are preceded by a two-roller instead of a three-roller crusher, imbibition can be applied only in front of 4 units instead of 5-times. Installation of a second set of knives is, however, under consideration.
* Quintuple Effect S indicates sulphitation
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association -April
196
19
Mill MR ZM LB . MV PG. UK DL. GD EN. AK II SZ . RN DK UR GH NE. FX-2 TS-I MH FX-1 TS-2 UF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a 59.2 34.0 45.2 46.4 50.2 49.5 27.3 58.3 43.0 35.8 40.2 32.3 34.8 44.5 34.5 42.4 31.2 40.4 29.8 44.4 41.1 29.4 39.1
b 69 58 57 56 52 51 51 49 48 46 45 44 43 42 42 39 38 38 36 33 31 29 24
c 177 357 191 212 225 264 382 241 240 249 244 250 204 228 229 207 230 269 191 239 292 217 294
d 56 81 62 68 73 67 83 58 65 77 71 76 74 67 73 63 79 70 87 81 73 88 59
e 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 3 5 5 4 4.4 5 5 4 5 6 5 6 5 5 6 6/5
(a) Lost Absolute Juice % Fibre in Final Bagasse. (b) Specific Feed Rate (Unit Load) in lbs. of fibre per hour, per cu. ft. of Total Roller Volume of the tandem. (c) Imbibition % Fibre in cane. (d) Dilution Ratio for expressing the efficiency of mixing of the imbibition liquids with the residual juices in the intermediate bagasses (See: Quarterly Bulletin of the S.M.R.I. No. 17 or S.A. Sugar Journal, January 1961 issue). (e) The number of times imbibition is applied or the number of imbibition steps.
Second in load sequence is the tandem of Z.S.M. & PL comprising six three-roller units, each unit individually driven by a steam turbine. In addition, the tandem is preceded by two sets of cane knives and a shredder. A high imbibition ratio is applied which is moreover used in 5 stages. Comparing the final result of Z.S.M. & PI. with that of Marromeu, reveals what a difference better cane preparation, lower specific feed rate, higher imbibition ratio and application of the imbibition in 5 instead of 4 stages can make. Luabo's tandem consists of six three-roller units preceded by two sets of knives. The specific feed rate is lower than at Marromeu, cane preparation is better, the imbibition ratio higher, the number of imbibition steps one more and the lost juice percentage is 14 points lower than that of Marromeu. Melville is another example of a milling train loaded higher than the average tandem, the shredder following after (instead of preceding) the first squeezing unit, group driven units and imbibition ratio lower than the average. As it is not the intention to discuss every factory in sequence of its loading, we now want to draw attention to the tandem with the best lost juice percentage, viz. Darnall's eighteen-roller tandem. The tandem is preceded by two sets of knives and a shredder. Hence the cane is well prepared before squeezing starts. Each mill is individually driven and fed by properly set underslung feed rollers sustained by high feed chutes. A high imbibition ratio is applied while
the imbibition can be applied with good success in 5 steps because the shredder precedes the first squeezing unit. Tongaat achieves its good results in a different way. Since less water is used, it is here more the repeated squeezing action when compared with Darnall where a greater part of the good result is due to the greater dilution of the residual juices. Though Tongaat's small tandem still has the shredder after the two-roller crusher, at the big tandem the shredder has moved forward and is now preceding the 21-roller tandem (or when we also account for the two power-driven rollers of the pressure feeder of the last mill: the 23-roller tandem). With exception of the 1st and 2nd mills of the smaller tandem, all units are individually driven. Natal Estates' tandem is comparable with the Maidstone tandem in number of rollers and in so far as each unit is also individually driven. However, the specific feed rate is higher and the shredder follows after the first squeezing unit. To keep in step, notwithstanding these disadvantages, a higher imbibition ratio had to be applied. We mention Sczela for good results because this factory is operating with two much shorter tandems than the previously mentioned ones and moreover the mills are driven in groups and not individually. However, the shredders (in their turn preceded by two sets of cane knives) precede the first squeezing units, which makes it possible to apply with great success 4 imbibition steps, notwithstanding the fact that there are only five mills in each tandem. It has to be mentioned that the last mill of one of the tandems is equipped with a Donelly chute; extension of this type of improved feeding arrangement to the other mills of this tandem is under consideration. Another "short" tandem obtaining good results, but without a shredder, is that of Umbombo Ranches, Renishaw operating on high-fibre cane without a shredder is to be mentioned for obtaining good results with a low imbibition ratio and group-driven mills. I.THE PERFORMANCE OF THE BOILING HOUSE With a small number of exceptions, it has been a difficult and ungratifying crushing season for the process managers; the sucrose loss in final molasses being very high due to gummy juices of exceptionally low purities:
Season .. Percent.. .. .. 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 7.62 7.44 8.20 7.85 1962 8.05 7.72 9.91
As said before the reason of the refractory juices was a combination of two facts viz. the prolonged drought and the crushing of cane left over from previous seasons. The exceptions were the canes grown in the mist belt of Natal and cane cultivated on irrigated land. Here better boiling house recoveries could be obtained. The quality of the cane of the 1962-63 season has been compared with that of the 1934-35 season, the year that the crop was struck by a locust plague and by an abundant and prolonged summer rainfall.
20
However, this comparison does not hold very well. In the case of 1934-35 season unripe and immature cane came to the mills, while in the 1962-63 season it was old and deteriorated cane which was sent to the factories. Comparing the sucrose content of the cane of the two seasons, it reveals that the sucrose per cent of the 1934-35 cane was two units lower, but the mixed juice purity \ per cent higher than that of the 1962-63 cane. Another question is that though the purity of the mixed juice was then called the lowest on record, it did not prevent to obtain a higher boiling house recovery than the previous year, while this year the drop in boiling house recovery is bigger than might have been expected from the drop in purity; a proof of the inferior quality of the 1962-63 juice compared with the 1934-35 juice. Non-Sugars Account The quantity of non-sugars present in final molasses and bagged sugars represent normally 81 per cent of the quantity of non-sugars present in mixed juice. Hereunder we show the average percentages as found in recent years:
Season .. Percent.. .. .. 1956 80 1957 79 1958 81 1959 81 1960 81 1961 81 1962 85
figure corrected for differences in mixed juice purities and in the purities of the sugars bagged, there are two entities which have a great affect on the magnitude of the Boiling House performance, to wit: the undetermined losses and the final molasses purity, and to a lesser degree the sucrose lost in filter cake.
SUCROSE LOSSES IN Mill PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GD DL GH MV TS NE IL RN SZ UK MH UR LB MR B.H.P. 97.6 95.1 95.2 96.4 97.5 95.2 96.3 95.4 97.4 95.4 96.7 97.5 95.6 96.7 95.9 96.5 98.0 96.2 97.2 97.3 96.9 Purity F. UndeFinal F.Cake Molasses termined Molasses 0.48 1.02 0.46 0.51 0.33 0.32 0.80 0.31 0.28 0.42 0.41 0.87 0.59 0.34 0.20 0.44 0.37 0.79 0.39 0.67 1.09 8.01 10.23 11.75 10.08 7.56 11.75 9.98 11.54 10.54 10 89 11.01 n.a. 11.37 8.91 10.90 10.72 n.a. 10.02 10.14 9.33 9.25 2.15 2.11 0.99 1.38 1.62 0.99 1.15 0.95 0.95 1.52 0.42 n.a. 1.49 0.61 1.75 0.92 n.a. 1.17 1.28 0.41 0.42 37.4* 40.9 41.3 40.0 38.2* 41.3 41.6 41.2* 38.3 40.8 41.3 40.9 37.9 37.9 37.3* 37.2 38.1 42.1* 37.0 39.2 42.7
It shows that in the 1962-63 season a greater percentage of non-sugars was present in total final molasses than what could be called the standard 81 per cent. This indicates either to a smaller percentage of non-sugars removed by the clarification process, or a greater formation of non-sugars during processing, then well a combination of these two possibilities. What may the explanation be, the fact remains that more final molasses was produced than might have been expected on base of the mixed juice purity. The table above shows the average percentages for the Natal factories, hereunder the individual percentages of non-sugars for each factory are shown: Non-Sugar Account of the Factories for the 1962-63 season
Factory PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GD DL GH MV Percentage 78 77 86 83 85 85 79 90 83 85 82 Factory TS NE IL RN SZ UK MH UR LB MR Percentage n 90 92 89 90
9
* Indicates that the final molasses purity is not the gravity, but the apparent purity. Note.The final molasses weights of Tongaat and Umzimkulu not being available, the losses in the final molasses and as undetermined, could not be calculated.
78 88 80 75
Note.The final molasses weights of Tongaat and Umzimkulu not being available, the non-sugar account of these factories could not be calculated.
Boiling House Performance The following table shows the Boiling House Performance of each factory and in addition the sucrose losses in filter cake, in final molasses and undetermined losses (all per 100 sucrose in mixed juice) and the final molasses purity. Since the B.H.P. is a recovery
The table above should be studied in conjunction with the previous one showing the percentages of non-sugars present in molasses and sugars. It will then be possible to assess to what extent unsatisfactory Boiling House Performance is a result of a too high purity of the final molasses and the extent of which more non-sugars in final molasses has been the cause. For example, studying the data on both tables for Pongola, it shows that since the percentage non-sugars is lower than normal, i.e. 78 per cent, and the exhaustion of the final molasses (apparent purity) is satisfactory, it is the undetermined losses which caused the B.H.P. to be less than 98 per cent. Entumeni with the same B.H.P. as Pongola, would have lost only 7.20 per cent sucrose (instead of 7.56 per cent) in molasses if the non-sugars percentage had been 81 per cent (instead of 85 per cent) and accordingly the B.H.P. would have been 97.8 per cent (instead of 97.5 per cent). A lower undetermined loss would have accounted for the rest. Glendale would have lost 10.39 per cent (instead of 11.54 per cent) in molasses if the non-sugars percentage had been 81 per cent (instead of 90 per cent). Accordingly the B.H.P. would have been 96.55 per cent (instead of 95.4 per cent). If also the (apparent) purity of the molasses had been 3 points lower, the sucrose loss in final molasses would have been reduced to 9.63 per cent on sucrose in mixed juice and the B.H.P. would have been 97.3 per cent. Renishaw's sucrose loss in final molasess would have been 10.90 - 9.92 or 0.98 per cent less
21
with a non-sugar percentage of 81 and the B.H.P. would have been 95.90+0.98 =96.9%. Reducing Sugars Account The following table shows the percentages of reducing sugars present in: (a) clarified juice (b) syrup, and in (c) total final molasses, based on the quantity of reducing sugars in mixed juice equal to 100 per cent.
Total ClariFinal fied Syrup Mojuice lasses .. .. 97 104 96 87 103 93 n.<i. 94 n.a. 90 85 101 90 83 77 85 88 87 92 90 n.a. 101 104 107 n.a. 97 82 100 101 94 Total ClariFinal fied Syrup Mojuice lasses n.a. 84 101 95 94 n.a. n.a. 98 87 96 81 83 92 102 66 n.a. n.a. 79 83 82 n.a. 102 101 n.a. 122 n.a. n.a. n.a. 90 90
Recovered Crystal per 100 Sucrose in tie Strike

BAm.c. m.c. 60 65 63 59 63 63 67 66 64 62 63 61 63 65 60 66 62 59 60 65 60 59 CPan m.c. Cap 60 57 55 55 57 53 56 54 61 56 50 47 6! 50 42 56 42 60 48 37 46 59 BAm.c. m.c. 60 62 65 62 62 65 50 62 62 61 52 53 62 64 56 58 55 61 56 55 C- Pan m.c. Cap 56 56 66 58 61 57 60 62 55 55 50 54 67 56 47 45 55 56 44 42
Mill PG UF ZM FX FN AK DK GD DL GH MV .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Mill TS NF IL RN SZ UK MH UR LB MR
Mill PG UF ZM FX FN AK DK GD DL GH MV
Mill TS NF. IL RN SZ UK MH UR LB MR
The table also shows the pan capacities of the different factories; the capacities indicated in available cu. ft. of strike volume, per ton of cane per hour. Since the rawhouse exhaustions are shown, the pan capacities are accordingly based on the aggregate strike volume of the rawhouse pans. Pans handling remelted sugars (as at Pongola, Umfolozi, Entumeni, Gledhow. Natal Estates, Sezela, Mhlume, Umbombo Ranches and Marromeu) are not included. The factory with the highest exhaustions is Illovo; in particular the exhaustion (66 per cent) of the final massccuite is remarkable. Illovo is closely followed by Darnall with regard to exhaustions. Remarkable is also the high exhaustion of the A-massecuite of Glendale (double curing). Other factories with high exhaustions in the A-massescuites are; Doornkop, Illovo and Umzimkulu, which factories have in common that the footing of the A-massescuites is formed by B-sugar magma. All exhaustions above 60 per cent are recorded by Umbombo Ranches. All raw sugar strikes (and also the refined sugar massescuites) are single cured and boiled with the aid of vapour bled from the first vessel of the quadruple effect; the vapour pressure as well as the exhaust steam pressure being kept automatically constant. That boiling on vapour is not a criterion for good exhaustion is proved by Pongola, following the same boiling system in the rawhouse as Ubombo Ranches, i.e. the Illovo method for producing white sugar, and also recording exhaustions of 60 and 61 per cent. Since it is particularly the exhaustion of C-massecuite which interests us, a separate table has been drawn up showing the particulars of the C-strikes and the final molasses of each factory for the 1962-63 season; two columns being added showing the molasses Brix and the exhaustion of the 1961-62 season. The average density of this season's final molasses for the 16 Natal factories is 88.87 Brix against 90.48 Brix for the same factories, but the 1961-62 season. Though in this comparison the molasses Brix of Pongola was left out, because this factory crushes cane from irrigated fields, it was not possible to eliminate the effect of the better juice quality of cane grown in the mist belt or cane grown on flats with their higher water tables. If this would have been possible the difference in Brix would have been even greater.
..
It is a pity that not all factories determine the reducing sugars content in their final molasses, however, there are even two factories which do not even determine the weight of their final molasses. Finally there are three factories which do not analyse their juices for reducing sugars. All this makes the review far from complete. Assuming that the determinations of the reducing sugars are correct, low percentages of reducing sugars in clarified juice and syrup point to abnormal quantities of reducing sugars being destroyed between mixed juice weighing and syrup sampling. When after this drop, the percentage rises sharp again, it indicates that between syrup at one side and final molasses and sugars at the other side considerably more reducing sugars have been formed than destroyed viz. inversion. Boiling and Curing The results of the combined effect of boiling and curing of the different strikes are shown hereunder. In general "exhaustion" i.e. the percentage of recovered crystal in the fore-workers (or in the single curers when there are no after-workers) per 100 sucrose present in the massccuite should be more than 60 per cent. It is obvious that with regard to the A- and B-massccuitcs, it will be easier to obtain more than 60 per cent exhaustion in the event of double curing. It is also easier to obtain a high exhaustion with a fine, but regular grain than where the grain is coarse. These arc some of the facts which should be kept in mind when studying the following table:
The foregoing explanation docs not cover all cases, particularly that of Sezela, whose BH.P. is unusually low, and cannot be readily explained.
22
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists1 Association
Ap
Data related to the Exhaustion of the C-Massecuites

C-masse cuite Brix Purity 96.75 98.1 97.42 99.60 98.82 98.92 97.17 95.76 99.89 95.85 96.73 97.18 97.2 95.21 95.97 96.58 98.96 95.50 96.02 97.82 95.22 62.78 58.1 55.19 58.90 59.83 61.07 59 27 60.21 58.81 60.26 60.84 60.02 60.8 60.00 58.0 60.3 58.49 58.14 58.90 58.64 58.30 Final Molasses Brix Purity 91.36 94.4 94.8 94.61 91.45 87.30 90.39 88.30 90.53 88.45 90.23 84.51 91.17 88.70 87.66 87.55 89.61 81.19 89.74 90.62 90.78 42.07 36.97 39.16 42.69 37.42 40.92 41.33 39.98 38.75 41.46 41.55 41.18 38.26 40.80 41.3 40.90 37.92 37.86 37.28 37.25 38.07 1961-62 Brix Exh. 91.61 91.5 96.5 91.2 92.32 91.64 89.64 87.68 90.79 89.28 91.61 87.46 93.19 89.31 88.49 88.11 90.42 88.39 95.47 93.72 92.47 59 6! 58 n.a. 58 59 56 54 52 56 61 57 59 57 54 56 58 62 64 62 62
Mill MH UR LB MR PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GD DL GH MV TS NE IL RN SZ UK
Exh. 60 62 55 55 60 57 55 55 57 53 56 54 61 56 50 56 56 66 58 61 57
believed that returning the C-wash to the C-r (where double curing of the C-m.c. is applied) wo increase the cu. ft. of C-m.c. However, if the C-ma cuite is maintained at the same purity, the composit does not matter, the quantity of C-m.c. will alw be the same. We discuss this question in connection with deterioration of the lilterability of the raw sug during the course of the season; the deteriorat being accredited for the greatest part lo the increas stickiness of the molasses. As a result of the increas stickiness more and more molasses adhered to C-sugar and more and more molasses was return to the A- and B-massecuites, either in the form C-sugar magma or as melt of C-sugar. This explana tion, of course, refers to factories where single cur of the C-m.c. was customary. However, the grad decrease in filterability occurred also at some f tories where double curing of the C-m.c. was pr tised. In so far as the deterioration of the lilterabi is due to return of final molasses' non-sugars to main boilings, we offer the following explanalu Either the C-wash was returned to the B-strik or the second time curing of the C-sugar was i sufficiently effective. If the C-wash is returned to the B-strikes instead to the C-strikes, it just cancels out the whole ell of curing twice. Unsatisfactory effect of the second curing is mos due to a too high density, too low temperature a too low purity of the liquid used to mingle the C-suj into a magma for the afterworkcrs. The greater I difference in purity between the final molasses fi around the C-sugar crystals and the wash liquid, 1 better the washing effect in the mingler will be. is obvious that a more liquid wash will help the effe However, it is routine in some factories to circuh the C-wash for a long time; the wash becoming mc and more saturated with final molasses. It is obvio that such C-wash is a poor washing medium, whi cannot be corrected by washing the C-sugar in t afterworkers with more water. The washing eff< should take place and takes place in the mingler. is therefore that we always recommend to minj the pre-cured C-sugar with "fresh" B-molasscs tak from the feed tanks from the pans, which means tithe B-molasses is already diluted and heated. T C-wash as spun off by the afterworkers is direci returned to the B-molasses storage tanks in a co tinuous process, like the supply of wash for mingli is a continuously renewal, without any circulatio Adhering strictly to this method has the following advantages: (i) a better quality of the double-cured C-suga hence, less final molasses is boiled back in t A- and B-massecuitcs, either in the form C-sugar magma or as C-sugar melt liquor; (ii) the assurance that the C-wash containing tl final molasses removed by the afterworkcrs, returned to the proper place i.e. to the last strik
This lower molasses density proves that the statement made previously, is correct viz. the statement that "in order to be able to handle the abnormal quantity of abnormal sticky molasses, exhaustion had to be sacrificed". The following table shows: Non-Sugar Circulation within the System: C-Massecuite and Final Molasses
Mill PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK .. .. .. .. .. Per cent 121 123 114 114 111 102 130 Mill GD .. DL .. GH .. MV.. TS .. NE .. IL .. Per cent 118 104 111 121 n.a. 132 147 Mill RN . . SZ . . UK . . MH.. UR . . LB .. MR.. Per cent 100 120 n.a. 106 115 148 146
The following is to be said about the table above: The quantity of C-massecuite to be boiled depends on five factors, to wit: (i) the amount of non-sugars originally present in the juice, (ii) the portion of these non-sugars removed by the clarification process, (iii) the quantity of non-sugars generated during processing, (iv) the percentage of non-sugars in the C-massecuite viz. the purity and the Brix of the C-m.c, and finally, (v) the percentage of non-sugars circulating within the system C-m.c, C-sugar and final molasses. Contrary to the belief held by a few, the cu. ft. of C-m.c, do not depend on the manner the C-strike is composed; for example boiled from syrup and Bmolasses, or composed of A-molasses, B-molasses and C-wash. We point this out, because it is sometimes
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril J963
23
Pumping the C-wash back to a special tank on the pan floor marked "C-wash" always leads to difficulties, either that the present shift leaves the C-wash to the next shift, or that the C-wash is used for a B-strike for one reason or the other. To conclude this section we show a table rendering the true purities and the target purities of the final molasses, and the differences between these two purities. However, it was only possible to calculate these data for those factories recording: gravity purities, reducing sugars content: and sulphated ash percentages for their molasses. (The target purities have been calculated with, the aid of the Douwes Dekkcr formulae for defecation and sulphitation molasses.) We hope that next season there will be a better cane quality than experienced during the 1962-63 season and that it will be possible to reduce the differences between obtained and target purities.
In connection with Amatikulu it should be mentioned that here the C-massecuites are still cured with "old-fashioned" centrifugals, while the capacity of Felixton's C-m.c. machines is insufficient.
Mill LB MR UF ZM FX AK. DK. DL NE IL SZ True Purity 45.2 48.9 46.2 43.9 44.3 45.0 44.1 41.8 42.8 40.9 41.9 Target Purity 41.8 43.6 41.7 39.9 39.3 37.7 38.0 37.6 39.5 37.2 38.9
Difference 1 3.3 (5.3

4 . 5
! 4.0 15.0 1-7.4 -1-6.2 -1 4.2

i-3.2
+ 3.7
i-3.0
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association
April
TABLE 1
FINAL SUGAR PRODUCTION

(In tons of 2,000 lbs.Season 1962/63.)
Mill
White -
Refinery Raws 91,578.840 39,878.270 60,137.190 42,201.230 233,795.530
Golden Brown 332.500 327.500 1,710.000 40,170.500 42,540.500 326.150 3,500.500 3,167.755
E xport 30,591.315 23,517.200 31,441.250 22,128.050 107,677.815 65,648.1605 14,380.275 63,599.655 251,305.9055 13,382.340 25,447.982 26,531.715 27,486.177 16,747.495 81,151.770 190,747.479 61,898.5359 32,082.155 6,412.455 4,858.875 547,305.4054 2,968.000 358.000 550,631.4054
T OTA 122,502 63,722 93,288. 104,499. 384,013. 121,439. ( 31,224.' 66,767.-= 603,445.4 81,245.3 26,616.9 64,003.7 103,747.2 33,689.7 96,050.7 405,353.8 125,499.9 33,136. ( 14,794.7 11,048.C 1,193,278.6 39,836.0 40,434.0 1,273,548.6
Darnalli
Amatiku!u Felixton
Empangeni
Tongaat
473.000
55,465.3335 12,870.735
Melville Illovo (1) Reynolds Crookes Pongola Gledhow Umzimkulu Natal Estates (2) Umfolozi Doornkop Entumeni Glendale
473.000 67,743.000 50.000 20,025.000 76,261.200 10,234.050 174,313.250 53,906.264 6,757.025 4,647.400 240,096.939
302,131.5985 302,131.5985
49,534.905 120.000 1,119.000 17,447.000 16,942.250 4,664.900 40,293.150 9,695.150 1,054.500 1,625.250 1,541.800 103,744.755 14,375.000 21,740.000 139,859.755
Ubombo Mhlume (35
22,493.000 18,336.000 280,925.939 White Brown Export Less: Swaziland S.A
583,057.5375 139,859.7550 550,631.4054 . . . . 1,273,548.6979 80,270 1,193,278.6979 "
(1) Total (Hulsar) (2) Total (Smiths) (3.) Total (General)
24
April J963
TABLE 1
FINAL SUGAR PRODUCTION

(In tons of 2,000 lbs.Season 1962/63.)
Mill
White
Refinery Raws 91,578.840 39,878.270
Golden Brown 332.500 327.500 1,710.000 40,170.500 42,540.500 326.150 3,500.500 3,167.755
Lxporl 30,591.315 23,517.200 31,441 .250 22,128.050 107,677.815 65,648.1605 14,380.275 63,599.655 251,305.9055 13,382.340 25,447.982 26,531.715 27,486.177 16,747.495 81,151.770 190,747.479 61,898.5359 32,082.155 6,412.455 4,858.875 547,305.4054 2,968.000 358.000 550,631.4054
TOTAL 122,502.655 63,722.970 93,288.440 104,499.780 384,013.845 121,439.644 31,224.510 66,767.410 603,445.409 81,245.340 26,616.982 64,003.715 103,747.377 33,689.745 96,050.720 405,353.879 125,499.9499 33,136.655 14,794.730 11,048.075 1,193,278.6979 39,836.000 40,434.000 1,273,548.6979
. . . . . .
_....
60,137.190 42,201.230 233,795.530 55,465.3335 12,870.735
Tongaat
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
473.000
473.000 67,743.000 50.000 20,025.000 302,131.5985
49,534.905 120.000 1,119.000 17,447.000
_
302,131.5985 . . . . . . . . .
76,261.200
16,942.250 4,664.900 40,293.150 9,695.150 1,054.500 1,625.250 1,541.800 103,744.755 14,375.000 21,740.000 139,859.755
. . .
. (2) . . . . . . . .
10,234.050 174,313.250 53,906.264
. . .
. Glendale . . . . .
6,757.025 4,647.400 240,096.939
Ubombo
. .
. . .
. . .
22,493.000 18,336.000 280,925.939 White Brown Export . . .
(3)
583,057 .5375 139,859 .7550 550,631 .4054 1,273,548. 6979 80,270 6979
Less:
Swaziland S.A
(1) Total (Hulsar) (2) Total (Smiths) (3) Total (General)
Table 2.CANE CRUSHED, SUGAR MADE, VARIETIES AND THROUGHPUT

FACTORY PG 6.6.62 9.2.63 524,571 UF 7.5.62 18.2.63 ,120,330 ZM 16.5.62 23.2.63 935,779 FX EN 7.6.62 26.1.63 122,696 AK DK GD DL GH 10.5.62 11.2.63 942.681 MV TS NE 10.5.62 2.3.63 892,372 IL 3.5.62 20.3.63 583,974 RN SZ UK 7.6.62 6.12.63 295,037 Totals and Means 1.6.62 20.3.63 10,749,410
CRUSHING PERIOD FROM E N D OF SEASON TONS CANE CRUSHED
..
3.5.62 16.2.63 874,565
3.5.62 23.2.63 594,815
5.6.62 5.1.63 285,575
3.5.62 15.5.62 24.2.63 6.2.63 106,864 1,080,894
30.5.62 11.5.62 27.2.63 17.2.63 284,768 1,099,113
1.5.62 21.5.62 10.1.63 23.2.63 253,799 751,477
CANE QUALITY Sucrose per cent Fibre per cent Java R a t i o T o n s C a n e per T o n Sugar D i t t o per ton 96" Sugar
14.55 13.80 80.18 8.20 7.94
13.44 13.31 80.78 8.93 8.57
13.48 16.74 77.45 8.95 8.72
12.82 15.72 78.55 9.37 9.11
14.21 14.29 79.21 8.28 7.99
13.19 16.34 78.05 9.33 9.06
13.69 16.06 78.38 8.62 8.50
13.07 16.17 75.98 9.67 9.40
13.28 16.23 77.91 8.82 8.58
13.60 15.19 79.69 9.08 8 75
13.31 15 72 77 S4 9.12 8 58
J2.95 16.13 77.17 9.05 8.81
12.92 15.51 78.94 9.29 9.03
13.15 14.89 79 03 8.75 8.60
12.35 15.27 78.71 9.54 9.40
13.10 16.17 79.03 9.25 8.90
13.71 15.56 [ 78.69 8.76 8.49
13.28 15.50 78.59 9.01 8 91
CANE VARIETIES Percentage Co.311 . N:Co.310. N:Co.292. N:Co.293 . N:Co.339 . N:Co.376. N:Co.382 . O t h e r Varieties. . T O T A L R A I N F A L L (ins.) TONS SUGAR MADE Percentage of White Sugars Average Pol of All Sugars
0.21 83.40 0.21 1.71 1.03 8.03 0.02 0.39 20.79 64,004 31.44 99.14
3.50 82.28 0.74 0.65 4.28 7.56 0.48 0.51 31.68 125,500 44.15 98.73
1.64 86.70 0.25 0.17 2.04 8.75 0.24 0.21 32.18 104,500 Nil 98.63
7 66 58.04 2 86 0.33 4.45 16.93 2.14 7.59 40.94 93,288 Nil 98.78
6.82 21.53 0.69 49.05 1.98 18.74 1.04 0.15 42.14 14,795 45.58 99.41
6.66 90.66 0.10 0.23 Nil 2.33 0.01 0.01 28.56 63,723 Nil 98.00
5.88 37.82 0.81 24.00 1.11 26.93 0.78 2.67 35.43 33,137 Nil 97.34
24.85 28 25 0 28 5 21 1 05 4.74 Nil 35.62 24.78 11,048 42.06 98.75
6.75 64 48 0.49 2.77 2 4S 12 69 O.SO 9.54 36.90 122,503 Nil 98.71
4 27 39.77 1.35 5.21 2.47 27.17 0.75 19.01 30.27 103.747 73.51 99.66
16 79 22-81 1 9S 1 60 5 20 18 33 0 96 32.38 30.68 31,226 Nil 98.60
7.90 41.17 3.13 3.29 9.26 26.50 5.90 2.85 27.75 121.440 Nil 98.62
11 .49 35.93 7 89 2.07 5 88 19.46 5.72 11.56 36.16 96.051 10.65 98.76
31.27 26.32 0.12 26.85 2.43 10.12 1-32 1.57 40.58 66,767 Nil 97.59
10.10 15.68 10.22 4.43 3.47 47.95 6-69 1.46 41.38 26,617 Nil 97.40
20.42 23.19 6.28 3.29 3.39 34.49 2.32 6.62 32.04 81,245 83.38 99.69
9.82 40.53 1.04 6.56 2.97 38.42 0.05 0.61 40.95 33,690 Nil 99.06
8.89 54.00 2.28 4.62 3.67 18.04 1.92 6.58 32.93 1,193,279 20.12 98.78
..
TIME ACCOUNT T i m e Crushed % T i m e Mills Open Stoppages due to Cane S h o r t a e e T.M.O O t h e r Stoppages % T i m e Mills C pen THROUGHPUTS (per h o u r actual crushing) T o n s o f C a n e Crushed T o n s of Fibre Milled T o n s of Brix Processed T o n s of Sugar Bagged
94.86 0.50 4.64
95.41 0.93 3.65
94.30 1.37 4.33
94.96 2.57 2.47
98.35 1.42 0.23
95.50 2.43 2.06
92.69 4.96 2.35
73.61 2.89 23.50
93.90 2.51 3.59
96.48 1.27 2.26
89.54 5.28 5.18
91.96 2.64 5.40
94.06 3.16 2.78
88.83 2.54 8.63
93.88 4.59 153
.94.30 3.61 2.09
94.86 1.71 3 42
92.72 2.76 4.52
110.11 15.19 17.63 13.43
171.57 22.84 26.32 19.22
170.63 28.56 26.05 19.06
154.41 24.27 22.00 16.47
25.67 3.67 3.91 3.10
101.96 16.66 15.22 10.92
70.73 11.36 10.61 8.21
26.53 4.29 3.70 2.74
188.60 30.61 29.07 21.38
169.88 25.81 25.59 19.07
54 09 8.51 7.99 5.93
197.11 31.78 29.24 21.78
157.45 24.42 23.54 16.95
91.19 13.58 13.33 10.43
52.57 8.03 7.57 5.51
140.43 22.71 20.98 15.55
62.24 9.68 9.21 7.11
119.39 18.50 17.92 13.25
PG UF ZM FX EN AK
Pongola S.M.C. Ltd. Umfolozi C.S.P. Ltd. Zululand S.M. & P. Ltd. Sir J. L. Hulett's Felixton Entumeni S.M.C. (Ply.) Ltd. Sir J . L . Hulett's A m a t i k u l u
Identity of the Symbols used to indicate the factories D K D o o r n k o p Industries Ltd, GD Glendale Sugar Millers. D L Sir J . L . H u l e l f s D a r n a l l G H G l e d h o w - C . K . S . C . Ltd. MV Melville S.E. TS T o n g a a t S.C. Ltd. Sugar tonnages are the official figures as supplied by the S.A. Sugar Association. Cane variety percentages and Java ratios are those as published by the Sugar Industry Central Board.
N E N a t a l Estates Ltd. IL lllovo S.E. Ltd. R N Crookes Brothers' Renishaw. SZ Revnolds Brothers' Sezela UK Umzimkuiu S.C. Ltd.
Table 3.SUCROSE BALANCE, RECOVERIES, ANALYSIS OF BAGASSE, JUICES, CAKE AND SYRUP
FACTORIES PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GD DL GH MV TS NE 1L UN
sz
5.07 0.42 10.18 0.87 11.47 16.54 83.46 96 46 87.92 32.30 249.55 44 94.93 40.35
UK
Totals and Means
SUCROSE BALANCE Lost in Bagasse (A) In Filler C a k e (B) In Final Molasses (C) Undetermined Losses (D) Lost in Boiling House ( B ) + ( C H ( D ) . . T o t a l of All Losses (A) + (B) + (C) + (DI OVERALL RECOVERY BOILING HOUSE P E R F O R M A N C E . . BOILING HOUSE RECOVERY LOST A B S O L U T E J U I C E % F I B R E . . IMBIBITION % FIBRE SPECIFIC FEED RATE SUCROSE EXTRACTION IMBIBITION % CANE FINAL BAGASSE Sucrose /a Bagasse Moisture ' Bagasse Fibre % Bagasse Bagasse % Cane *Lowcr Calorific Value (b.t.u./lb.) FIRST EXPRESSED JUICE Degree Brix A p p a r e n t Purity LAST EXPRESSED JUICE Degree Brix A p p a r e n t Purity MIXED JUICE Degree Brix A p p a r e n t Purity Gravity Purity Reducing Sugars/Sucrose R a t i o CLARIFIED JUICE Degree Brix A p p a r e n t Purity Reducing Sugars/Sucrose R a t i o Average p H FILTER CAKE Sucrose % Filter C a k e Filter C a k e % C a n e SYRUP Degree Brix A p p a r e n t Purity Reducing Sugars/Sucrose R a t i o Average p H
6.97 0.45 7.45 2.01 9.91 16.88 83.12 97.64 89.35 50.24 224.91 52 93.03 31.04
5.08 0.97 9.70 2.01 12.68 17.76 82.24 95.12 86.64 39.06 294.47 22 94.92 39.20
5.86 0.43 10.98 1.01 12.42 18.28 81.72 95.24 86.80 33.98 357.60 58 94.14 59.96
6.60 0.47 9.41 1.30 11.18 17.78 82.22 96.37 88.03 40.85 281.87 34 93.40 44.31
6.64 0.31 7.06 1.51 8.88 15.52 84.48 97.47 90.48 43.05 239.77 48 93.36 34.27
6.40 0.30 10.86 1.82 12.98 19.38 80.62 94.88 86.16 35.77 249.27 46 93.60 40.74
7.38 0.74 8.32 1.07 10.13 17.51 82.49 96.33 89.06 44.50 228.34 42 92.62 36.66
10.45 0.28 10.33 0.85 11.46 21.91 78.09 95.40 87.20 58,31 241.15 49 89.55 38.99
4.52 0.27 10.06 0.91 11.24 15.76 84.24 97.38 88.23 27.27 382.06 51 95.48 62.00
6.52 0.39 10.17 1.42 11.98 18.50 81.50 95.39 87.19 42.45 206.79 39 93.4S 31.42
7.88 0.38 10.14 0.39 10.91 18.79 81.21 96.72 88.16 46.35 212.01 56 92.12 33.34
5.13 0.82 n.a. n.a. 10.72 15.85 84.15 97.52 88.70 29.70 199.13 35 94.57 32.11
4.98 0.56 10.80 1.42 12.78 17.76 82.24 95.61 86.55* 31.17 229.90 38 95 02 35.66
5.85 0.32 8.42 0.57 9.31 15.16 84.84 97.57 90.11 40.30 248.17 43 94.15 36.96
5.07 0.19 10.55 1 .46 12.20 17.27 82.73 95.90 87.15 34.80 204.44 42 94.93 31 .22
8.27 0.34 n.a.

0
9.23 17.50 82.50 98.00 89.93 49.50 263.81 51 91.73 41 .05
5.85 0.50 9.91 1.07 11.48 17.33 82.67 96.61 87. b 1 37.36 266.08 42 94.15 41.23
2.90 56.57 39.43 35 00 2710
2.25 52.88 41.81 30.33 3040
2.06 53.40 43.69 38.31 2999
2.36 52.84 43.88 35.82 3042
3.04 50.04 46.06 31.03 3272
2.28 52.80 44.18 36.99 3047
2.80 51.70 44.44 36.13 3133
3.62 52.44 42.87 37.72 3054
1.71 51.38 46.17 35.15 3180
2.50 53.59 42.91 35.41 2975
2.89 52.88 43.27 36.34 3029
1.96 49.58 47.75 33.77 3331
1.91 51.31 45.99 33.72 3182
2.34 51.44 45.19 32.95 3163
1.91 50.40 46.66 32.73 3261
1.92 50.54 46.60 34.70 3249
3.08 53.74 4") T) 36^85 2951
2.24 52.17 44.65 34.70 3105
20.94 86.06
19.33 86.09
20.50 84.66
19.06 86.12
20.17 88.32
19.75 85.33
20.19 86.43
19.91 85.70
19.84 85.04
19.81 86.20
19.94 86.00
19.74 85.00
19.40 84.59
19.31 86.22
18.85 83.21
19.30 85.34
19.92 87.25
19.69 85.52
3.40 72.35
2.73 69.78
2.79 70.79
2.66 71.94
1.94 79.11
2.41 75.20
3.95 72.64
4.26 77.20
1.53 69.82
3.II 71 .51
2.52 75.60
3.03 73.80
2.58 70.86
2 62 70.23
3.29 67.90
2.56 66.80
3.35 76.12
2.72
77.49
14.09 83.36 5.11
16.67 84.34 84.58 3.26
14.09 83.18 3.79
12.56 8 3 . 12 5.18
13.13 84.02 4.82
14.77 87.08 2.57
14.39 82.67 5.75
14.93 84.51 84.85 4.80
13.78 83.86
12.15 82.27 6.10
15.69 84.39 3.90

13.28 84.40 n.a. 6.90
15.23 83.02 5.10
15.08 82.81 6.61
14.66 8 2 . 17 6.21
14.05 82.98 84.74 5.33
14.61 81.43 n.a. 4.12
14.14 82.74 83.24 5.06
14.21 84.94\ n.a. / n.a.
16.84 85.21 3.17 6.93
13.86 84.61 3.99 6.81
11.95 83.71 4.99 7.06
12.20 84.14 4.22 7.10
15.12 87.25 2.65 n.a.
13.90 83.18 5.35 7.30
15.61 85.46 n.a. 7.20
11 .52 82.89 5.73 7.50
14.39 85.60 3.62 7.08
14.10 84.10 4.60 7.10
14.33 84.00 n.a. 7.30
13.81 82.97 5.25 7.35
13.69 85.34 5.42 7.23
15.87 82.40 3.94 7.20
14.25 83.65 4.98 7.04
15.01 85.54 n.a. 7.23
13.70 84.13 4.75 7.15
I . 69 3.86
2.61 5.00
1.05 5.52
0.89 6.80
0.89 5.00
0.58 6.80
2.04 5.00
0.74 5.00
0.66 5.32
0.92 5.79
1.01 5.00
2.08 5.13
1.26 5.73
1 .35 3.47
0.52 4.46
1.08 5.10
I . 15 4.00
1.27 5.28
60.69 84.78 2.79 6.82
58.18 85.08 3.85 6.33
57.70 83.52 4.69 6.33
51.58 84.33 4.01 6.70
61.81 87.04 1.99 n.a.
52.34 83.57 4.92 6.90
57.63 85.70 4.28 6.70
55.87 84.70 n.a. 6.70
61.65 83.18 5.32 7.00
52.62 85.30 3.62 6.94
51.06 84.20 4.60 6.80
62.18 84.50 5.42 6.60
58.77 83,18 5.16 6.92
62.39 84.84 4.92 6.53
56.64 82.10 4.23 7.00
61.03 83.76 3.47 6.82
59.60 85.97 n.a. 6.61
57.95 84.26 4.45 6.73
L.C.V. of Bagasse = 7650 18S86.4 W in which formula " S " stands for Sucrose % bagasse, and " W " for Moisture % bagasse.
Data of Glcdh o\v a n d Sezela regarding osses, recoveries. etc. refer to R a w h o u s e operations (e xcl. Refinery).
Table 4.MASSECUITES AND MOLASSES: LIME, SULPHUR AND PHOSPHORIC PASTE CONSUMPTIONS
FACTORIES BRIX % CANE A-MASSECUITE Cubic Feet per Ton Brix* Brix of Massecuite Purity of ditto Purity of Molasses Drop in Purities Exhaustion! B-MASSECUITE Cubic Feet per Ton Brix* Brix of Massecuite Purity of ditto Purity of Molasses Drop in Purities Exhaustion!
PG UF ZM FX EN AK DK GD DL GH MV TS NE IL RN SZ UK
Totals an d Means 15.01
16.01
15.34
15.27
14.25
15.24
14.93
15.00
13.96
15.41
15.06
14.77
14.84
14.95
14.61
14.39
14.94
14.80
.. ..
26.82 91.85 84.25 67.98 16.27 60.31
25.45 92.71 84.97 66.49 18.48 64.90
19.35 93.48 84.22 66.10 18.12 63.46
20.89 92.39 83.61 67.91 15.70 58.51
28.82 91.58 85.90 69.32 16.58 62.91
19.70 92.12 83.06 64.57 18.49 62.83
30.81 93.04 88.90 72.28 16.62 67.44
24.28 92.52 85.75 67.39 18.36 65.66
20.41 93.30 83.00 64.00 19.00 63.60
22.77 90.42 85.80 69.90 15.90 61.57
24.86 91.65 82.80 64.00 18.80 63.10
23.95 92.64 83.20 66.40 16.80 60.10
20.94 94.77 82.76 64.79 17,97 61.67
36.94 90.79 86.43 69.32 17.11 64.52
20.39 92.73 81.70 62.90 18.80 62.02
23.16 92.79 83.36 65.69 17.67 61.80
30.45 91.27 84.88 66.50 18.38 64.64
24.69 92.36 85.01 66.80 18.21 64.52
.. ..
9.45 94.47 73.38 51.99 21.39 60.72
9.59 95.47 75.25 52.81 22.44 63.19
12.22 95.81 73.21 48.84 24.37 65.06
12.27 93.44 74.09 53.17 20.92 60.29
16.09 95.34 73.43 48.49 24.94 65.94
13.17 94.43 71.76 49.27 22.49 61.78
13.25 94.07 74.65 54.76 19.89 58.89
12.00 95.96 72.28 50.92 21.36 60.21
11.55 95.50 71.70 46.70 25.00 65.40
13.85 93.55 72.80 51.80 21.00 59.85
17.84 94.30 70.10 49.10 21.00 58.90
14.08 94.98 71.60 54.60 17.00 52.30
15.17 95.76 69.20 58.49 17.96 53.23
12.21 92.19 71.58 49.25 22.33 61.47
13.48 94.79 70.20 46.00 24.20 63.84
13.19 95.60 68.77 49.29 19.48 55.86
12.08 92.91 71.59 51.13 20.46 58.48
13.02 94.62 72.10 50.98 21.12 59.76
C-MASSECUITE Cubic Feet per Ton Brix* Brix of Massecuite Purity of ditto Purity of Molasses Drop in Purities Exhaustion! Crystal % Massecuite
.. .. .. .. ..
7.86 98.82 59.83 37.42 22.41 59.85 35.39
8.91 98.92 61.07 40.10 20.97 57.32 34.63
9.43 97.17 59.27 39.66 19.61 54.83 31.58
9.47 95.76 60.21 40.56 19.65 54.90 31.66
6.42 99.89 58.81 38.17 20.64 56.76 33.34
9.34 95.85 60.26 41.70 18.56 52.83 30.51
9.68 96.73 60.84 40.64 20.20 55.93 32.92
10.02 97.18 60.02 40.93 19.09 53.84 31.41
9.14 97.20 60.80 37.90 22.90 60.80 35.80
9.36 95.21 60.00 39.80 20.20 55.92 31.95
8.85 95.97 58.00 41.10 16.90 49.50 27.50
10.67 96.58 60.30 39.90 20.40 56.30 32.80
11.02 98.96 58.49 38.02 20.47 56.46 32.68
10.96 98.50 58.14 32.25 25.89 65.73 36.49
9.83 96.02 58.90 37.30 21.60 58.49 33.08
9.85 97.82 58.64 35.57 23.06 61.03 35.01
8.49 95.22 58.30 37.29 21.01 57.47 31.90
9.36 97.0C 59.52 38.74 20.78 57.0C 32.9C
TOTAL CUBIC FEET OF MASSECUITE Per Ton Sugar made .. .. .. Per Ton Brix processed*
57.92 44.14
60.21 43.95
56.09 41.04
56.95 42.64
64.75 51.13
58.87 42.23
69.50 53.74
62.52 46.30
55.92 41.12
63.50 47.31
69.45 51.55
73.62 54.83
65.42 47.13
76.82 60.11
59.96 43.69
62.31 46.20
66.13 51.01
63.46 47.07
FINAL MOLASSES Degree Brix Apparent Purity Gravity Purity Per cent Reducing Sugars Per cent Sulphated Ash Reduced Sugars/Ash Ratio Molasses (85 % Brix) % Cane
91.45 37.42 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.41
87.30 40.10 40.92 12.46 13.88 0.90 3.75
90.39 39.66 41.33 16.45 12.71 1.29 4.21
88.30 40.56 39.98 17.27 12.10 1.43 3.55
90.53 38.75 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.23
88.45 41.70 41.46 12.55 9.76 1.29 4.05
90.23 40.64 41.55 13.94 9.92 1.40 3.30
84.51 41.18 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.88
91.17 37.90 38.26 19.51 10.68 1.83 4.11
88.70 39.80 40.80 12.45 n.a. n.a. 3.82
87.66 41.10 41.27 14.95 n.a. n.a. 3.85
87.55 39.90 40.90 19.30 n.a. n.a. n.a.
89.61 38.02 37.92 18.27 11.83 1.54 4.32
86.19 32.63 37.86 18.65 9.67 1.93 3.47
89.74 37.28 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 4.03
90.62 36.62 37.25 19.28 11.13 1.73 4.21
90.78 37.29\ 38.07/ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
89.07
1Q "> jy . 0 *
16.2 11.3. 1.44 p

3.9
Sulph. CLARIFYING AGENTS LIMElb. per ton Cane lb. per ton Sugar lb. per ton Brix* SULPHURlb. per ton Cane lb. per ton Sugar lb. per ton Brix* PHOSPHORIClb. per ton Cane lb. per ton Sugar lb. per ton Brix* * Brix in Mixed Juice 0.99 8.12 6.19
Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Defec. 1.32 11.76 8.SI

Nil Ni! Ni! Nil Ni! Nil
2.60 23.18 16.92 0.69 6.15 4.49

Nil Nil Nil
1.46 13.05 9.55

1.25 11.73 8.78

5.12 42.36 33.58 2.07 17.13 13.58 0.57 4.69 3.70
1.91 17.82 12.79

1.46 12.55 9.77

Nil Nil Nil Ni Nil Nil
4.40 42.54 31.50 2.13 20.64 15.28 0.37 2.68 3.62
1.45 12.83 9.44

4.96 44.23 32.95 1.32 11.77 8.77

Nil Nil Nil
3.25 29.65 22.01 0.32 2.97 2.20

Nil Nil Nil
1.18 10.70 7.97

n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
1.32 11.52 9 01
Nil Nil Nil
4.33 41.33 30.11 1.87 17.81 12.98 0.50 4.73 3.45
5.92 53.47 39.65 2.50 22.58 16.75

Nil Nil Nil
0.85 7.48 5.77

Nil Nil Nil
4.95 44.79 33.56 1.98 17.99 13.47 0.29 2.42 2.15
0.07 0.63 0.49
0.12 1.04 0.80
t Exhaustion indicates the lb. of crystal in sugar (recovered by the centrifugals) per 100 lb. of sucrose in massecuite.
-April 1063
Table 5.DATA OF MHLUME, UBOMBO RANCHES, LUABO AND MARROMEU

Mhlume 28.6.62 23.12.62 277,127 82 33,352 56 14.35 11.98 8.31 80.02 20.50 87.45 33 241 44 28.93 94.69 2.75 53.08 96.22 88.01 83.34 84.48 n.a. n.a. n.a. 59.79 2.74 3.94 Ubombo R. 1.5.62 21.12.62 327,832 78 36,792 59 13.23 13.14 8.91 80.61 19.06 86.10 42 229 34 29.12 95.43 2.16 50.15 97.16 88.20 84.16 83.18 4.88 4.82 3.87 61.04 0.97 5.00 Luabo* 2.5.62 19.11.62 593,209 151 68,508 51 13.71 14.58 8.66 79.94 19.75 86.84 57 191 45 27.91 93.26 2.91 50.15 97.32 89.56 83.52 85.53 4.21 3.69 3.50 60.35 2.15 4.20 Marromeu* 30.4.62 25.11.62 630,499 154 70,896 22 13.71 14.99 8.89 78.00 20.30 86.60 69 177 59 26.55 90.56 3.78 51.93 96.92 89.23 80.80 84.79 3.55 3.44 2.94 64.00 3.37 4.00
FACTORY Season Started Season Ended Tons Cane Crushed Tons Cane per hour Tons Sugar Made .. Percentage White Sugar Sucrose per cent Cane Fibre per cent Cane Tons Cane/Ton Sugar Java Ratio .. Brix 1st Expressed Juice - Purity of 1st Expressed Juice Specific Feed Rate Imbibition j Fibre LOST JUICE % FIBRE Imbibition % Cane Sucrose Extraction Sucrose % Bagasse Moisture % Bagasse BOILING HOUSE PERFORMANCE Boiling House Recovery Overall Recovery PURITY OF MIXED JUICE Red. Sugars/Sucrose Ratios: of Mixed Juice of Clarified Juice of Syrup Degree Brix of Syrup Sucrose % Filter Cake .. Filter Cake % Cane FINAL MOLASSES: Gravity Purity Apparent Purity Degree Brix Molasses (85 Brix) % Cane SUCROSE BALANCE: Lost in Bagasse In Filter Cake In Final Molasses UNDETERMINED LOSSES Total of Aii Losses PER TON BRIX Cu. ft. A-rnassecuite Cu. ft. B-massecuite Cu. ft. C-massecuite Total cu. ft. of all Massecuite TOTAL RAINFALL (1962) (ins.) Percentage N:Co.330 crushed
n.a. 42.07 91.40 3.54
36.97 34.67 94.40 4.39
39.16 91.10 3.45
42.70 39.20 89.10 3.16
5.31 0.75 9.49 1.11 16.66
4.57 0.37 9.67 1.23 15.84
6.74 0.63 8.70 0.41 16.48
9.44 0.99 8.38 0.39 19.20
41.58 11.79 8.16 61.52 28.52 75.40
28.33 11.85 9.23 49.42 18.54 53.00
31.06 12.83 8.00 51.90 57.26 65.60
24.53 12.87 7.76 45.16 61.25 69.85
Note.Mhlume and Marromeu apply the Illovo system for manufacturing mill whites, viz. defecation; rcmclting the A-sugar and reboiimg the raw A-sugar melt into white sugar strikes. Ubombo Ranches follows this process too, but applies in addition a light sulphitation to the mixed juice (0.95 lb. sulphur per ton of cane) and treats the raw melt according to the flue-gas carbonatation. Luabo applies the "old Natal" system, viz. mixed juice sulphitation and double curing of the A-massecuite. * Metric Tons converted into tons of 2,000 lb. * Mhlume's and Big Bend's "Final" Data are actually the to-date figures at the end of December, 1962, when these factories temporarily interrupted their 1962-63 crushing season.
Table 6.AVERAGE MANUFACTURING RESULTS BY MONTHLY PERIODS FOR THE 17 S.A. SUGAR FACTORIES
(Season 19621963)
MONTHLY PERIOD ENDED: TONS CANE CRUSHED To date TONS CANE C R U S H E D PER H O U R ACT. CR TONS SUGAR MADE A N D ESTIMATED TONS OF CANE PER T O N OF SUGAR .. Month To date Month To date Month To date . 126 . 77,717 . 9.41 . June 2 1962 737,117 June 30 1962 1,084,606 1,821,723 118 121 123.673 201,389 8.77 9.05 Julv 28 1962 1.138.339 2,960.062 118 120 135.592 336,981 8.40 8.78 Sept. 1 1962 1.323,166 4,283,228 116 119 160.871 497,852 8.22 8.60 Sept. 29 1962 1,133.671 5,416,899 122 Oct. 27 1962 1,126,232 6,543,131 115 118 128,829 762,836 8.74 8.58 Dec. 1 1962 1,341,506 7,884,637 116 118 145,158 907,994 9.24 8.68 Dec. 29 1962 1,023,501 8,908,138 118 118 106,587 1,014,581 9.60 8.78 Feb. 2 1963 1,233,923 10,142,061 123 119 123,511 1.138,092 9.99 8.91 Mar. V 1963 569,553 10,711,614 140 120 55,813 1,193,905 10.20 8.97
iT5
136,155 634,007 8.33 8.54
SUCROSE FIBRE
% CANE
..
Month To dale Month To d a t e
12.62 . 14.68 .
13.37 13.07 14.82 14.76
13.87 13.38 14.92 14.82
14.46 13.71 15.10 14.91
14.29 13.83 15.17 14.96
13.71 13.81 15.58 14.99
13.01 13.67 16.18 15.19
12.62 13.53 16.30 15.32
12.15 13.38 16.21 15.43
11.77 13.30 16.68 15.44
% CANE
LOST ABSOLUTE JUICE
% FIBRE ..
Month To d a t e Month To date
37 . , . 96.50
38 37 96.80 96.70
36 9S.10 97.20
37 36 96.20 96.90
38 38 97.50 97.00
37 37 94.80 96.60
37 37 94.70 96.30
36 37 95.30 96.30
38 37
36 37 96.10 96.30
BOILING HOUSE PERFORMANCE
S U C R O S E E X T R A C T I O N (by milling trains) B O I L I N G H O U S E R E C O V E R Y (on mixed juice) OVERALL RECOVERY
Month To date Month To d a t e Month To date
94.34 . 87.50 . 82.49 .
94.40 94.38 89.14 88.50 84.15 83.52
94.55 94.41 89,40 88.90 84.53 83.93
94.42 94.41 87.72 88.52 82.82 83.57
94.31 94.39 88.52 88.52 83.58 83.55
94.14 94.35 86.77 88.22 81.68 83.23
94.00 94.29 87.31 88.07 82.06 83.04
93.77 94.23 86.92 87.95 81.50 82.88
94.17 87.98 82.85
93.85 94.15 87.54 87.80 81.72 82.66
PURITY OF MIXED JUICE REDUCING SUGARS TO SUCROSE RATIO
.. ..
Month To date Month To date
. . .
83.09 4.69
85.14 84.33 4.38 4.42
83.45 83.98 4.58 4.47
83.47 83.77 4.85 4.65
83.59 83.73 4.87 4.69
83.55 83.70 4.64 4.67
83.60 83.70 4.41 4.65
82.59 83.59 5.14 4.92
82.32 83.45 5.50 5.04
81.54 83.36 5.84 5.10
F I N A L M O L A S S E S O F 85= B R I X % C A N E GRAVITY PURITY OF FINAL MOLASSES SUCROSE IN MOLASSES % SUCROSE IN CANE
..
Month To d a t e Month To date Month To date
. . . .
3.61 38.00 9.27
3.55 3.57 38.10 38.10 8.59 8.85
3.79 3.66 38.10 38.10 8.86 8.86
4.09 3.79 39.20 38.50 9.42 9.04
4.06 3.85 40.70 39.00 9.83 9.21
4.19 3.19 39.30 39.00 10.20 9.38
4.25 3.97 42.00 39.60 10.38 9.55
4.41 4.31 39.00 39.50 10.68 9.68 39.50
3.38 3.91 40.40 39.60 10.81 9.92
U N D E T E R M I N E D LOST
% SUCROSE IN C A N E
Month To dale
2.03 .
1.09 1.44
0.70 1.10
1.77 1.32
0.50 1.14
1.77 1.25
0.99 1.20
1.06 1.17
0.73 1.08
M O N T H L Y R A I N F A L L (in.) T O T A L R A I N F A L L (in.) * Interim report, not showing the final figures.
Month To d a t e
0.86 14.90
0.05 14.93
0.32 15.26
2.98 18.00
0.80 18.99
3.87 22.76
6.91 29.69
3.26 32.93
6.95 6.95
3.14 10.30
Table 7.COMPARISON OF FINAL RESULTS FOR S.A. SUGAR FACTORIES (Season 1953 to Season 1962 inclusive)
SEASON Cane Sucrose per cent Fibre per cent 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962
..
..
13.93 16.31
13.34 16.03
13.87 15.74
13.35 15.81
13.11 15.38
13.12 15.92 19.2 86.7 74.4 84.5 4.3 207 42.3 32.9 92.9 2.55 53.28 3000 83.1 89.5 97.8 9.09 1.30 5.70 39.1 90.2 3.24 0.99 98.92
13.66 15.92
13.69 15.22
13.75 14.52
13.28 15.50 19.7 85.5 71.5 83.4 5.11 266 37.4 41.2 94.2 2.24 52.17 3105
JUICE Brix per cent First Expressed Juice Purity of First Expressed Juice Purity of Last Expressed Juice Purity of Mixed Juice Reducing Sugars/Sucrose Ratio MILLING DATA Imbibition per cent Fibre Lost Absolute Juice per cent Fibre Imbibition per cent Cane Sucrose Extraction Sucrose per cent Bagasse .. Moisture per cent Bagasse.. Lower Calorific Value RECOVERIES Overall Recovery Boiling House Recovery .. Boiling House Performance Tons Cane per ton Sugar FILTER CAKE Sucrose per cent Cake Cake per cent Cane FINAL MOLASSES Gravity Purity Brix per cent Weight per cent Cane U N D E T E R M I N E D LOSSES Per cent Sucrose in Cane .. AVERAGE POLARIZATION Of all Sugars
20.6 87.5 76.5 85.6 3.7
19.6 87.9 76.8 85.9 3.3
19.8 88.0 76.7 86.0 3.4
20.3 87.3 75.8 85.5 3.3
19.6 87.3 76.1 85.1 3.7 224 40.9 34.5 93.4 2.47 53.06 3021
19.6 87.7 75.0 85.5 3.5
20.1 87.8 75.6 85.6 3.3
19.6 88.0 74.7 86.0 3.3
200 41.7 32.7 92.7 2.75 52.47 3067 82.8 89.4 96.9 8.58 1.05 5.86 39.5 90.0 3.44 1.59 98.66
191 44.1 30.7 92.4 2.75 52.92 3028 83.2 90.0 97.4 8.90 1.18 5.48 39.3 89.7 2.88 1.44 98.51
204 45.5 32.1 92.3 2.91 53.18 3003 83.6 90.5 97.9 8.53 1.18 5.28 39.6 90.0 2.95
222 42.1 35.2 92.9 2.60 53.12 3014 83.4 89.8 97.4
210 43.0 34.6 92.9 2.66 53.26 3000 83.0 89.4 97.1 8.74 1.57 5.95 40.3 90.6 3.13 1.28 98.98
238 42.0 36.2 93.4 2.60 53.01 3023
253 39.0 36.7 94.2 2.43 52.54 3067
84.4 90.4 98.5 8.95 1.03 5.76 38.5 90.3 2.98 1.04 98.83
83.4 89.4 96.9 8.70 1.66 6.10 40.3 90.9 3.22
84.5 89.7 97.0 8.54 1.63 5.43 39.5 92.5 3.16 1.32 98.90
82.7 87.8 96.6 9.01 1.26 5.29 39.6 88.1 3.91 1.08 98.78
1.12 5.08 39.9 89.9 3.02 1.44 98.83
1.21 98.65
0.97 98.88
96T !!-"fy>
32
Mr. du Toit (in the chair) congratulated Mr. Perk on the excellence of the Report and on the efficient manner in which it was presented. Dr. Dick said the apparently serious outbreak of Numicia in the Tambankulu area did not seem to have much effect on the results recorded by Mhlume factory, except perhaps causing an increase in fibre per cent cane. Mr. Rault said that the past season's raw juice was noticeable for its high reducing sugar content. Juice carbonation clarification had often been criticised for its inability to preserve the reducing sugar content originally present, notwithstanding the higher purification obtained by this process, which resulted in a lower quantity of final molasses, but at a somewhat higher purity due to its shortage of reducing sugars. The season under review indicates that the presence of high reducing sugars is not an unmixed blessing and contrary to the expectations of reducing sugar enthusiasts, did not contribute to a further lowering of the final molasses purity. As part of the higher amount of non-sugars it was a detrimental factor increasing the bulk volume of molasses and its corresponding loss of sucrose in molasses. Mr. Perk pointed to the abnormal low purities of the juices which put a heavy load on the low grade end of the factories. In addition the low grade massecuites were sticky owing to a high gum content of the juices. It was therefore not possible this season to derive any advantage of the higher reducing sugar content. Mr. Galbraith said that in the old days the boiling house recovery was used as a measure of factory work but although he considered the boiling house efficiency figure a better yard-stick, at Sezela this figure dropped badly last year and he could not understand why this should be so. He had hoped the figure would take care of abnormal conditions as experienced last season.
Mr. Perk said that because the impurities, such as gums, hindered the exhaustion of final molasses, the boiling house performance figure was lowered. This figure could take care of low juice purities due to unripeness of cane, but it could not cope with low purities caused by deteriorated cane. Mr. Chiazzari said that the S.J.M. formula led to a boiling house efficiency figure which would not have dropped so much. Mr. A. C. Barnes remarked that the highest proportion of a particular variety did not always correspond with the tonnage of that variety. Mr. Boyes said he had pointed out previously that, over a season an increase in alcogel of molasses led to an increasing divergence from, the Douwes Dekker formula. He had posed the question in 1958, "Is not the factory with a high alcogel content in molasses penalised by showing a lower boiling house performance? " Dr. Douwes Dekker replied that this figure has only one variable, the purity of the mixed juice and could not take into account the nature of impurities such as gums. He considered for normal conditions the figure was applicable, but it was not ideal under abnormal conditions as were experienced last year. It was not possible to allow for all conditions in a simple formula. Mr. Fourmond asked if a high viscosity of juice leading to a high viscosity of massecuites did not cause caramelisation in the vacuum pans with resulting high undetermined losses being experienced? Undetermined losses were not greater last year. Dr. Douwes Dekker said that undetermined losses were practically all mechanical losses. A little loss due to say, caramelisation, would have only a small effect on the total undetermined loss. Mr. Perk said he had also been worried by the drop in boiling house performance figures last year and felt that a note of explanation on the reason for such a drop should be made in the Report in future.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' AssociationApril 1963
33
WEATHER REPORT FOR THE YEAR 31st MAY, 1963

By J. L. DU TOIT Comments on Rainfall Although the rainfall for the year ending 31st May, 1963 was 38.32 inches or practically equal to our mean annual rainfall of 38.36 inches, most of the crop now being harvested experienced an extremely severe drought from December 1961 to July 1962 when only 17.90 inches of rain fell in 8 months compared with a mean fall for the same months of 26.49 inches. The crop however benefitted greatly from the excellent rains during November 1962 and January and March of this year. Good rains during these important growing months improved the crop prospects very greatly indeed. The industry experienced the driest month on record during June 1962 when an average of only 0.04 inches fell on the 54 recording stations and 34 stations reported no rain at all. This record dry month followed a period of deficient rainfall which started the previous December and dry patches of cane were quite common on shallow unirrigated fields. The drought position became progressively worse with only 0.32 inches in July and a very dry early August. The industry was in one of the worst ever droughts and brown patches of dying cane were extremely common. Most welcome rains fell towards the end of August to bring the average for the month to 2.97 inches. The rainfall during September, 0.80 inches, compared with our mean 2.56 inches for the month was again most disappointingly low, and October had a rainfall of 3.87 inches or only very slightly above the mean and certainly by no means enough for the badly drought stricken crop to recover completely. Fortunately, good well-distributed rains fell virtually throughout the Sugar Industry during the month of November and the average recorded over the cane-belt amounted to 6.83 inches for the month. By the end of the month most of the crop was reported to have largely recovered from the severe drought. December was however dry with only 3.30 inches of rain and there were indications that the crop was once again affected. Excellent rains fell during January when 7.01 inches were recorded and a dry February with only 3.07 inches of rain was once again followed by a wet March with 7.45 inches of rainfall. From November to March we therefore had a pattern of wet and dry months following one another and although no severe droughts developed there were many periods of deficient rainfall that restricted cane growth and during which the crop would have benefitted greatly from irrigation. The rainfall for April 2.44 inches was about 0.5 inches below our mean. May was however extremely dry with only 0.20 inches of rain and 18 recording centres reported no rain at all for the month. The result was that at the end of May brown patches of cane could be seen in the cane fields.
st JUNE 1962, TO
TABLE 1 Rainfall for 54 Centres

Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall Rainfall for year for year for year for year for year 1st J u n e 1st June 1st June 1st J u n e 1st June 1958 to 1959 to 1960 to 1961 to 1962 to 31st May 31st May 31st May 31st May 31st May 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 Port Shcpstone Mehlomnyama . Urn/into Hibberdene . Mtwalume . Se/ela Mill . . Esperanza Mill . Renishaw Mill . Dumisa .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
46.46 46.05 47.64 38.10 40.72 36.73 47.71 31.82 36.57
39. 17 35.87 30.26 36.16 35.38 35.26 30.43 30.84 28.39 26.30
48.21 54.56 41.32 45.84 46.60 48.06 46.82 43.18 42.46 43.06
36.25 34.40 25.76 32.06 35.97 37.79 31.42 39.64 29.40 26.64
46.13 42.95 36.52 39.66 46.48 42.50 39.85 46.80 36.93 27.23
Durban, Campcrdown . etc. lllovo Mill . . . . Thornville . .
Inamla M o u n t Edgecombe Milkwood Kraal l-ixpcrinienl Station La Lucia . . La Mercy. . C'anelands . . Tongaat-Frosterly . . Inyaninga . Inanda . . Tongaat Mwawinc. .
. . . . . . . . .
28.93 28.22 29.18 28.06 29.48 32.81 31.84 46.06 31.61 32.84 35.57 42.42 30.48 32.31 39.21 34.51 41.22 34.47 48.88 32.33 33.49 36.44 31.05 28.47 31.44 38.70 33.18 30.17 35.96 20.14 37.43 26.00 28.14 27.07 24.37 24.71 29.42 27.30 25.43 33.26 24.87 21.23 20.18 27.07 33.34
26.08 27.81 30.01 28.42 26.29 31.91 32.95 38.53 37.59 34.36 30.08 37.55 36.55 34.42 33.30 32.61 40.83 32.74 41.95 34.61 39.05 45.40 37.63 40.03 39.02 54.70 40.40 37.59 40.56 29.66 57.81 36.25 40.15 42.67 36.65 37.13 36.67 37.08 32.67 49.91 36.53 31.28 24.47 25.89 35.66
35.64 38.91 42.23 46.52 50.51 46.09 43.86 48.62 48.10 45.10 44.37 49.46 45.38 42.79 42.01 38.60 41.81 38.89 52.48 42.44 47.75 54.04 41.94 38.29 50.90 66.73 54.49 46.57 50.12 37.30 68.67 48.31 61.50 60.93 57.45 54.91 54.49 43.12 36.24 47.76 31.66 32.27 39.01 28.67 46.43
27.75 30.83 33.88 28.12 31.74 31.02 31.97 32.42 31.33 28.41 33.19 35.63 30.83 32.51 29.98 26.33 37.04 28.79 40.05 34.36 36.50 43.49 35.49 32.98 31.54 49.76 36.73 36.99 39.19 20.54 49.98 31.70 36.72 39.56 29.68 39.19 47.11 44.84 39.50 55.90 33.83 23.18 23.36 18.24 34.10
34.17 36.46 38.52 37.51 47.89 44.17 41.06 42.90 36.10 38.04 40.18 42.33 39.11 40.68 43.14 34.10 41.42 33.71 43.83 38.41 46.49 43.22 40.24 35.61 37.39 43.26 37.72 43.51 51.32 30.26 44.52 32.48 38.60 38.21 31.32 33.05 36.88 33.76 30.86 39.37 30.62 24.47 22.27 24.92 38.32
Lower Tugela M a i d s t o n e Mill. . . Sinembe. . . Upper T o n g a a t . . . Frasers Estate . . . C h a k a ' s Kraal Experimental Fa m i . . C h a k a ' s Kraal . . . . Groutville . Kearsney . . D o o r n k o p Mill. . D o o r k o p Sprinz G l e d h o w Mill . . . Darnall Mill . Tugela M o u t h . Mtunzini Mandeni A m a t i k u l u Mill Inyoni Mtunzini Blackburn . Eshowe E n t u m c n i Mill . Eshowe . Nkwalent Lower Umfolozi Felixton Mill Empangcni West Empangeni Mill Logoza . Ukulu Properties Mposa . Kwambonambi. Eteza HIabisa M l u b a t u b a Mill U.L.O.A. . . Nyalazi River . Hluhluwe . Ubombo . Pior. Rcticf Pongola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean .
34
April 1963
Summarising the rainfall over the past two years, it can be stated that following the excellent rains of June 1961, the crop never went through a severe winter drought that year and the cane only started suffering from lack of rainfall towards the end of August. Conditions from September to November 1961 were however quite favourable and the crop experienced its first severe setback during December 1961. This was however the beginning of one of the driest periods ever experienced in the industry a dry spell which continued until the end of August and which had a drastic effect on the cane crop. Fortunately the excellent rains of November, January and March, despite drier spells in between, did much to retrieve the position. Severe signs of drought however started to reappear at the end of May 1963. Temperatures The mean screen temperature for the year under review was 69.2F at the Experiment Station, Mount Edgecombe, or 0.5F above our 35 years' mean. The mean screen temperature for the months June to December 1962 were all above their respective means, but the temperatures during 1963 were with the exception of those for February all below their respective monthly mean values. The mean screen temperature for February, our hottest month, was eaxctly equal to the mean of the month, 74.6F. Evaporation Evaporation from an open water surface totalled 55.02 inches compared with our 27 years' mean of 46.97 inches. This exceptionally high rate of evaporation aggravated the drought position for the year S.A.S.A. Experiment Station, MOUNT EDGECOMBE.
under review. There were two months during the year in which rainfall was in excess of evaporation and these were November and March. During September, December, February and May the monthly evaporation was more than 3 inches in excess of the rainfall and the accumulated rainfall deficiency for the year, i.e. the accumulated monthly total evaporation in excess of the monthly rainfall amounted to no less than 22.07 inches. This exceedingly high deficiency was well in. excess of the high rainfall deficiency of 19.87 inches the year before. Hours of Sunshine The hours of sunshine for the year were 104.0 percent of the 35 years' mean. As was to be expected the hours of sunshine during the wet months of November, January and March were low and so was the October total. The hours of sunshine for other months were however high. Conclusions The Industry went through an extremely dry period from December 1961 up to near the end of August 1962. Excessively high rates of evaporation were also experienced which further desiccated the soil, but excellent rains during the important growing months of November 1962 as well as January and March 1963 did much to retrieve the position. However, the crop was decidedly dry again at the end of May. Screen temperatures were above the mean values from June to December 1962, but with the possible exception of February, conditions from January to May were mild.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963 TABLE 2 Rainfall in Inches by Districts for Months of June, 1962, to May, 1963 inclusive
35
TABLE 3 Rainfall and Evaporation Data
36
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association-April 1963
TABLE 4 Rainfall in Inches by Districts for the Two-year Period June, 1961 to May, 1963 inclusive
TABLE 5 Rainfall and Evaporation in Inches for the Past Four Years
37
TABLE 6 The following are the Screen Temperatures by Mouths in Degrees Fahrenheit at the Experiment Station for the Year June, 1962 to May, 1963, compared with the Means for the Period J928 to 1962
TABLE
The following table gives the mean monthly earth temperatures
38
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association -April 1963
PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT IN MELT-SULPHITATION REFINING AT UMFOLOZI

By J. D. THUMANN Having produced a paper some years ago on the refining process as introduced at Umfolozi in 1959-60, it is perhaps not out of place to review what is considered development of the operation technique and the results thereby obtained. In the earlier presented paper it was stated that sulphur was admitted through a nozzle in the burner and being sprayed on to a splashtile. The instructions were specific as to the required pressure, the angle of the cone of sprayed sulphur and the aperture of the nozzle for a given quantity of molten sulphur. Experiencing difficulties in keeping the nozzle free from clogged-up dirt contained in the sulphur, a straight tube with a slightly tapered bore down to about 1/4 in. has replaced the nozzle and resulted in complete absence of failures since, i.e. the SO 2 production has become very steady, vide fig. 1 and fig. 2, and there is practically no more sublimation in coolers. Sublimation can be caused n o t only by irregular SO 2 production, due to unsteady supply of sulphur, but also by low combustion temperatures. These can occur when insufficient sulphur is pumped into the burner, as in the case of a. clogged nozzle, but also because of cold air used for the combustions. This is especially the case if t h e SO2 production is below its minimum rating for t h e plant, which was said to be 250-300 lbs. of s u l p h u r per hour. To overcome this the makers of the plant advised to preheat the compressed air by passing it through a jacket around the first part of the atmospheric cooler.
FIG. I
FIG. 2
39
The temperature of the gas leaving the burner rose by 70-100C and observations through the sightglass in the combustion chamber showed a marked improvement over the original arrangement. The secondary cooler consisting of Karbate elements could not be cleaned effectively without losing many hours. They were subject to breakage and expensive. Therefore they were successfully replaced by cast-iron elements, which are easily replaced and cleaned. Distribution of SO2 gas in the required proportions for the individual vessels of the Continuous system has been improved by installing effective Foxboro flowmeter-recordcrs. Tests have shown that it is not necessary to apply a 70+30 ratio of SO2 distribution to the 1st and the 2nd vessels respectively. Perhaps experience elsewhere led to this ratio being prescribed, but in the literature we find nothing to support this. To the contrary, we read in Honig "Principles of Sugar Technology", Vol. I, page 635, that "the action of a high pH on the juice for a somewhat longer time is considered favourable to the precipitation of non- ugars".
Also, it can be considered that high pH will be less harmful in a high concentration than in a low density material and that therefore decomposition of reducing sugars will occur to a lesser extent in the high brix melt with which we operate, i.e. about 68-70 Bx. Thirdly, it was observed that a larger dose of lime and SO2 could improve the colour of liquors obtained from darker affinated sugar. As a definite lapse of time is required for the completion of the reactions and for the formation of coarse crystalline precipitate and the absorption and adsorption of various nonsugars, we considered it advisable to add the maximum quantities of lime and sulphur in the primary vessel while maintaining a high pH which, however, should not be so high as to cause colour formation in the liquors. It was found that a pH above 8.9 resulted in no apparent improvements. In the secondary vessel only so much SO2 is used as proves enough to bring down the pH to a steady level of about 6.9-7 pH. Only a very small quantity of milk of lime is therefore added in the 2nd vessel. This can thus be considered as a correcting vessel to make the final adjustment in the pH of the liquor. It was found that the dispersion of milk of lime and SO2 in the juice left much to be desired when relying
40
on the agitation caused by the cbulition of the gas mixture and by the external circulator of the sulphitation vessel. The lime being added in the suction of the circulator (pump) caused the impeller to be coated with a precipitate to the extent of forming one solid body which badly influenced the quantity of liquor which could be displaced. That, in turn, caused the flow of milk of lime in the piping to stagnate and irregularities in pH were unavoidable, as a time lag was created in the pH correction. Agitators consisting of two propellors mounted on a shaft were fitted to the vessels to create an immediate dispersion of the milk of lime, the addition of which has been arranged directly into the bulk of the liquor inside the vessel. Originally the agitator shafts were fitted horizontally and although the working was quite effective, the leaking glands made it necessary to fit the shafts vertically, suspended from the top of the vessel. The opposite pitch of the two propellors on the same shaft causes a very fierce turbulence whereby the contact of lime and juice is intensified and the reaction with the now quickly dispersed gas is speeded up. This leads to a reduction in the fluctuation of the signal to the pH controller. The charts obtained give an illustration of the difference in results (figs. 3 and 4). A certain amount of colour in the liquor was observed even following intensified sulphitation. Test with apoxiresin paints as an internal surface coating of various units in the plant indicated that rust was the cause to a large extent. As the paint was found to come off in sheets on corroded and hard-to-clean surfaces, fibre-glass coating was successfully tried out. The above changes have had considerable effect on the results since 1959, when the refinery was commenced.
He wanted to know the effect of colour and reducing sugar destruction by this practice. Mr. Thumann replied that in the carbonation refineries the temperature was much lower. Mr. J. D. Alexander said that it was found in the central refinery after affining and the first carbonation, if reducing sugars were destroyed, trouble was experienced later in the process. If reducing sugars were destroyed this led to more troublesome afterproducts. Colour formation and more calcium products resulted, which caused more trouble than the reducing sugars from which these were formed. Mr. Hulett asked how the pH was controlled and what sort of fibre glass lining was used in the tanks. Mr. Thumann said the pH control consisted of a Leeds and Northrops controller with a "splitter-box" for dosing the lime and the sample was taken from the discharge of the tank. A pressure head was thus provided and the inlet of lime was well controlled as could be seen in Figure 4, showing this last season's chart, which compared so much more favourably with Figure 3. The lack of such a head had led to trouble previously as too much lime was left in the long milk of lime inlet pipes and it took a. lot of lime before this could mix with the liquor, causing a certain time lag at the pH controller. He did not know what type of fibre-glass lining was used. In reply to Mr. Hulett he said that when the process was stopped the plant was kept in circulation and lime added a short while until all of the circuit registered a pH of 7.0 and this required the use of only one valve. Usually, however, if processing stopped for a short time this circulation was kept going until processing started again. As the sketch showed, the gas could be discharged to atmosphere when the process was stopped, as could the blower feeding air to the burner. T h e burner kept hot for a couple of hours so it was easy to start again. Mr. Ashe said the sketch showed the vessels were in two parts. Corrosion took place above the overflow box and there was more below this point as the rest of the tank was full of liquor. The gland on the circulating pump caused trouble and its leaking meant the whole tank had to be emptied. It was therefore proposed that it would be better, in any future installation, to put a co-axial pump at the top of the pipe leading to the splitter-box instead. The design of the pH electrode vessel was very important. The liquor had to be led through the bottom and discharged from the top. If the inlet was at the side some stagnation occurred causing sedimentation which led to the irregularity shown in Figure 3. Mr. Boic asked if with a low density, liquor, as in juice sulphitation, a similar coating of stirrers would occur. He also wanted to know if high speed of the impellers would not cause a break-up of the floc.
Dr. Douwes Dekker (in the chair) said the paper was of interest to all who were considering applying, or were applying, the sulphitation system of refining raw sugar. So far there were not many refineries using the system but he felt that it could be used with advantage to a larger extent than at present. He asked the author about the effect of high pH on the melt and the filtrability of mud. He also asked if it were so that the destruction of reducing sugars in a high concentration of melt was low and how the author arrived at this conclusion. Mr. Thumann replied that in high concentration there was less ionisation and this led to his conclusion that there would, under such circumstances, be less chance of decomposition and formation of colour from reducing sugars. Mr. Rault pointed out that in carbonation refineries, especially with the use of low CO., content flue gasses, the pH of the liquor had to be kept rather high in order to allow a better gas absorption and use a sufficient amount of clarifying matter.
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Mr. Thaumann replied that in the melt sulphitation the Brix of the liquor was about 69 deg. while the lime was about 7 deg. Be. When the entrance of the lime was where the raw liquor inlet is shown in the sketch, a build-up on the stirrers was experienced. It was found necessary to have a deep pitch on the impellers. The stirrers revolved at only 50 r.p.m. so there was no danger of breaking up the floc, but at the same time the turbulence in the area between the impellers was ample to ensure proper mixing. Mr. Ashe said it was found necessary to feed the lime at a higher point than that of the liquor, other-
wise the supply was irregular leading to over-liming and under-liming alternately. Mr. Chiazzari said that in the carbonation refining process at Gledhow, to avoid a high pH, it was found necessary to admit the lime, gas and liquor simultaneously. Dr. Bouwes Dekker asked if there was any data showing the amount of SO2 lost, to which Mr. Thumann replied that while no figures were available, the loss was apparently very slight. No smell of SO2 was noticeable, although some loss due to the formation of SO2 was shown by the white appearance of the emission from the chimneys above the vessels.
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association- April 1963
STEAM CONSUMPTION TESTS ON VACUUM PANS

By G. N. ALLAN A series of tests was run to obtain actual steam consumption figures for various pans boiling different massecuites. All Umfolozi vacuum pans are connected by long condensate pipes to a central steam trap station where by-pass valves are fitted to enable sugar contaminated condensate to be rejected into a common manifold. This manifold is arranged to feed into a weir box which in its turn passes condensate either to waste or to a standby hotwell pump and thence to the boiler feed tanks. A level recording instrument is connected by a thin wire to a float in a float chamber beside the weir box. A hook is installed behind the vee-notch with a decimal scale for measuring the height of water over the weir. During the tests the height in inches measured by the hook was checked every two hours against the recording chart reading to establish a chart constant for calibration. An average of some forty readings settled at 3.56. The leading dimensions of the weir box are 6 ft. x 2 ft. x 2 ft. and a 6 in. x 60 Vee notch made of 1/16 ths in. stainless steel was fitted. The attached sketch shows the arrangement of the tank and recorder. A calibration graph was drawn and quantity plotted against both inch heights and recorder readings. The curve was taken from Lyle's Efficient Use of Steam and a temperature correction of 3 per cent was allowed for, as the water temperature was over 200F. Pan floor steam pressure was 5 lbs. per sq. in. "A" Massecuites The three consecutive A cycles shown were boiled in a calandria pan of 1,455 sq. ft. H.S. and the Quantities and types of footings and massecuites are indicated. The high initial condensation at the beginning of the first cycle remains unaccounted for despite checks on syrup brix and quantity of magma drawn in. Otherwise the cycles are similar and typical for A massecuites. Assuming a massecuite temperature of 150F. and a steam temperature of 228F. the Heat Transfer Rate for the beginning of the first cycle is 104 B.T.Us, sq. ft./hr./F. dropping to 50 B.T.Us/ sq. ft./hr./F. for the final half hour. Hugot's values for A massecuites show 190 to 40. On the long cycle from No. 2 Pan boiling A massecuite, the initial granulation period of 3/4 hour gives a H.T.R. of 95 B.T.Us/sq. ft./hr./F. (assuming a syrup inlet temperature of 130F.). An average figure for the last five hours of this cycle is 64 B.T. Us sq. ft. hr./F. "C" Massecuites The contrast in Heat Transfer Rates between boiling high and low grade massecuite syrups and heavy massecuites is shown clearly by the steam consumption curves of two successive C cycles boiled by No. 7 Pan (1,650 sq. ft. H.S. calandria type). The former is a C footing boiled from syrup and A molasses and the latter is a C massecuite started from 350 cu. ft. of this same footing.
There is another C cycle shown this time boiled in No. 8 Pan, a 2,032 sq. ft. H.S. coil pan. (The coils arc now being replaced by a floating calandria). This also shows a very low H.T.R. Refinery Massecuites A series of 35 consecutive cycles on our No. 2 Refinery Pan (2,400 sq. ft. H.S. calandria pan) was run and the total steam used for each cycle was obtained. The hourly steam demands can be seen on the accompanying graph. An average hourly rate of 28,000 lbs./hr. would appear to be typical of the series, giving us a Heat Transfer Rate of 144 B.T.Us/sq. ft./hr./F. Compare this with the H.T.R. during the initial granulation period on the Raw House No. 2 Pan boiling an A massecuite of 95 B.T.Us/sq. ft./ hr./F. Peaks of 36,000/40,000 lbs./hr. were not infrequent at the beginning and end of a cycle, and an average pan cycle would last 1 1/4 hours. This can be seen clearly on the curves showing five refinery boilings. The first is a third massecuite, the next a second and the last three are a grained first and two seeded firsts. Heat Balances Information was recorded by the process staff for these boilings, but on making out a trial balance, too many assumptions had to be made especially with regard to temperatures, dilution, water quantities and seed sugar volumes. Data on three seed cycles is given below, together with actual steam consumption figures:
During the coming season it is hoped that these missing figures will be filled in and a complete picture obtained of some typical cycles.
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44
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Teclwolot-ists-
AssociationApril
1963
45
AVERAGE
HOURLY
STEAM
CONSUMPTION
1000
lbs. he.

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Dr. Douwes Dekker (in the Chair) said the paper gave practical data of interest to all who were connected with production of steam in the factories. Mr. D. Hulett suggested that shortage of steam was more likely to be due to the boilers rather than to consumption on the pan floor. When the boilers were automatically controlled and there was a plentitude of fuel they could quickly absorb all pan fluctuations. There was about a half-hour's reserve in the accumulators so that if the boilers did not respond, there was probably something wrong with the boilers or their operation. Mr. Allan said it had been found that with boilers operating sufficiently well and without a drop in high pressure steam the conditions mentioned did arise. Mr. Grant said that many years ago tests done by weighing the condensed steam from various pans and various cycles revealed conditions of heavy demand similar to those mentioned by Mr. Allan. He could not agree that the boiler plant could be at fault, as if there were ample boiler capacity sudden demands should be met by the accumulator unless they were excessive. Dr. Douwes Dekker stated that the operational schedule of the vacuum pans should be such, that two or three pans should never start simultaneously. Mr. Walsh thought the conditions were made worse by the fact that the refining pans operated on a much shorter cycle than did the rawhouse pans, and more steam was demanded in the initial stages of boiling.
Mr. Thumann said that with ten pans in use it w a s impossible to arrange that more than one were n o t started together. One could not stop a pan for a h o u r or so if one wanted to get the maximum through-put in the boiling house. Mr. Davies said a problem at Felixton was that a carbon deposit formed on the outside of the vacuum pan tubes which could not be removed by propriety chemicals or paraffin followed by caustic soda. Although it appeared that such treatment did remove some carbon a tube removed from the centre portion of the calandria still had this carbon coating. Mr. Perk hoped that Mr. Allan would continue his tests. With regard to Mr. Davies's problem, t h e only solution was to draw the tubes, fit them in a lathe and remove all dirt by holding a brick to t h e rotating tubes. Mr. Bentley considered that this deposit must c o m e either from the chemicals used in the boiler-feed water or from oil in the exhaust steam. The oil could be removed more easily than the tubes could be taken out and cleaned. Mr. Davies said that a vapour cell at Felixton, which was commissioned two years ago, was supplied with steam from a turbine. He had expected that the tubes in this pan would collect no deposit, b u t actually they were in worse condition than those in the pans which drew their steam from reciprocating engines.
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A LOW COST, LOW POWER TELEMETRY SYSTEM

By W. TALJAARD The installation of Radio Telemetering Equipment has always been expensive and the allocation of a frequency by the Postmaster-General just about impossible, especially when a small system has to be installed. A low cost, low power system, which is working satisfactorily was recently installed between the local waterworks and the Town Board Reservoir which is about 1 1/2 miles away. The complete equipment, comprising of Transmitter, Receiver and Recorder was designed and built locally with the following objectives in mind: (a) Low initial cost (b) Low operating cost (c) Reliability and stability (d) Minimum of maintenance (e) Easy to read chart The Transmitter As there is no 220v mains available at the reservoir, the transmitter operates off a 6v car battery. The battery drain is kept to a minimum by using a low power transmitter and a high gain directional antenna. The signal received at the Receiver is about three times the minimum required for dependable operation of the recorder unit. Any signal larger than this would be wasted and any signal smaller would affect the reliability due to signal variations from decreasing battery voltage and atmospheric conditions. The 13-plate car battery lasts from four to six weeks before recharging is necessary. The current drawn by the Transmitter is about 2.5 amps. The transmitter emits a signal every hour. A small battery operated clock is used, the minute hand operating a microswitch which in turn switches on the transmitter and transistorized timer unit. This timer switches the transmitter off after the elapsed period. The "on" period is dependent on the water level in the reservoir; the higher the level the longer the transmitter stays on. An empty reservoir gives a "on" period of 4 seconds and a full reservoir (6 ft.) a period of 70 seconds. The timer is linear and therefore the recorder chart reading is also linear. The transmitter proper consists of a dual tetrode radio valve with instant heating filaments. The first section operates as a overtone oscillator providing a 27 Mc/s. output from a 9 Mc/s. Quartz crystal. The second section operates as a straight amplifier and feeds the directional antenna via a 52 ohms low loss co-axial cable. The transmitter output into the antenna is about .1 watt. The gain of the three-element antenna is about five giving an effective radiated power of 2.5 watts. The antenna is seven foot higher than the reservoir. The Receiver The receiver is mains operated and employs six miniature valves. A Radio Frequency stage is used to increase the signal to noise ratio. This is followed by a mixer stage with separate crystal controlled oscillator. The Intermediate Frequency Amplifier consists of two valves and ten tuned circuits. As no modulation is used on the transmitter, the last I.F. stage also operates as a limiter for noise pulses. The high selectivity reduces the bandwidth and also unnecessary noise. As both transmitter and receiver are crystal controlled the narrow bandwidth presents no stability problems. A diode rectifier feeds a dual triode D.C. amplifier which operates a D.P.D.T. high resistance relay. A signal of 1.0V at the antenna terminal is sufficient to operate the relay dependably. Attempts to increase the sensitivity any further only increased valve and exterior noises sufficiently to operate the relay. To increase reliability the high tension supply on the receiver is only 100 v. Dependable components with adequate ratings were used. A Signal Strength Meter is also installed on the receiver so that a drop in battery power at the transmitter can be detected. It also provides a check on the performance of the equipment. The antenna for the receiver is a half wave dipole. No directional antenna was installed as another transmitter, in the opposite direction to the first, is soon to be installed. The limiter stage prevents noise pulses from closing the relay and operating the recorder. Even during violent electrical storms only small marks are recorded on the chart. These marks are on the pen-rest line and do not reach the zero water level line. Storms do not affect the operation of the equipment.
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The Recorder The Recorder employs 24 hr. circular charts. These are standard charts and easily obtainable. The pen drive unit consists of two small 1 r.p.m. motors (5w. 220v. A.C.). As small A.C. synchronous motors are not reversible, two motors were mounted back-to-back and coupled by a light cork arrangement. One clock drives the pen across the chart from right to left. This happens when a signal is received and the relay operates. The distance the pen moves is determined by the length of the signal. On the removal of the signal the relay drops out and connects power to the second motor via a limit switch. This motor returns the pen to its normal resting place which is about 1/4 in. below the zero line of the recorder. When the pen reaches its normal resting place the limit switch operates and breaks the circuit to the motor. The recorder is now ready for the next cycle. The recordings are very clean and easy to read. Conclusion No licence is required to operate the equipment in the allocated band. The transmitter power may not exceed 3 (three) watts and one-way communication only may be used. The equipment with minor changes could be used for a variety of remote control and emergency purposes. Transistors could have been used at the reservoir but a more elaborate set-up would evolve and it would be more expensive.
Mr. Bentley said this was a very useful application which could be used to greater extent in the Industry. He knew that the author was contemplating installing a small generator to keep the battery charged. Mr. Taljaard said that when the reservoir was full a considerable pressure was built up behind the ballvalve and this could be used to drive a small water turbine which could keep a small generator going to trickle-charge the battery. Only one amp was required intermittently for this purpose. Dr. Douwes Dekker (in the Chair) asked if the author had in mind the application of the system to electric instruments in the factory. Mr. Taljaard said that often one wanted warning lights to register in the laboratory or office or to give instrument readings in. these places. Instead of using electric cables or copper tubing for this purpose the system could be installed. Up to 12 or 14 readings could simultaneously be transmitted by the system using only one lead, or even by earthing the radiater. Mr. J. B. Alexander asked what the cost of the equipment would be. Mr. Taljaard said the cost was about R80.00, not including the recorder. Mr. Grant asked what was the maximum distance over which the system could be used. Mr. Taljaard replied that the signal over 1 1/2 miles was saturated. On open land using the maximum of 3 watts the range would be about 10 miles. A directional aerial and receiver would boost up the signal some five times but he could not use these for the present installation as signals were being o b tained from two different directions.
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THE BULK SUGAR TERMINAL BEING CONSTRUCTED AT MAYDON WHARF, DURBAN

FOR SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR TERMINALS (PROPRIETARY) LIMITED
By J. de K. BOSCH.
PROPOSED INSTALLATION AS VIEWED FROM DURBAN BAY
The decision to proceed with the construction of this new R4 million Bulk Sugar Terminal marks an important advancement in the growth of the South African sugar industry and in particular emphasises the confidence of the industry in its future. It also underlines the industry's determination to increase materially the exports of South African sugar and compete in the world sugar markets on an equal footing with the other major sugar exporting countries. In this paper, the author attempts to describe briefly the operation of this Bulk Sugar Terminal and the various technical considerations which influenced the design of the installation. INTRODUCTION The modern trend in shipping of raw materials is to make greater use of large bulk cargo carriers for all commodities which can be handled in bulk. The economies of this system are decidedly attractive and, as a result, facilities for the storage and handling of
various materials in bulk are fast becoming a feature of all the major ports in the world. During the last decade, exporters and importers of sugar in many overseas countries have become increasingly aware of the substantial savings which accrue from the bulk handling of their commodity, especially so in the face of the keen competition which exists in the world sugar market between sugar producing countries. The result has been that bulk installations for the handling of sugar have been established in many of the ports of the world. The South African sugar industry made a careful study of the economic advantages of these installations and, in order to compete for world markets on an equal footing, decided last year to proceed with the construction, in Durban, of a Bulk Sugar Terminal with a storage capacity of 200,000 short tons of raw sugar and equipped to load a ship at the rate of 500 tons per hour.
50
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association April 1963
GENERAL DATA Site: Opposite No. 2 Berth, Maydon Wharf, Durban, alongside Maydon and Leuchars Roads. Area of Site: 9.7 acres. Water Depth at No. 2 Berth: 32 ft. 6 ins. at L.W.O.S.T. Sugar Silo Structure: 80 reinforced concrete fluted shell arches. Foundations: (a) Superstructure founded on 110x36" diameter Hochstrasse-Weise piles taken down to bedrock at depths between 100' to 140'. (b) Silo floor founded on in situ soil compacted by Vibro-flotation process to depth of 25' and 35' and employing 3210 compactions. Storage capacity =200,000 short tons Area covered = 4 acres (approximately) Floor area = 3 3/4 acres (approximately) Overall length = 816'6" Overall width = 207' Maximum height= 120' Span of arches = 203' Rise of arches = 90' 6" Conveyor Equipment Maximum bulk intake capacity =500 tons/hour Maximum bulk outloading capacity=500 tons/hour Bagging Plant Capacity=100 tons/hour x 210 lb. bags. Railway Sidings Staging Normal operation, 36 "fulls" and 36 "empties" Emergency operation, 60 "fulls" and 12 "empties". Extra Facilities Provided 1. Bulk sugar intake from road motor vehicles. 2. Bulk sugar outloading facilities to railway and road vehicles. 3. Closed circuit television for central control of operation. 4. Public relations facilities provided for conducted tours by the public. 5. Administrative building. Estimated total cost of Project including purchase of siie=R3,963,108. Consulting Engineers Sir Eric Millbourn, C.M.G. In association with: Moreland Technical & Engineering Consultants, Ltd. Consulting Architects Franklin and Garland Quantity Surveyors J. Walters and Simpson
Main Civil Engineering Contractors O. Grinaker (Pty.) Ltd. Main Mechanical!Electrical Engineering Contractors Spencer (Melksham) Ltd. Foundation Contractors (a) Piling Christiani & Nielsen (Pty.) Ltd. (ft) Soil Consolidation The Cementation C o . (Pty.) Ltd. SELECTION OF SITE Various sites along Maydon Wharf were investigated by the Consulting Engineers, with particular reference to size and shape of site, rail and road facilities, foundation conditions and ship berthing facilities, and finally a 9.7 acre site, opposite No. 2 berth Maydon Wharf and adjacent to the Congella railway marshalling yards, was recommended. Negotiations for the purchase of a long term lease of this property, which is situated on the corner of Maydon and Leuchars roads, were successfully concluded during 1962 and an immediate start was made by the sellers on the demolition and re-erection elsewhere of their factory buildings and stores which were situated on the site at that time. SCHEME OF OPERATION AND GENERAL LAYOUT OF THE TERMINAL The general arrangement for the installation is as shown on the accompanying drawing and, referring thereto, the scheme for the operation of the terminal is briefly as follows: 1. Intake of Sugar transported by Rail Export sugars will be railed from the mills to the Congella railway marshalling yards and from there the South African Railway's locomotives will shunt the full sugar trucks to the private staging roads at the terminal and also remove the emptied trucks. Shunting tractors will be provided for the internal operation of the private siding and a specially designed railway traverser will convey each truck from the "fulls" staging roads to a point opposite the Wagon Tippler building and on its return trip take away an empty truck for placing in the "empty" staging roads. The full truck will be drawn into the wagon tippler building where the tarpaulin cover will be stripped off and stored by semi-mechanical means. The truck will then be placed on the combined wagon tippler cum weighbridge and its contents discharged into the receiving hopper. The empty truck will then be weighed and drawn out to a point beyond the traverser track ready for placing on the traverser and return to the " e m p t y " staging roads. From the tippler building the sugar will be conveyed on belt conveyors via junction tower " A " to the top of the silo where it will discharge onto a. reversible conveyor which in turn can discharge at either end, as required, onto a shuttle conveyor which distributes the sugar via a sugar thrower to any point along the length of the silo.
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2. Intake of Sugar Transported by Road It is anticipated that several of the nearer mills will convey their sugar in bulk to the terminal by road transport and provision will be made at junction tower "A" for a weighbridge and a receiving hopper into which the road motor bulk transporters can tip their cargo of sugar. A separate conveyor system will carry this sugar to the top of junction tower "A" from whence it will be conveyed and distributed within the silo as previously described. 3. Outloading of Sugar in bulk to Ships A series of louvred hoppers, located centrally in the floor of the silo and extending along the greater part of its length, will permit the controlled extraction of sugar from any part of the silo by gravity flow. These extract hoppers will discharge onto a reclaim conveyor in a tunnel running under the full length of the silo floor and terminating in a junction pit outside the eastern end of the silo. From the junction pit the sugar will be conveyed to the top of the ServoBalans weigher tower and in passing down the tower it will be automatically weighed. The sugar will then be conveyed to the wharfside conveyor gantry which is designed to transfer the sugar simultaneously at any two points onto two travelling outloaders which run on rails along the wharf. These travelling outloaders will be equipped with telescopic chutes which are fitted with sugar throwers for distributing the sugar evenly in the ship's hold
and the equipment is so designed as to permit the uninterrupted loading of a ship irrespective of weather conditions. The plant is designed to extract sugar from the silo and load a ship at the rate of 500 tons per hour. 4. Outloading of Bagged Sugar Certain countries to which sugar is exported are not yet equipped to receive sugar in bulk and provision has therefore been made in the design of the installation for bagging sugar for export to these markets. When bagged sugar is required, the (low of sugar from the reclaim conveyor will be directed at the junction pit onto the conveyors which will take it via junction tower " C " to discharge into the hoppers provided in the building, which will house the bagging unit and sack store. This plant is designed to weigh and bag sugar at the rate of 100 tons per hour. 5. Outloading Sugar in bulk to Rail or Road vehicles Sugar conveyed from the silo to the top of the Servo-Balans weigher tower can be diverted back to junction tower "A" which is fitted with hoppers designed to discharge into either railway trucks or road vehicles. These road or rail vehicles will be weighed on the same weighbridge used by the road motor vehicles transporting sugar in bulk to the terminal as previously discussed.
VIEW OF PROPOSED TERMINAL FROM VICINITY MAYDON ROAD
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6. Re-distribution of Sugar in the Silo The previously mentioned conveyor, linking the Servo-Balans weigher tower with junction tower " A " can, if necessary, transfer the sugar to the conveyor between junction tower " A " and the silo thus permitting the re-distribution of sugar within the silo. 7. Control of Operations A comprehensive system of electrical recording and control equipment together with telephonic intercommunication between all points of operation is incorporated in the designs and a master control panel will be installed in the control room in the Servo-Balans weigher tower. This room will be the nerve centre for controlling the operation of the terminal and closed circuit television equipment will be provided to enable the controller to observe the activities within the silo and also inside the ship's holds. MAIN DESIGN FEATURES 1. Architecture This terminal will rank as one of the largest of its type in the world and the enormous silo structure, dominating the surrounding buildings at Maydon Wharf, will form one of the distinctive features of the skyline along Durban harbour. It is envisaged that the installation will become one of the tourist attractions of the City of Durban and as such it will serve as a valuable advertisement to the progress of the South African sugar industry. In view of these considerations, a great deal of thought has been given to the architectural appearance of the silo in considering the selection of a functional and economical engineering design embodying the best engineering principles to meet the design criteria imposed by site conditions and structural loadings, due to the contained sugar pile and other outside influences, such as wind, etc. This principle has been applied equally to the design of the public relations building, administrative block and ancillary engineering structures. In addition, the layout provides for enclosing the site with decorative perimeter fences and walls and for the planting of gardens, trees, shrubs and lawns on vacant areas within the site. 2. Sugar Silo (a) General Description: This enormous structure, which ranks possibly as the largest reinforced concrete silo of its type in the world, is designed to store 200,000 tons of sugar and measures 817 ft. long by 207 ft. wide, covering just under 4 acres, and rises to a height of 120 ft. at the top of the intake conveyor gantry. The design of a structure of these proportions on a site strictly limited in size and subject to adverse foundation conditions, posed a complex engineering problem. Designs of sugar silos, with capacities ranging up to 150,000 tons, which had been constructed elsewhere
in the world were examined and the capital and maintenance costs of various types of concrete and steel framed structures were analysed and compared. Careful consideration was given to the suitability of each type of structure to local climatic and foundation conditions. These considerations led to the decision that the silo should be constructed in reinforced concrete and that its cross-sectional shape should conform as closely as practicable to the profile of the sugar pile. In view of the limited area available for the silo, it was, however, clearly evident that irrespective of the cross-sectional shape, the sugar pile would have to be retained to a considerable height by the walls of the structure. Upon consideration of all factors, it was decided that the structure should be a three pinned tied arch utilizing the self weight of the two concrete arch segments to counteract the internal pressure of the sugar pile, whilst the floor of the structure would be designed to provide the necessary tie force to the arch. A series of arch profiles with various springing angles and rise-to-span ratios were analysed and estimates of construction cost, expressed in terms of the unit cost per ton of sugar stored, were prepared and plotted graphically. These graphs provided criteria, which permitted the selection of the most economical arch profile and rise to span ratio for the widest structure which could be accommodated on the site. Architectural features and construction techniques were considered and finally a profile approximating to an inverted catenary, as shown on the accompanying drawing, was selected. The silo will be comprised of 80 arch units, each 10 ft. wide constructed side by side and joined together in groups of four by the crown beam at the top and by edge beams at the springings. A central hinge will be provided within the crown beam and the edge beam will rest on roller bearings on top of the pile caps. In preference to the usual rib and slab construction, it was decided to construct each arch in the form of a concave semi-circular shell, 10' wide and varying in depth from 5' 2 1/2" at the springing to 2' 8 1/2" at the crown. The thickness of concrete in these semi-circular shells varies from 5" at the sides to 7 1/2" in the centre and the edges are thickened out as shown on the accompanying drawing. This concave cross-sectional shape provides the required rigidity to the primary arch and, in the lower regions where the sugar pile is retained, the secondary arching action is structurally of material benefit. The horizontal thrust in the secondary arches is resisted by means of aluminium tie rods. Expansion joints are provided at 40 ft. intervals in the crown and edge beams, between which each arch
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is structurally independant of its neighbour. Thus the whole superstructure is very effectively articulated both in cross-section and in its length. An aluminium ridge capping, incorporating a specially designed water seal, is fitted over the joints between the adjacent arches. Each arch will be constructed by assembling, on a movable centering, 36 precast concrete shell segments weighing approximately 4 tons each. These units will be joined together with epoxy resin and subsequently post-tensioned by cables inserted in the ducts provided for this purpose and as shown on the drawing. The floor of the silo, which ties the arch, is constructed in the form of two post-tensioned 6" thick concrete slabs cast on either side of the extract tunnel and attached thereto by steel ties. The outer edges of the floor panels are attached to the edge beams of the arch by means of specially designed steel ties which can accommodate settlement of the silo floor adjacent to the edge beams. Special precautionary measures have been incorporated in the design of the silo floor to ensure maximum factional resistance to sliding between the sugar and the floor and between the floor and the earth. An effective barrier has been provided to check the rise of capillary water and water vapour through the floor into the sugar pile. The extract tunnel has been designed to articulate at the expansion joints spaced at 40 ft. intervals in order to accommodate small differential settlements and specially designed waterproof joints have been provided to transfer the load from one 40 ft. section to the next. The end walls to the silo have been designed in the form of a cellular concrete retaining wall 8' 3" wide by 22 ft. high and with an observation gallery situated at that level. Above this level, the end wall is continued to the full height in the form of a folded face brick panel between concrete columns. Prior to the purchase of the site an extensive foundation investigation was carried out and it was found that the middle ecca shales, which form bedrock lay at a depth varying from 90 ft. on the inland boundary of the site down to 140 ft. at the harbour end. Above this bedrock is a deposit of cretacious sandstone and clay varying in depth from 20 ft. to 45 ft., followed by a layer of sand of varying depth, which in turn is followed by a layer of thixotropic black clay approximately 10 ft. thick overlain by approximately 60 ft. of sand and silt. It was decided that the arched superstructure of the silo and the end walls should be founded firmly on bedrock and. 36 in. diameter Hochstrasse-Weise caisson type bored concrete piles were selected as being the most suitable type to ensure positive results at that great depth and under the particular site conditions described above. It was furthermore decided that the floor of the silo together with the extract tunnel should be designed to accommodate a limited amount of settlement and in order to reduce the differential settlement and en-
sure uniform conditions, it was deemed necessary to consolidate and form a firmly consolidated raft of the weaker upper 25 ft. to 30 ft. layer of sandy soil by the vibro-flotation compaction process. (b) Special Investigations of Interest Foundations It was evident that when settlement of the silo floor occurred, due to the 200,000 ton load of sugar upon it, a "downdrag force" or negative skin friction load would be transmitted to the piles supporting the superstructure. No precise means of evaluating this force are presently known and, in consultation with foundation experts, new methods had to be developed to evaluate these forces and deal with the problem. This was one of the reasons which influenced the selection of a caisson type pile of adequate diameter and strength which could be founded firmly on bedrock. It is proposed to install measuring devices in certain of these piles to measure the magnitude of this downdrag force when the sugar load, is eventually applied and correlate this data with the rational designapproach which was finally developed and adopted for the calculation of the downdrag force. Wind Load The silo structure exposes a face approximately 2 acres in extent to the wind and in view of its height and relatively thin concrete shell construction it was deemed advisable to experimentally check the maximum wind load distribution and intensities over the structure especially the negative wind loading on the leeward side which would, when added to the outward sugar pressure load, create the worst circumstance of loading on the arches. A secondary consideration which required further experimental investigation was the possibility of dynamic resonance between the natural frequency of this structure and the frequency of oscillation of the wind load. Wind tunnel experiments on a scale model of the silo and the surrounding structures at Maydon Wharf, were therefore carried out by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research at their laboratories in Pretoria to provide the data required for the safe design of the structure. Sugar Pressures A perspex scale model of a section of the silo was constructed by the Civil Engineering Department of the University of Natal and a series of experiments were undertaken to study the loads transmitted to the structure by the sugar pile under the various conditions, which could be encountered in practice. These experiments, together with several allied experimental investigations relating to other respects of the structural design, were of great value in the detailed design.
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3. Private Railway Siding The terminal siding will be shunted by the South African Railways direct from the adjacent Congella marshalling yards and internal staging of trucks will be carried out by shunting tractors belonging to the company. Rail access to the siding is provided by means of two service lines laid directly from the Congella marshalling yard across Maydon Road and an alternative access route has been provided by a further two service lines to Congella via Maydon Wharf. Six railway roads of equal capacity provide normal staging for 36 "Fulls" and 36 "Empties" and in emergencies the siding could accommodate 60 "Fulls" without unduly reducing the efficiency of offloading operations. The whole of the siding area will be bitumen paved flush to rail level to facilitate the operations of the shunting tractor. 4. Railway Wagon Traverser In order to provide adequate staging for the large volume of rail traffic anticipated within the small area available, a railway wagon traverser had to be incorporated into the siding layout. Neither the usual open pit type wagon traverser nor the normal over rail type wagon traverser was deemed entirely suitable for various reasons and a special design for a unique type of wagon traverser was prepared specifically for this installation. The electrical driving mechanism and the guide rails for the traverser will be housed underground in covered reinforced concrete troughs and the supporting steel girders for the traverser bed will pass through slots in the concrete deck thereby cutting through the siding rails. By this means a difference of only 3" rise from siding rail level to rail level on the wagon traverser deck is achieved. A covered inspection pit is provided for maintenance and repair to the traverser. 5. Wagon Tippler Building This brick and concrete building will house an electrically operated "charger" for the moving of trucks, mechanical tarpaulin removal facilities and tarpaulin store, a combined side discharge wagon tippler and weighbridge, a sugar sampler and receiving hopper with 6" mesh grid. A paved yard with loading platform will be provided at the rear of this building for vehicles transporting tarpaulins. 6. Conveyors and Conveyor Gantries All conveyors will be of the belt type with a capacity rating of 500 tons/hour. Conveyor gantries will be steel framed and aluminium clad supported by reinforced concrete columns.
7. Junction Tower " A " A brick and concrete structure provides a junction for the three conveyors shown on the layout drawing. A combined railway siding line and motor vehicle roadway pass through under this building which will also contain a combined road and rail vehicle weighbridge, overhead hoppers for outloading of sugar in bulk to road and rail vehicles and underground intake hoppers for receiving sugar in bulk from road vehicles 8. Wharfside Installations Along Maydon Wharf at berth No. 2 two electrically powered travelling ship loaders will be erected. These outloaders which will travel on a pair of rails laid parallel to the wharfside will be able to receive sugar at any point along the berth, as required, from the 500 ton/hour conveyor in the gantry to be constructed alongside. The outloaders will have retractable telescopic chutes fitted with sugar throwers and these can be inserted to the required depth in the ship's holds and evenly distribute sugar therein. As previously mentioned, remote controlled closed circuit television cameras will be fitted to these telescopic booms. These structures are designed so as not to interfere with the normal railway operations along Maydon Wharf and the outloader rails will be supported on beams resting on piles to limit the loading on the sheetpile retaining walls forming the Wharf. 9. Servo-Balans Weigher Tower This brick and concrete building will provide a junction between the three conveyors shown on the layout drawing and will also contain the 500 ton/ hour Servo-Balans automatic weighing equipment for the weighing of sugar outloaded to ships. This building will form the nerve centre for the operation of the terminal and the main control panel fitted with television viewing screen and miscellaneous recording equipment will be situated therein A passenger lift will be provided and an observation platform giving an excellent view of the whole site will be constructed on the top floor of the building. 10. Bagging Unit and Sack Store This brick and concrete building will house the sack store and the 200 ton sugar storage hoppers which will discharge sugar to four combined sack filling and weighing machines with a combined capacity for loading 210 lb. bags at the rate of 100 tons/hour. Four sack stitching machines fitted with slat conveyors will also be provided. 11. Garage, Workshops and Restrooms A brick building will be constructed around the Servo-Balans weigher tower to provide garage a n d workshop facilities for all mobile equipment and vehicles to be used in the operation of the terminal.
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Separate ablution and restroom facilities will be provided in this building for all artisans and labourers employed in the operation of the terminal. 12. Administration Building This brick building which will house the manager of the company together with his clerical staff has been designed along modern lines which harmonize architecturally with the silo structure. The building will be fully air-conditioned and parking will be provided under the building for staff cars whilst a paved entrance driveway with open air parking for visitors' vehicles will be provided in front of the building, off Leuchars Road. A laboratory for testing samples of sugars consigned to the terminal from the various mills will be provided within this building. Provision has been made in the design of the building for possible future extension by the addition of another floor above. 13. Public Relations Building A separate building of modern design and architecturally similar to the administration building adjacent thereto will be provided specifically for the use of the Public Relations department of the South African sugar industry. As previously mentioned, it is envisaged that the terminal will become a major tourist attraction to the City of Durban and this building has been designed primarily to provide the necessary facilities for visitors on conducted tours of the installation. The design incorporates a reception area, an open air tea garden, a covered verandah and a cinema cum lecture or conference hall, tea kitchen and ablution blocks. A feature of this building will be the floodlit 120ft. high fibreglass spire which will have a concrete spiral stairway rising round its base and leading on to a prestressed concrete pedestrian bridge spanning railway sidings and linking the Public Relations building to the observation gallery to be constructed in the end wall of the silo. 14. Garden Layout The entire site will be enclosed by a wire mesh security fence which will be made attractive by planting flowering creepers and shrubs alongside it whilst in certain sections of the perimeter decorative brick and flower box walls will be built. Bitumen surfaced internal service roads and bitumen paved areas will be provided where vehicles are required to operate and all remaining unused areas will be grassed for lawns and planted with shrubs and trees to enhance the general appearance of the site. 15. Conducted Tours by Visitors Facilities for pedestrians on conducted tours of the terminal have been provided throughout the installation, along a planned route and special atten-
tion has been paid to the provision of safe pathways, pedestrian bridges over railway lines and observation galleries with safety rails in the plant installations. CONCLUSION On a project of this magnitude, it is likely that many unforseen problems will be encountered during the course of construction and these will have to be tackled and solved as they arise. The deep excavations for the piles have provided some interesting side-lights on the geological history of Durban bay and many remarkable fossils have been retrieved from the pre-historic cretaceous complex which has been penetrated by the piling equipment after lying undisturbed for many millions of years. At the date of writing this article all contracts for the construction of the terminal have been placed and work on the foundations has now been in progress for several months. The construction programme for this project has been so scheduled as to ensure that the terminal will have been completed and commissioned by the 1st May, 1965 in time for the commencement of the 1965 South African sugar milling season.
Mr. Perks asked if the piles were vertical or at an angle to take any wind strain. Mr. Bosch replied that the piles were vertical and the hinges are on roller bearings, specially cast. The positioning of the bearings was calculated so that the stress component was a direct thrust on the piles. This was a reason why the arch was not tied between the pile caps but the tying was done above. Mr. Chiazzari asked what precautions were taken for air-conditioning, and other factors which might affect the sugar. Mr. Bosch said the S.M.R.I. was examining the possible effect of such factors but in Barbados where climatic conditions were similar to those of Durban and also in Australia, it was found unnecessary to use air-conditioning. It was felt that the sugar should not stay in one high heap very long and that was why the stirrer and conveyor were being provided. Experiments were to be carried out to determine a definite drill for the operation of the stirrer. Many safety features had to be adhered to, for instance the silo could not be loaded higher than a certain point and very strict control would be laid down. The silo was designed for ordinary export sugar and sugars with a coating of molasses might cause difficulty. Mr. Rault said that considerable deterioration of export sugar had occurred during storage for some time near the docks during the hot and humid summer months. Mr. Bosch said special precautions were being taken to guard against moisture and epoxi sealing was used
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in the floor structure to prevent capilliary rise of water or vapour through the sugar pile. Concrete was chosen also to prevent leakage of water as had been experienced alsewhere and each arch was composed of 36 shells and in the joints between these epoxi resins were used. Sugar could be expected to harden but experience elsewhere showed that it would only form a crust on the outside, so it was felt expensive air-conditioning was not necessary. Mr. Lenferna asked why the floor of the silo was not funnel-shaped. Mr. Bosch replied that to provide an effective hopper the angle would have to be 35 deg. which would mean the bottom would be 50 to 60 feet below sea level and it would be enormously expensive to provide for water pressure from the outside. Mr. Buck said that at similar levels flood water stood three feet deep. Mr. Bosch said the average ground level in the vicinity of the terminal was about ten feet above above mean sea level and the floor of the silo would be a further two feet six inches above average ground level. The extracting tunnel was below the natural water table but although it had to be articulated every forty feet it was coated on the outside with Trinidad and mastic asphalt. Mr. F. Kramer asked if the South African Railways had been approached to supply a better type of truck for transporting sugar.
Mr. Bosch replied that such an approach had been made and different types of trucks had been examined. A difficulty was, if special trucks were used, they would have to return to the factories empty and the Railways would probably require the Industry to supply them. Dr. Douwes Dekker said that the various grades of sugar had different degrees of hygroscopicity and he knew that the question of dividing walls to prevent migration of moisture from one grade to another had been discussed. He asked if anything had been decided in this connection. Mr. Bosch replied that the whole question was still in the air but he favoured the use of plastic sheets to separate the various grades rather than movable dividing walls. Mr. J. B. Alexander asked what arrangements were contemplated to sample incoming and outgoing sugar. Mr. Bosch replied that a laboratory was being provided and samplers were to be provided at the tippler and in the Servo Balans tower. Mr. D. Renton asked how the flow of outgoing sugar was to be controlled. Mr. Bosch said that a series of louvred hoppers was to be-installed as mentioned in the paper. Such a device had been proved by Tate & Lyle to be satisfactory.
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ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN CANE CARRIERS

By D. L. HUGHES The primary role of the main cane carrier is to ensure a steady supply of cane to the crusher with a minimum of lost time due to chokes and cane knife tripouts. Experience has shown that most chokes are caused by a set of knives tripping out, or an overload of cane jamming in the cane knife housing. Generally, cane carrier layout is such that an aux carrier feeds into a main carrier; this system lends itself to close control of the incoming cane. Requirements of the Main Carrier Drive The main carrier drive should fulfil the following functions: (1) Provide a constant supply of cane to the crusher. (2) Accelerate smoothly and be controllable over a range of speeds. (3) Ensure that the cane knives are not overloaded. In order to maintain a constant feed, the carrier should be rather heavily loaded and run at a slow speed, this allows the feed to catch up in the event of the carrier being held back by the cane knife overload relays. The amount of cane entering the crusher is sensed by a killer plate which controls the speed of the main carrier. Smooth acceleration of the carrier is highly desirable in order to minimise excessive strain on the structure, etc. Speed control over a range enables various crushing rates to be maintained and a reserve of speed ensures that the carrier will catch up on any feeding delays. An overriding device operated by the current drawn by the cane knives is essential and it has been found that two stages of overriding is desirable. The first stage slows the carrier to a predetermined speed, while the second stage stops the carrier. The first stage speed is determined from operation experience and is set to pass 'slightly above average bundles' at approximately 80 per cent of full load knife current. The second stage is set to a point which will ensure that the cane knives will not trip out. The Carrier System The cheapest, but by no means the most efficient method of speed control on A.C. drives is by the use of a slipring motor with rotor resistance, or by a variable speed electro magnetic coupling using a squirrel cage motor. Both methods suffer from the disadvantage that the slip power must be dissipated as heat, the overall efficiency of the two types of drive is, therefore, about the same. The main factor influencing the choice of a drive would be first cost and in this respect the slipring motor with rotor resistance would score, the complete installation being approximately 76 per cent of the cost of the variable speed coupling drive. This comparison is based on the assumption that the rotor resistance bank as well as the coupling is rated for continuous duty at low speed. Experience over the past season indicated an average carrier speed of 38 per cent of maximum. The drive under discussion consists of a slipring motor controlled by a six notch contactor panel having the necessary cane knife overload relays. The notching is controlled by a killer plate sensing the blanket of cane entering the crusher. The linkage between the killer plate and controller is such that the full speed range is covered by a small amount of killer plate travel. This was found to be necessary to enable the carrier to catch up after being held back by cane knife overriding. A hydraulic dash pot was inserted in the controller linkage in order to prevent it following insignificant movements of the killer plate. Notching is controlled by timers thus eliminating any tendency toward rapid acceleration. The main carrier is fed by an auxiliary carrier which has a similar type of drive but is controlled by the requirements of" the main carrier. A set of equaliser knives is placed across the aux carrier, slightly past the head shaft. These knives level off large bundles of cane as they pass on to the main carrier. There are two stages of current overriding, set to a maximum of 100 KVA. A photo-cell is installed just ahead of the head shaft to ensure that there is always cane available at the equaliser knives. Sequence of Operation Cane is tipped into the aux carrier which passes it through the equaliser knives and onto the main carrier. The load sensing relays ensure that these knives are not overloaded. Should there be a gap in the cane on the aux carrier the photo-cell comes into operation and speeds up the carrier. The speed of this carrier is matched to that of the main carrier. mismatching occurs only when one of the overriding controls takes over. The depth of cane in the main carrier is sensed by a killer plate located as close as possible behind the equaliser knives. This killer plate stops the aux carrier when there is sufficient cane in the main carrier. An inherent advantage of this killer plate is that each time it operates on a large bundle it holds the aux carrier back long enough to allow a gap to form behind the bundle. This gap provides the extra space required by the bundle as it breaks up on entering the cane knife housing. The main carrier feeds the cane through the main cane knives and on to the crusher. Overriding relays ensure that the main cane knives are not overloaded.
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Observations Operation over the past season has proved, without a doubt, the advantage of an automatically controlled carrier system over the manually controlled type. It has been possible to dispense with two units of labour, thus completely eliminating the human element from the control of the carriers. The peak loads previously drawn by the cane knives have been completely eliminated, in fact there was not a single recorded trip out. The equaliser knives have contributed considerably to the smooth operation of the system and it has been found that the overriding relays on this set are continually operating. The average horse power drawn by the main cane knives has dropped noticeably, although the crushing rate has remained about the same. The most substantial gains have been in the reduction of down time due to cane knife chokes and cane slipping, etc. as indicated by the following: Season 1959/60 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 Time Lost 24 hrs. 05 mins. 29 hrs. 25 mins. 49 hrs. 30 mins. 14 hrs. 35 mins.
Mr. Hughes replied that the main carrier which was controlled by the mill requirements controlled the auxiliary carriers. Whatever the main carrier does the auxiliary carrier would follow. The controls were operated as separate units but each was completely dependent on the previous one in the train. If the previous control stopped the feed the subsequent ones followed suit. Dr. Douwes Dekker said that he would like to know the effect of more regular feeding of the feed to the first mill on the extraction of this mill. It would be interesting to know this. Mr. Ashe said that the extraction at the crusher had decreased as the knives were no longer required to cope with big bundles of cane on the carrier and did not disintegrate the cane as well as before. To combat this poorer preparation by the knives, these were lengthened as much as possible but this was still not enough to overcome the problem. This coming season the knives would be lowered almost to the carrier to give better preparation than had been achieved ever before. Another point was that the fibre content of the cane was some 2 per cent higher than before and this would result in a reduction in extraction by the first mill. Mr. Hughes said that cutting down of lost time at the mills must be balanced against any small loss in extraction when viewing the whole problem from a financial angle. Dr. Douwes Dekker said he was satisfied with the replies given and while maximum efficiency had not yet been obtained, he felt that next season's work would be considerably better. Mr. Farquharson said at Maidstone there was a third type of control in conjunction with a twocylinder steam engine driving the carrier. Points in its favour were (1) the steam engine obviously used less power when it was not running at full load and speed. (2) As the engine was already in situ, it was used, and only a simple control was required, consisting of contactor relays which motivated the solenoid air operated steam valves and these could be set at different positions to obtain the best results. He thought that the most suitable control system could only be found by practical tests designed to suit the different mills and milling conditions; what applied economically to one milling plant would not necessarily apply to another plant. The form of relay control used at Maidstone was similar to that used by Mr. Hughes and had produced a very regular feed to the shredder with little or no maintenance. Mr. Hughes said that the steam engine used previously was unsatisfactory because sometimes when it stopped it had to be rocked to start it again. However, two redundant identical motors were available and one was installed in place of the engine. In that case all that had to be provided as a suitable resistance to make the control gear simple.
Of the latter time, 6 hrs. 35 mins. was lost in chokes which occurred during the first few days of adjustments and should not be included. The operational time lost therefore becomes 8 hrs. 00 mins. It is of interest to note that of this down time 1 hour 20 mins. occurred within three days when the equaliser knives were lifted out and the aux carrier was manually controlled. The control gear performed remarkably well throughout the season, the breakdown time amounting to 0.19 per cent of the available curshing time. A number of essential refinements will be incorporated for the coming season which should reduce the total down time even further. Conclusion The control system of this drive was designed and built in our factory workshops using as much existing equipment as possible. The automatic control requirements of each factory vary widely and therefore present a challenge to the ingenuity of each engineer.
Mr. Hulett (in the Chair) said he could appreciate that many difficulties had been experienced at first with this ingenious electrical device as he had found much trouble with the electronic controls at Triangle Factory. At Triangle it had not been found possible to eliminate any labour on the carrier control. He asked Mr. Hughes, as he had eliminated both labourers on the carrier controls, how, if there was a choke half-way down the mill, the carriers were stopped from feeding.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril. 1963
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It was found necessary at short notice to provide automatic control, as the equaliser knives installed had to be enclosed and the operator could not see how the main carrier was being fed. There was no time available to study the drive before it was installed and this caused difficulty as assumptions had to be worked upon while keeping up throughput. The new reactors ordered could be connected in at any time and change thus made simply from ordinary resistance control. Next season the main control gear would not be done with relays as last year. A choice could be between relays and electronicgear, the latter of which he favoured and intended installing as the relay gear required maintenance. While the contactors could not be cut out completely those working in the normal speed range could be eliminated. He felt the system at Umfolozi could be applied to any mill with an auxilliary carrier feeding the main carrier. In reply to a question he said that while the slipring motor with rotor resistance would not be ideal in a plant not required to produce large quantities of exhaust steam this did not apply to a sugar factory which had this requirement and in which efficiency of prime movers was not so very important. Initial cost was of course less with slip-ring motor with rotor resistance. Mr. Grant said every factory operator endeavoured to apply automation as far as possible but he did not agree that automation in feeding the first crushing unit was entirely correct. The killer plate operated at one level but the feed depended on the type of cane being crushed and the amount of trash accompanying it. If cane was shredded prior to milling then the application of automation was more suitable. The main yard-stick was the extraction gained and 1 or per cent extraction at the first unit if this could be held to the end was more important than say 14 hours of shut-down time. Mr. Hughes said the question of cane quality had been studied and this coming season a special changeover switch would be provided so that the operator
could alter the controls so that the plant requirements were met. Another way of control was to utilise the load drawn by the main carrier motor for any depth of cane to control the auxilliary carrier by means of a special circuit. The killer plate could be adjusted by the operator to suit the depth of the cane on the carrier. Mr. Gunn recommended that people worried about different quality of canes should install a shredder in front of the rest of the crushing plant. A problem was to know how lo control the main carrier when this was feeding the shredder. Dr. Douwes Dekker said that for mills subsequent to the first crushing unit a constant supply of fibre was required but for the first unit it appeared that something between cane and fibre was required. Mr. Hughes thought that there must be a balance between the money coming out of the crusher against that put in as power. The chest pressure in the engine driving the crusher was at times equal to the line pressure but at times it was considerably less, indicating that the crusher was not doing as much work as it could so that a control would have to be introduced to take care of this aspect. Mr. Kramer said he had seen in another country a torque measuring device on the coupling of the first milling unit which was used in the feeding control of this unit. Mr. Hughes answering a query by Mr. Rault, said he had found a through-put of 120 tons per hour suddenly jump to 150 tons per hour and this led again to the thought that the power required by the first mill should govern the feed, thus utilising the full power the mill could take throughout the season. Mr. Hulett considered the power input of a mill drive could not be assessed in terms of money. The capital had already been invested and by utilising the full horsepower no extra money was being used. He also thought that the speed of the main carrier was not so all important and other factors, such as preparation of the cane, had to be taken into account. At Darnall the whole mill train depended on the crusher speed. If the mill over-filled lower down the train the speed of the crusher was rediced slightly.
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MUTUAL MILLING CONTROL PROJECT

PROGRESS REPORT No. 2
By E. J. BUCHANAN, K. DOUWES DEKKER and A. VAN HENGEL Summary The technologists in charge of milling tandems in Natal are to be congratulated on the remarkable increase in milling efficiency over the last few years. This paper presents the averages and means for the milling data tabulated in connection with the M.M.C.P. during the 1962-63 crushing season. The average figures have been tabulated in such a manner that it is possible to detect reasons for tandems falling into high or low performance groups. In this manner several interesting trends have been established in the relationship between performance and process variables. A notable example is that all milling trains in Natal equipped with shredders preceding the first mill are placed at the top of the high relative performance group. A number of other interesting trends are discussed. It is hoped that during the coming season, data will be sufficiently comprehensive to warrant a thorough multiple regression analysis. of the data. In some cases, several figures were of questionable accuracy. The frequency of reporting data from each tandem shown in Table 1 should be borne in mind when considering the average values shown in subsequent tables. Accuracy of Data In general, with a few obvious exceptions, the process data are reliable. The exceptions appear to fall in the first mill data. Several of the residual absolute juice figures of Table 2 appear to be higher or lower than expected, e.g. those for Pongola and Illovo. The mechanical data are less accurate. These include data 11 to 18 and 29 to 30 on Table 2. In many cases the fibre index is higher than the reasonable maximum. This is borne out by considering the apparent density of bagasse calculated from 100 x lb. fibre/cu. ft. escribed volume fibre % bagasse Introduction The first progress report was read at the 1962 Congress. At that stage only five factories had submitted data over a limited period and it was possible only to point out a few preliminary observations. The response during the 1962-63 season has improved considerably, however, and it is apparent that a more tolerant attitude is being adopted towards the tedium of submitting weekly figures. Still more encouraging is the increasing interest shown by technologists in milling performance and the acceptance of specific performance figures such as lost absolute juice % fibre. It is possible that this renewed interest in judging milling performance on the more specific figures of the M.M.C.P., thereby facilitating a more reliable exchange of information between factories, is connected with the appreciable improvement in performance of South African milling tandems during the past few years as shown on the graph below. However, we do not wish to be too presumptuous in this respect and would rather offer our congratulations to the technologists directly associated with this achievement. This paper presents a summary of the average milling data for the season 1962-63 and discusses some apparent trends in the relationship between milling variables. Frequency of Reporting Data The response from the factories during the last season was encouraging. All except two factories, viz. Umfolozi and Sezela, equipped with lift integrators, were able to submit at least some data as shown in Table 1. However, in several cases some of the figures were omitted and the reporting was intermittent. This detracts considerably from the value From overseas data, a normal value for this figure is about 110 lb./cu. ft. and values falling in the range 95 to 115 are reasonable. Data 32 and 33 in Table 2 indicate that only about 50 per cent of the fibre indices are reliable. This is unfortunate since the apparent bagasse density calculated by the above formula is a useful guide to the amount of "reabsorption" which occurs as the bagasse passes through a mill. The density of bagasse is about 75 lb./cu. ft. so that any excess over 75 lb. bagasse/cu. ft. escribed roller volume may be attributed to reabsorption. We hope therefore that particular attention will be paid to increasing the accuracy of assessing the first mill fibre % bagasse and also the measurement of discharge work openings, speeds and diameters of both first and last units. Trends Noted from 1962-63 Data Unfortunately, the data submitted during the last season was not sufficiently comprehensive or accurate to warrant a detailed analysis. A survey of the figures rearranged in Tables 3, 4 and 5 in order of performance has indicated several trends but it is now clear that due to interactions between the independent variables a multiple regression analysis is unavoidable if the various relationships are to be accurately determined. This is an extremely tedious process and would best be carried out by a specialist in statistics as was the case in a similar analysis on a single tandem conducted by Haines and Hughes discussed at the 11th Congress of the I.S.S.C.T. in. Mauritius last year3. A simple method of determining trends in the dependence of milling performance on the variables
63
was adopted. Three dependent variables, viz. relative performance, lost juice and residual first mill juice were chosen and arranged in order of decreasing merit as in Tables 3 to 5. Tandems above the mean performance were arbitrarily termed high performance and those below, low performance. The applicable process data were arranged in columns corresponding to each tandem. The figures were then examined in order to detect obvious differences in magnitude between the upper and lower groups, i.e. above and below the mean line. The disadvantage of this type of analysis is that relationship may be obscured by interactions. For example, in Table 5 there is no clear evidence that a high top roller pressure decreases the residual juice but this may be obscured by the existence of a high peripheral speed which could increase reabsorption and hence nullify the advantage of the high pressure. For this reason an additional figure, viz. specific pressure surface speed has been added in Table 5. This is a more enlightening figure and clearly shows that a high value of this ratio corresponds to good first mill performance and the reason for exceptions becomes clear. This is elaborated below. Having explained the method of analysis, some trends are discussed in the following sections. Variables Related to Relative Performance Few technologists are able to concentrate on the economic aspect of milling, their attention being
fully occupied with the efficient manufacture of the primary product, viz., sugar. It is quite normal, therefore, that a healthy spirit of competition exists between technologists in charge of milling tandems in attaining the lowest lost absolute juice % fibre. This is of course, to be commended. However, we are ultimately concerned with the annual return per unit installation. Hence, in order to compare the overall performance of tandems of different sizes, it is necessary to consider both efficiency and throughput. On this basis, the relative performance of a milling tandem is proportional to the specific feed rate and inversely proportional to the lost absolute juice % fibre. Thus: Specific feed rate=lb. fibre/cu. ft. T.R.V. Relative performance = 100 X lb. fibre/cu.ft. T.R.V. lost absolute juice % fibre
The term, relative performance, therefore expresses the efficiency modified to account for the ratio of fibre rate to installed roller volume. The various tandems are tabulated in order of decreasing relative performance in Table 3. We now have a true picture of which mills are performing the best work and this provides a useful basis for considering which preparatory devices are capable of rendering the best support to a milling train. Referring to the column headed "Units" in Table 3, it is interesting to notice that the high performance group comprises tandems equipped with shredders and those without shredders, viz. PG, UK, FX,. and U F 1 / 2 , fall at the end of the low performance group. A notable exception is FX2 which is unique in having only one
64
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association April 1963
set of knives. The value of shredders has long been realized, in Natal and there are very few remaining sceptics in this respect. But this is probably the first clear distinction which has been shown in figures. Even more startling are the first four tandems of the high performance group, viz. DL, ZM, TS1 and SZ1/2 for these comprise all the tandems with the IIS preparatory arrangement, i.e. two knives followed directly by a shredder. This is not a thorough statistical analysis but it would appear highly significant that the top performance tandems in Natal with respect to throughput and efficiency have shredders directly following the knives. The arrangement has been recommended by the S.M.R.I.2,4, and the reverse arrangement of two knives, a three roller unit, followed by the shredder was favoured in a discussion published in the S.A.S.J. in 1958.1 However, this is the first clear distinction on a statistical basis. The advantage of the IIS arrangement over that of the II1S would appear to be that the former feeds a more constant bulk density material to the milling train thereby maintaining weight and volumetric feed rates closer to the optimum values necessary for maintaining constant imbibition/fibre and fibre/escribed volume ratios. This is in addition to the usual improved preparation attained by a shredder. In this connection it is appropriate to note the improved performance of ZSM tandem after installing a shredder:
formance. In Table 4, the tandems are tabulated in order of decreasing first mill efficiency expressed in terms of residual absolute juice % first mill bagasse. Again, the milling trains headed by shredders appear in the upper performance group. However TS1 appears rather low in this group, but this may be due to the low specific pressure on the top roller of only 16 lb./sq. ft. projected roller area. !n fact it appears that the low pressure mills all tend towards the low efficiency group. No clear effect of pressure and speed is apparent, however, due probably to interactions. For this reason, the effects have been combined in the ratio: 100 X specific pressure in lb/sq. ft. projected roller area peripheral speed in ft./min. the values of which appear in the last column of Table 4. The highest values appear in the high efficiency group indicating that high, specific pressures and low peripheral speeds are conducive to efficient milling. In this connection, it is interesting to note that though the tandems FX 1 , TS2 and UK (particularly the latter) are not preceded by shredders, the high pressure/speed ratios probably raise their first mill efficiency to the upper group. It would appear that FX2, in spite of having an average pressure and a low speed, is unable to compete with other first mills due in all likelihood to the presence of only one set of knives. In this analysis, the fibre index shows a more definite trend, the high values falling in the high performance group. Summarizing these trends, it appears that good first mill efficiency is associated with mills preceded by two knives and a shredder, high pressures and low speeds and high fibre indices indicating good feeding.
Continuing the discussion of factors affecting relative performance, Table 3 indicates that the larger tandems appear in the high performance group. Extreme imbibition rates, both. low and high, appear in both performance groups so that the imbibition rate is unlikely to have a major effect on performance (within a reasonable range). Likewise, the absolute juice % cane is not of major importance. Several tandems with abnormally high mill ratios and feeder ratios appear in the low performance group. There is no obvious trend in the roller pressure and speed figures, but this is very likely due to interactions. It is significant that the tandems with abnormally high residual absolute juice % first mill begasse all fall into the low performance group. No definite trend is shown in the fibre index figures but these are incomplete and some are obviously inaccurate. Summarizing the above trends, it appears that a good relative performance is associated with tandems fitted with shredders particularly when the shredder precedes the first mill, with the larger installations, with mill ratios in the region of 2, feeder ratios in the region of 6 and a good first mill performance. Variables Related to Residual First Mill Juice As pointed out in the previous section, a good first mill performance is conducive to high overall per-
Variables Related to Lost Absolute Juice Having discussed the variables associated with high milling efficiency at high throughput and first mill efficiency, the discussion is now limited to the variables affecting high overall efficiency regardless of throughput. In Table 5, the tandems are tabulated in order of decreasing efficiency expressed in terms of lost absolute juice % fibre in last mill bagasse. Again the tandems equipped with shredders preceding the first mills fall in the higher efficiency group, as do the larger tandems. There is some indication that the low specific fibre rate tandems tend to the high efficiency group and vice versa. There is no clear trend with respect to imbibition rates. Dilution ratios appear to be closely related to lost absolute juice and this indicates that efficient imbibition (not necessarily high rates) is an important factor. Low final bagasse moistures all fall in the high efficiency group. Finally, the tandems having an abnormally high residual absolute juice % fibre in first mill bagasse all fall in low efficiency group. Summarizing the above trends, high milling efficiency is associated with milling trains preceded by shredders, the larger installations, good first mill efficiency and low final moistures. Efficient imbibition is important.
65
Conclusions The average data in Table 2 should provide a useful means for checking abnormalities in low performance milling tandems. The data have proved extremely useful to the S.M.R.I. in advising factories on adjustments and new installations. The trends discussed in the latter sections, though based on a superficial analysis, nevertheless warrant serious consideration. Particularly worthy of note is the fact that high efficiency at high throughput is best attained by milling trains preceded by two knives and a shredder. In general, there is no evidence to show that high imbibition rates are necessary in order to attain high performance. However, efficient imbibition is important. Attention should be focussed on. mill and. feeder settings and also on pressures and roller speeds. High first mill performances and low final bagasse moistures should be a target. The S.M.R.I. invite the wholehearted participation of technologists concerned with milling in the M.M.C.P. during the 1963-64 season. Particular attention should be paid to the accuracy of data. It is hoped that the data will be sufficiently comprehensive to warrant a detailed regression analysis by which definite relationships in milling variables will be established.
Finally it should be pointed out that technologists whose mills fall in the low efficiency group may derive some consolation in the fact that the average lost absolute juice % fibre in this country is now close to being the lowest in the world. Acknowledgments The authors wish to extend their sincere thanks to the chemists and engineers who have devoted so much of their valuable time during the 1962-63 season to measurements, analyses and calculations in order to submit the data presented in this paper. We are particularly grateful to the factory managers who have shown so much interest in this project. We should also mention that Mr. D. J. Collingwood assisted with the calculations.
References Anon, S.A. Sugar Jnrl, 1958,42, (II), 945. 2 Buchanan, E. J., S.A. Sugar Jnl., 1961, 45, (10), 895. 3 Haines, W. S., and Hughes, R. H., Proc. X1th Congress I.S.S.C.T., 1962. (To be published.)
4 1
Van Hengel, A., Buchanan, E. J., and Douwes Dekker, K., Proc. 36th Congress S.A.S.T.A., 1962, 56.
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April 1963
TABLE 2
AVERAGES OF WEEKLY MILLING
KEY:
P = U n i t with Pressure Feeder G = U n i t with Gravity Feed Chute I = S e t of knives C = T w o - r o l l e r crusher S=Shredder 1 - 6 = 3 - r o l l e r mill units T . R . V . = T o t a l roller volume
Unit 1 = first 3-roller unit Unit Z = last 3-roller unit
sts' AssociationApril 1963
61
TABLE 2
DATA 1962/63
*Pressure feeder setting ratio or gravity chute opening ratio. Figures shown in (brackets) are averaged from general weekly returns.
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April 1963
69
70
71
REPORT ON A TOUR OF THE QUEENSLAND SUGAR INDUSTRY

By A. VAN HENGEL and F. A. KRAMER INDEX Introduction and Acknowledgment Itinerary and People Interviewed Conversion and Comparison of Australian and South African standards Cane Quality Cane Preparation Grooving and Roller Surface Conditioning Roller Speed Roller Wear Settings Feeding Milling Performance Imbibition Hydraulic Load Automatic Control Horse Power Requirements Matters of Technical Interest Clarification Evaporation Pan Boiling Centrifugation Export Sugar to Japan Fuel Consumption Recommendations F. A. Kramer, Chief Engineer of Amatikulu was selected. The time of the visit was chosen so that a seminar on Milling Technique to be held at the University of Queensland in Brisbane, given by Prof. M. Shaw, Dr. R. Murry and his co-workers, could be included in the itinerary. This seminar, in turn, coincided with the Xlth Congress of the I.S.S.C.T. at Mauritius, which was attended on the way back to South Africa. The authors would like to express their gratitude for the generous gestures of the Board of Control and Director of the Sugar Milling Research Institute and the Management of Sir J. L. Hulett & Sons which enabled them to obtain a better knowledge of milling technique in particular and to widen their views on sugar manufacture in general. They would like also to express their deep appreciation for the efficient way in which their trip was organized and for the full co-operation of research institutions, firms and factory staffs in giving them the required information. B.ITINERARY AND PEOPLE INTERVIEWED The trip started on the 24th of August when we departed from Louis Botha airport in Durban and the Australian part of our trip terminated on the 22nd of September when we took off from Sydney International Airport. In these four weeks the following visits were made. See page 2. We left the Seminar on the 21st September at 11.00 and left Sydney on 22nd for Mauritius, to join the rest of the South African delegation to the I.S.S.C.T. CCONVERSION AND COMPARISON OF AUSTRALIAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN STANDARDS OF MILLING CONTROL As mentioned in our previous publication, the Australian method of factory control is completely different from ours. It is interesting therefore, to give a full account of the two methods in order to enable technologists to form an opinion on their merits. The main difference is the absence of juice scales in Australia. The formula: weight of cane + weight of imbibition water = weight of bagasse + weight of juice
* K. Douwes Dekker and A. van Hengel: Report on a trip to Queensland and Hawaii to attend the twenty-sixth Conference of the Queensland Society of Sugar Cane Technologists in Maryborough and the tenth Congress of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists in Honolulu in April and May, 1959, respectively.
A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N. O. P. QR. S. T. U. V.
w.
A.INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT The purpose of this report is to describe some aspects of Australian milling technique which appeared to the authors, during their recent tour of this sugar industry, to be of particular interest to South African sugar technologists. The visit to Australia was complementary to a previous trip to Australia by A. van Hengel in 1959, when he was a member of the South African delegation which visited Queensland and Hawaii on the occasion of the 26th Conference of the Queensland Society of Sugar Cane Technologists in Maryborough and the 10th Congress of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists in Honolulu.* However, the latter Australian visit took place during the off-season and although many aspects of Australian milling technique were discussed at length, it was difficult to gain a clear view of the way in which the high milling efficiency was obtained. When it was decided that A. van Hengel, member of the staff of the S.M.R.L, would visit Australia once more, this time during the milling season, the desirability of his being accompanied by an engineer of sufficient practical experience in the Natal Sugar Industry was stressed. It was for this reason that
72
Date 1962 27.8.. 28.8.
Visit to C.S.R. Main Office Refinery Office.. ..
Interview with Mr. Selman Mr. Davis Dr. Brown .. Mr. Matthews Mr. Driden Dr. Hertzberg Mr. Bills .. Dr. Sutherland Mr. Nicholson Mr. King Mr. Aldrich Dr. Allen .. Mr. Shann .. Mr. Cameron Mr. Newman Mr. Webster Mr. Wilmott Mr. Jorgensen Mr. Pearce Mr. Perry .. Mr. Clark .. Mr. Venton Mr. Hollywood Mr. Powell Mr. Laidlow Mr. Smart Mr. Hayles Mr. Nicholls Mr. Powell Mr. Cameron Mr. Isaacs Mr. Reichardt Mr. West .. Mr. MacLaughlin Mr. Clarke Mr. Wells .. Mr. Lewis .. Mr. Reed .. Mr. Dumford Mr. Whitaker Mr. MacDonald Mr. O'Neill Mr. Breen .. Mr. Prince Mr. Harper Mr. Sharpies Mr. Deicke.. Mr. Warrell Mr. Sommerfield Mr. Allan .. Mr. Horsburgh Mr. Flockton Professor Shaw Dr. Murry .. Mr. M u n r o . . Mr. Holt ..
Function Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Refinery Inspector Ref. Inspecting Engineer Ref. Chemical Inspector Head of Development Section Asst. to Dr. Hertzberg Head of Laboratory Senior Staff Member General Manager Chief Chemist Director Research Officer Manager Technical Director Manager Chief Engineer Chief Engineer Manager Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Manager Chief Engineer Secretary Chief Engineer Technical Officer Chief Chemist Manager Chief Chemist Asst. Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Second Engineer Chief Chemist Second Engineer Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Manager Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Manager Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Chemical Engineer Manager Chief Engineer Chief Chemist Asst. General Manager Chief Engineer Process Manager Design Engineer Chief Draughtsman Secretary Head of Mechanical Dept. Leader of Research Project Asst. to Dr. Murry Asst. to Dr. Murry
C.S.R. Research Laboratory C.S.R. Refinery 29.8. Sugar Research Institute Pleystowe Sugar Mill
30.8.
Plane Creek Sugar Mill Race Course Sugar Mill Mackay Bulk Terminal Proserpine Sugar Mill Inkerman Sugar Mill .. Kalamia Sugar Mill ..
31.8.
3.9
4.9.. 5.9..
Pioneer Sugar Mill Macknade Sugar Mill.. Victoria Sugar Mill ..
6.9.. 7.8..
South Johnstone Sugar Mill Babinda Sugar Mill ..
10.9..
Mulgrave Sugar Mill ..
11.9.. 13.9..
Mossman Sugar Mill .. Fairymead Sugar Mill Millaquin Sugar Mill Walker's Ltd University of Queensland Milling Seminar
14.9.. 17.9.
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cannot in consequence be used for the determination of the weight of bagasse and hence it is not necessary to measure or weigh the amount of imbibition water. Hence, the only known weight is the cane weight and for this reason the milling control is based on some assumptions which will be explained below: The general procedure is as follows: 1. The fibre % cane is determined for each variety by a direct method. 2. It is assumed that during a certain period the fibre % cane of each particular variety is constant and independent of the source of supply. 3. From the fibre % cane and fibre % bagasse, the weight of bagasse is calculated. 4. The pol and brix in cane are calculated from the pol and brix in first expressed juice by empirical formulae. 5. The pol in mixed juice is found by subtracting the weight of pol in bagasse from the weight of pol in cane, and the extraction is calculated in the normal way. 6. The amount of imbibition is gauged by the difference in brix of the undiluted juice and mixed juice and is called "Dilution per cent undiluted juice". 7. Comparative milling results are expressed in terms of "Reduced Extraction"; Fibre % Cane = 12.5% is taken as the basis. The following comments should be made regarding the previous points: 1. A sample of cane weighing 15 lbs., previously prepared in a small Waddell-shredder is fibrated in a disintegrator. The newest development in this field is the Jeffco cutter-grinder, made by Jeffress Bros. Ltd. Brisbane. 200g of the fibrated material is placed in a suitable calico bag and submerged in cold running water while the bag is squeezed occasionally. The bag is then boiled in water for 1 hour. It is subsequently spindried and dried in an oven at 105 to constant weight. From the weight of the bag, the fibre % cane can be found. 2. This is done for the different cane varieties and it is highly unlikely that the assumption, that the fibre % cane for each variety is constant, is correct. Some factories do only three determinations per week per variety, others do as many as they can, realising that even this is not sufficient for a true picture. For this reason the fibre percentages of the different consignments of cane are not accurately known and it is somewhat surprising that these data are used in the calculation of the C C S . (Commercial Cane Sugar) contents of them, which are the basis of the Australian cane payment system. 3. This point is straightforward and just the reverse of the way in which the fibre content of the cane is calculated from the weight of cane and bagasse and the fibre % bagasse.
4. The empirical formulae used for the calculation of brix and pol in cane read as follows: brix % cane = brix % first expressed juice X 100-(F+3) 100 and pol % cane = pol % first expressed juice X 100-(F+5) 100 in which F = fibre % cane. The former formula would be in agreement with the brix-free water hypothesis if (F + 3) would indicate the natural fibre content of the cane. But since according to this hypothesis there is a constant ratio between the natural and the (dry) fibre content of cane and not a constant difference this assumption would only be correct, if all Queensland cane had the same fibre content. For example if the brix-free water content of Queensland fibre were 22.5%, (F + 3) would only be equal to 1.225F if the fibre content were always 13.33%. Actually it varies between 10 and 15%. For this reason it is difficult to assume that there is a theoretical basis for the above formula, which more likely is empirical. With regard to the formula for pol % cane, matters are even more complicated. Consider the formula:
One can only assume that the factor -2 is used to compensate for the fact that the pol of juice which is more difficult to express is lower than the pol of juice in cells which burst at a relatively low pressure, a fact which is illustrated by the lower purity of last expressed juice. If the two equations are divided into each other, we get:
This equation shows a relationship between the purity of cane juice and first expressed juice depending on the fibre content of the cane. In actual fact this relationship depends on the type of cane and the extraction by the first rollers. 5. The fibre percentage of the final bagasse is determined in the usual way:
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This formula is also used to calculate the first mill extraction. It is obvious that: (1) The extraction figure obtained is very much dependent on the cane quality. (2) The calculation of fibre % first mill bagasse by the determination of moisture, pol and first mill juice purity is even more hazardous than the calculation of fibre % last mill bagasse. Therefore, the direct determination of fibre in the first mil! bagasse would make the extraction figure more reliable than the extraction calculated in the familiar way. 6. The comparison of the rates of imbibition as applied in Queensland and South Africa is very difficult. South Africa uses the international figures for imbibition % fibre (and imbibition %cane), whereas Queensland uses the figure Dilution % first expressed juice. The latter figure is normally calculated from the difference in brix between first expressed juice and mixed juice, but also from the difference in brix between first expressed juice and clarified juice. In the former case this difference is due to the dilution with imbibition water, in the Latter to dilution with imbibition water plus sweet water. Usually the imbibition water in Queensland is very hot (this particular point will be discussed later), and for that reason not all imbibition water will be used for dilution as a large quantity will evaporate. However, direct blowing in of steam in the maceration belt carrier will more or less compensate for that. Consequently, the calculation of "imbibition %fibre" from "dilution % first expressed" juice is difficult and cannot be regarded as accurate. However, approximation will provide a comparison between the amounts of imbibition given in South Africa and Queensland. The calculation proceeds as shown in the following example: It must be mentioned that the majority of factories do not calculate mixed juice % cane and do not determine brix % mixed juice but clarified juice % cane and brix % clarified juice. The calculation of the weight of clarified juice is as follows: Tons pol in clarified juice = tons pol in mixed juice tons pol in mud
It is obvious from the foregoing that there can be no doubt that in single cases considerable errors in the figures for milling control and cane payment are unavoidable. However, the outcome of the average is surprisingly correct as may be proved by the following calculation from figures that happened to be available.
75
ft is assumed that all extractions are reduced to a fibre content of the cane of 12| %. It will be appreciated that there are several objections against the use of "Reduced Extraction". Any error in the (inaccurately) determined fibre content of the cane will be reflected in the Reduced Extraction figure, as is shown in the following example. Example: Assume: fibre % bagasse=50% pol % bagasse =2.4 sucrose % first exp.juice= 17.0 Now consider two cases, viz. that the single fibre determination shows 13.5 % fibre, but that the average fibre content of the cane is 13.0% which can easily occur:
This figure is very near to what is regarded normal and is fully acceptable. For this reason, it may be accepted that the average process figures for Queensland are correct and directly comparable to the South African ones although they were obtained in a completely different way. The performance of mills itself need not necessarily be comparable. 7. The term "Reduced Extraction" is well known and is expressed by:
As can be seen, the influence of the fibre determination on the reduced extraction is even greater than on the pol extraction. It is for that reason that it is preferred to recalculate the Australian results in terms of lost absolute juice % fibre in the following way:
In Australia F may between 10 and 14. W may vary between 20 and 25. The ultimate values of the equation will become: C =0.978 B and C=0.959 B or average C=0.969 B. The absolute juice % fibre may now be calculated easily from the bagasse analyses and the brix of the first expressed juice.
76
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' Association - April 1963
The possible error may be 1 % either side, or 29.2 or 29.8 ultimately. The advantage of this method is that, although still depending on fibre % cane, the variations are very small. The method requires the analyses of bagasse and first expressed juice only, and is not dependent on a particular system of milling control. D.CANE QUALITY Compared with Natal conditions, it can be categorically stated that cane arrives at Queensland mills in a better condition than is the case here. Contributory factors are: (a) All cane is burned prior to cutting (b) Cane is never allowed to stand over Due to the high labour cost, it is understandable that trashing of cane prior to cutting appears uneconomical. The Weil's disease prevalent in the cane fields of Queensland is a hazard to the cane cutters which makes it imperative to burn cane before harvesting and that any left over cane is either burnt or ploughed in. A further contributory factor to the higher quality is probably the method of cane payment which is based not on sucrose % cane but on C C S . % cane. (See Table I). As mentioned previously
This formula does not acknowledge that variations in the fibre content of cane, in addition to the effect they have on the relationship between brix. resp. sucrose % first expressed juice and brix, resp. sucrose % cane, i.e. C C S . % cane, are also responsible for differences in the proportion of the sucrose which is extractable. The higher the fibre content of the cane the more sucrose is lost in bagasse. This fact does not find its expression in the C C S . formula. Any improved formula which takes into account: (a) The unavoidable loss of sucrose in bagasse, (b) The unavoidable loss of the sucrose in final molasses, and which would be of interest when eventually the improvement of the Java Ratio method of cane payment, as applied in South Africa, will come up for consideration, would be:
This formula is based on a standard performance typified by a final molasses purity of 33.3 and a final bagasse of 4 5 % fibre and 1.8% sucrose, whilst it is assumed that no sucrose is lost in filter cake, or "undetermined". Example: Assume two cane consignments A and B, both rendering a first expressed juice of the following analysis: brix % f.e.j.=20.0 sucrose % f.e.j. = 17.5 If the fibre percentages of these two consignments are 10% and 15% respectively, then the following calculations can be made:
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Opinions differ in Queensland as to the effect of "woolly" top rollers though in some cases an improvement in milling efficiency was obtained especially in cases where the mill had been slipping. Others feel that if there is no slip in the first place, little can be gained by letting the top roller fur up. Pitch of grooving ranges from inch to 1 inches; and 1 inch being the most common. Much energy is devoted to restoring the grooving by means of arc welding applied to the worn groove tops, which is usually done on Sunday. It was stated by the Chief Engineer of Fairymead that a reduction in last mill bagasse moisture content from 49.29 to 47% was obtained simply by installing a top roller without chevrons! This is understandable when the volume of the chevron is calculated which is approximately 5 - 8% of the described volume, the effect becoming bigger with the pitch of the grooves. G. -ROLLER SPEED From Table III it is obvious that for the last mill of the train the trend is low surface speeds. In most cases this is obtained by the installation of bigger and wider rollers in the last unit, and/or by the installation of pressure feeders on the last unit. The surface speed of the last unit is being determined by the speed of the engine driving that mill. The surface speed of all remaining mills varies with the bagasse blanket thickness and is controlled by a "killer" plate working on the governors of the prime movers. By choosing the roller diameters as close as possible, the relative roller surface speeds are also kept the same. Where the roller diameters differ considerably, pinions with (n+1) or (n1) teeth are employed in order to maintain equal roller surface speeds. Pinions with 17, 18 and 19 teeth on one mill are therefore not uncommon. H.ROLLER WEAR Only five factories were interviewed with regard to annual roller wear. The information is shown in Table IV. For a similar quantity of cane the roller wear in South Africa is much higher, 1 in. to 1 in. against in. to in. in Australia. At first it was thought that the material of which the rollers in South Africa are manufactured was perhaps "softer" than in Queensland. But in Mauritius where rollers are imported from France, as well as South Africa and Queensland no difference in annual wear was apparent. Hence there must be another reason for this difference and the first question which comes to one's mind is the nature of the material crushed; is there any difference in that? Generally speaking, the fibre content is lower in Queensland than in South Africa. The average for the whole industry is 12.5. Also different cane varieties could be responsible; for a "softer" cane might be expected to give less wear.
E.CANE PREPARATION Cane preparation starts in the field, the extent of which can be judged from the condition in which it arrives at the factory. In Queensland the cane is delivered in a clean condition without trash. Where mechanical harvesters are in. use, the cane arrives at the mill "chopped up" in pieces approx. 8 ins. in length. Transport comprises a kind of cage holding 20-25 tons. This is tipped hydraulically into the carrier. For final preparation most factories in Queensland have considerable H.P. installed. (See Table II.) Very often both sets of knives are coupled by means of flat belting. This is done to compensate should one set temporarily be overloaded. In three factories we observed two sets of knives as well as a shredder being driven by one vertical cyl. engine. In these instances the coupling also constitutes flat belts. The type of knives varies from one mill to another, some factories use bent knives and others straight, others again use the hoe-type of knive. The shredder is more often than not installed the "wrong way round", as this set-up is considered beneficial to feeding. Shredder settings are not regarded as being important, varying from 5/8ths in some factories to 2 ins. in others. The various knife-settings and horsepowers are shown in Table II. Generally speaking, we found the cane preparation in Queensland to be of a high standard. F.GROOVING AND ROLLER SURFACE CONDITIONING Grooving of mill rollers receives special attention in Queensland, various angles have been tried out and 35 is generally accepted as giving the best results, some mills going as far as 32. It is claimed that the deep groove provides better drainage which is justified by the results obtained, i.e. low moistures. Furthermore, when a dirty (or "woolly") top roller is required for better feeding the deeper groove provides a better grip on the bagasse giving a uniform covering. In order to make a toproller woolly, it is common practice to set the teeth of the top scraper plate a little distance away from the roller. In one factory a different and rather novel method was used. The scraper plate had been removed entirely and in its place a rotary cutter, similar to a lawn mower cutting blade, and covering the full width of the roller, had been installed. The result was a very even, "woolly" surface.
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Last but not least is the earlier mentioned practice of restoring lost material by welding. In some factories, it was found that milling with a "woolly" top roller did not mean that there was no wear of the roller surface. This wear, which is considerable, is put down to slip or movement of the bagasse relative to the roller surface. Where this phenomenon occurred it was found necessary to remove the "wool" (bagasse) over a week-end and to carry out some intensive carbon-arcing or spot welding in order to remove the "polish" which had developed unseen under the bagasse. I.MILL SETTINGS In order to avoid confusion, it is as well to point out from the outset what Queensland engineers mean by set opening. The sketch shown is self explanatory and it will be observed that negative settings are a possibility.
J.FEEDING The nightmare of every engineer is a choking or slipping mill. It is not surprising therefore, that prevention of this occurrence has been the aim of every engineer responsible for milling performance. The different devices for improved feeding are: pushers (single and double), apron feeders, Donelly chutes with or without precompressing rollers and underslung feeder rollers. Perhaps the best yardstick of the efficiency of a feeding device is how much the feed opening can be closed without choking the mill and without lowering the throughput. In that respect there is no better feeding device than the pressure feeder which we have seen in operation in many mills of Queensland. In all cases where such a feeder was installed it increased the throughput as well as giving lower moistures and coupled with that a higher extraction. Where no higher throughput was required, the surface speed could be decreased. It is surprising how little additional power is claimed to be required to drive the pressure feeder. Up to 40 HP extra is considered to be necessary. A basic requirement of the successful operation of the pressure feeder is to keep it full and for that purpose we have seen open chutes or Donelly chutes feeding the pressure feeder! These chutes merely act as a hopper ensuring a continuous feed to the continuous pressure feeder. Most engineers seem to agree that the pressure feeder on the last mill ought to bring the moisture down 3 to 5% depending on what the bagasse moistures were before. Difficulty is sometimes experienced with the expressed juice running over the top roller. To overcome that, a hole is made in the top scraper plate leading the juice from there by means of gutters and pipes to the juice tray. From tests carried out by the Mackay Research Institute staff it appears that the pressure on the sides of the pressure chute is of the order of 10 to 15 lbs./sq. in. Load cells were placed in the sides of the chutes from which the readings were obtained. Nevertheless, a chute has been known to breakdown as we learned in some mills, but in most cases this seems to have been caused by incorrect settings and consequent blocking of the chute. K.MILLING PERFORMANCE The data collected during the visits to the different factories are recorded in Table VII. Moreover, the specific control figures based on the Australian system of milling control have been converted to the International Control figures by the methods described previously. The following remarks concerning the different columns must be made: Columns 3 and 4: The tonnages given are all in long tons. Column 7: In general the number of imbibition stages equals the number of mills minus one. A figure placed between brackets indicates that the old maceration bath is still in full use and that juice still circulates over the same mill. (See under Imbibition.)
Where some mills operate with fixed top rollers (no hydraulics), it is obvious that engineers can only set the mills for one particular fibre throughput and that they depend on automatic speed control to cope with variations in that fibre throughput. Scrutinizing Table V, it is evident that the technique of milling differs considerably from one factory to another, and even in one milling train we can observe clean and dirty top rollers side by side. The same applies to fixed and hydraulically operated top rollers. Another diversity is apparent when studying mill ratios in Table VI, but a similar table of South African mill ratios would probably show the same wide range. In Queensland, trashplates are set as low as 4 in. toe and 5 in. heel and in an extreme case the setting was 7 in. toe and 7 in. heel. In general the lower ratios are preferred and the pressure-feeder should be regarded as an instrument to reduce the mill ratios without increasing the danger of choking the mill. If the ideal ratios of a pressure feeder are considered to be 1.5 to 1 for the pressure feeder to the mill opening, and 1.5 to 1 for the front to discharge opening of the mill, then the overall ratio will be 1.5== 1.5. .2.25, a ratio considered to be reasonable for a conventional 3-roller unit. It appears therefore that the invariably good results of the Queensland engineers are obtained by their ability to feed the mill properly, irrespective of the fact that they operate with fixed or hydraulically loaded mills, clean or dirty top rollers and high or low trash plates. However, it must be stressed that slowly but surely the hydraulically loaded mill is taking over from the fixed mill, a tendency which is strongly supported by the Sugar Research Institute in Mackay and the mechanical department of the University of Queensland.
TABLE VII
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Column 8: The Dilution Ratio is a figure that has been introduced by Douwes Dekker and is used in South Africa only. The brix of the residual juice in bagasse can be calculated from: brix residual juice=
Example: A tandem comprising two sets of knives, a shredder in front of six mills, the first of which is fitted with a gravity feed chute and the last with a pressure feeder has the following code: II SG4P Column 10: T.R.V. stands for cubic feet of total roller volume. This term is used in South Africa where it was introduced by Perk for comparing feed rates to various sizes of milling tandems. Assuming for the moment that all rollers have the same length and diameter then:
The brix should be as low as possible, but it is understandable that it will never become zero. The brix of the residual juice is dependent on two factors: (a) The brix of the original undiluted juice, (b) the degree of dilution taking place during imbibition. As an arbitrary standard, it is assumed that in an ideal case the dilution of the brix should be such that the remaining juice will have a brix of 15% of the original juice. In other words, the brix will be decreased by 85 %. The actual brix decrease can be calculated from the brixes of the undiluted juices and the residual juice in bagasse. The dilution ratio is then:
in which n =number of rollers in the tandem D = diameter of rollers in in. L = length of rollers in in. T.R.V. = cu. ft. of total roller volume. This formula can be rewritten as T.R.V. = constant X (nD 2 L). The term nD 2 L is often found in formulae for capacity ratings. It must, however, be understood that n in these formulae sometimes depicts the number of expressions in a tandem. For n rollers, the number of
Example: If: brix first expressed juice =20.0 pol % bagasse moisture % bagasse purity last mill juice Then: = 2.25 =52.0 =75
Hugot, use the square root of the number of rollers ( n)> and then of course there is no longer a proportionality unless the number of rollers varies little. Column 11: This column is self-explanatory. This figure is also found on the M.M.C.P. sheets and in the Annual Summaries of Laboratory Reports of Sugar Factories in South Africa by Perk. Column 12: In this column the residual absolute juice % fibre in the first mill bagasse is shown. These figures were calculated as follows: The first mill extraction in Queensland is again calculated by:
fibre %bagasse= 100-52.0-3.0=45.0 juice % bagasse= 100-1.25x45.0=43.75
decrease in brix=20.0-6.86= 13.14 standard decrease=0.85 x 20= 17.0
Knowing the first mill extraction, Fc, and Pc, then Fb can be calculated. Moisture % bagasse is determined by all factories and 100-fibre % bagassemoisture bagasse=brix % bagasse. From this figure, residual absolute juice may readily be calculated. From the table it will be observed that in Queensland the quality of the cane is much better than in South Africa. Fibre % cane is lower and sucrose % cane is higher. This, added to the fact that the cane arrives in a cleaner and healthier state, will make it evident that the miller in Queensland faces an easier job than his colleag ue in Natal. In Natal, the average absolute juice per cent fibre is 550 to 600 and in Queensland this figure is 750. At equal lost absolute juice % fibre, the extraction must therefore be much higher in Queensland and therefore cannot be used for com parison. For this reason the word "extraction" has been omitted from Table VII.
Column 9: The code used in this column is identical to the code used in the Mutual Milling Control Project: I = one set of knives II =two sets of knives S = shredder C = two-roller crusher 1 =first mill 3 or 4 =three or four consecutive mills P =mill fitted with pressure feeder G =mill fitted with gravity feed chute
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In Table VIII the results of each individual mill are shown. The top figures are moisture % bagasse, the lower figures denote the pol extractions up to that particular unit. An asterisk indicates that the particular mill is fitted with a pressure feeder. The irregularity of the moisture contents arc shown in Fig. I, where they are compared with Darnall (figures for the week ending 2.11.62) and with the Maidstonetandem at Tongaat (week ending 9.11.62). It is clear that the line of Darnall follows a completely different pattern to the lines of the Queensland mills. Only a few factories show a gradual decrease in the moisture contents of the bagasse going from mill to mill. Compared with the Queensland factories, Darnall starts off reasonably well with a moisture of 56% and up to the third mill the moisture is very acceptable. In fact, the Darnall-line looks more normal than the Queensland lines, where in most cases the drop from penultimate to last mill is excessive, and caused by the use of continuous pressure feeders. For this reason it is of interest to note that of the 30 pressure feeders on the graph, 5 are situated above the Darnall line and 25 under the line, including the Maidstone-tandem one. The Maidstone line follows the same pattern as the line of Darnall up to the fifth mill. The last mill of Maidstone definitely makes the line decline rather steeply in the Australian fashion. The conclusions to be drawn from this graph are: (1) pressure feeders, properly used, will guarantee low moisture contents of the bagasse. (2) feeding, in general, is of paramount importance to milling performance. (3) an investigation should be started, aimed at finding out whether it is possible at all to reach low moisture contents in South Africa. With respect to the performance of the tandems, Table VII will enable us to draw some more conclusions: (1) In general the cane quality is a lot better than in South Africa. The fibre content is lower and the sucrose content higher. (2) The amount of imbibition applied varies considerably, but is in general lower than in South Africa. (3) The tandems are shorter than in South Africa, which decreases the possible number of imbibition stages. (4) In view of the two previous points, it will hardly be surprising that the dilution ratio is rather low. The highest Dilution ratio obtained is 86 at Darnall (Natal average 1961-62 is 72). This leads to the conclusion that, in Queensland, extraction is achieved more by efficient squeezing than by efficient leaching, or imbibition. (5) The capacity of the tandems is very high. Figures like 99, 91, 81 and 74 lbs. fibre/h/cu. ft. T.R.V. exceed the highest figures in Natal by roughly 50%. However, it should be kept in mind that from this total roller volume the pressure feeder
rollers were excluded. (Perk in his Annual Summaries of Laboratory Reports normally includes them.) The authors, however, feel that the value of pressure feeders, added to existing equipment in the majority of cases, with regards to capacity and performance is better illustrated by not including them. So, a throughput of 99 lbs. fibre/h/cu. ft. T.R.V. (Plane Creek) means that four 72 in. mills crush 25.7 short tons of fibre with an imbibition rate of 213% on fibre. The performance in the form of lost absolute juice % fibre 32 is quite good and this may be, attributed directly to the effect that each mill was fitted with a pressure feeder. (6) It will be noted that quite a number of factories have a figure near 200 for residual absolute juice % fibre in first mill bagasse. It is obvious from Table IX that this is due to the fact that shredders precede the first squeezing unit.
Analysis of this table shows clearly that: (a) the installation of a shredder in front of the first squeezing mill reduces the residual juice in first mill bagasse considerably. (b) the throughput of the tandems preceded by a shredder is remarkably higher than the throughput of those not fitted with a shredder at all. (c) that the end result in the form of lost absolute juice % fibre in final bagasse is practically identical, notwithstanding the fact that a lower moisture could be obtained as a result of lower throughput and also that one full stage of imbibition was at the advantage of the tandems without shredders. The amount of imbibition was practically identical. (d) that shredders in Queensland, if used, are invariably placed in front of the first squeezing unit. It will also be noted that, the shredder at Fairymead is preceded by one set of knives only. L, IMBIBITION The Queensland mills apply slightly less imbibition than we are used to in South Africa. However, although the averages do not seem to differ very much the extremes vary widely. Darnall uses 380 % no
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fibre whilst Babinda uses 152% on fibre. But apart from these variations one specific feature differs com pletely from our South African technique, i.e. the universal use in Australia of hot imbibition. Hot imbibition does not mean that hot water is added to the bagasse entering the last mill only, but that steam is also applied to the imbibition juices added to the different intermediate bagasses. In figure II, the temperature of the imbibition juices and water, as met at Kalamia are shown. It is evident that quite a good "preheating" of the bagasse takes place in the intermediate mills so that when the hot imbibition water is applied, the temperature of the bagasse is of the same order. In the C.S.R. factories (Macknade and Victoria) the old system of the maceration bath carrier is still fully employed. The other factories have the old carriers still in use, although they are gradually being disposed of. In many cases, pressure feeders have been added to mills and consequently the carriers had to become steeper so necessitating the installation of drag carriers. But only in the two previously men tioned C.S.R. factories did we still see the juice being circulated over its own mill as is shown in figure II by the dotted lines. The advantages claimed for hot maceration are: (1) Cleaner mills as the high temperature prevents the growth of various forms of micro-organisms. (2) Increased extraction. At one factory a 0.7% increase was claimed. (3) In the case of hot maceration plus recycling of juice (Macknade) an increase in recovery was claimed. However, neither figures nor explana tions were given. It is perhaps of value to consider the hot imbibition from a different angle. According to fig. II, the juice leaves the last mill at a temperature of 150F which is approximately 50 higher than in South Africa. The equation of Darcy reads Q =flow rate of liquid A = available area for flow
For a given set of conditions of bagasse quality, roller speed, hydraulic load, etc. increased flow be comes more and more difficult as the brix of the extracted juice increases during the squeezing process. The brix of the last expressed juice is normally some where around 3, whilst the brix of the residual juice is somewhere around 8. The increase of 5 units in brix will increase the viscosity by about 15%. How ever in the region between 85 and 125F the viscosity decreases with 20% per 20F. Hence, it is clear that higher temperature will facilitate better drainage by faster flow and that the improved extraction cannot increase the brix to such an extent that it counteracts the beneficial influence of the temperature. Increased imbibition will also reduce . This system of imbibition would meet objection in South Africa with regard to the payment of cane, but it is the feeling of the authors that a short test should be conducted on one of the factories. M.HYDRAULIC LOAD As may be seen from Table X, some factories in Queensland apply hydraulic loads which, seem exces sively high, much higher than in Natal. It should be noted that these figures are in short tons. Other fac tories apply loads which are of the same order as in Natal and in many factories fixed rollers are still used. It should be stated at the outset that lift of the top rollers is not measured and that in many instances no lift occurs at all. In other words many engineers seem to consider their hydraulics as safety devices. This, of course, makes it difficult to derive very much in formation from the table as: (1) Enormously high pressure may or may not occur in the fixed mills. (2) High pressure will occur in the hydraulically loaded mills only if they have the roller floating continuously. Our general impression was, however, that the pressures are high. Engineers reduce their settings to choking point and in general, wish to believe that they are working at high pressures. The different research institutions working on milling, strongly advocate the installation of hydraulics and the proper use of them. As a result of this campaign, the fixed mill is gradually being replaced, although some engineers, and among them are men whose views are highly valued, adhere to the fixed mills. N.AUTOMATIC MILLING CONTROL At some of the factories excellent systems have been designed to ensure constant feed to the first unit, running at constant speed. The sensing means of the controller is generally a killer plate, except in Fairymead where a different system is used, which will be described later. The rest of the mills have speed control, also by means of a killer plate, directly coupled with the governor. This system is shown in fig. III, and corresponds to the system described by Ashe during the 1962 S.A.S.T.A. Congress.
K = constant, denoting a characteristic of the medium, termed permeability = dynamic viscosity of the liquid If the different components of this equivalent are related with the milling process then:
and hydraulic load. (b) K will depend on the depression of the bagasse and the structure of the fibre particles. (c) will depend on the brix of the liquid and its temperature, and in this sense that higher brixes and viscosities will slow down the flow rate.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' Association April 1963
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There are, of course, objections against using a killer plate to feed a mill. In a recent publication from Queensland (1962: I.S.S.C.T. Conference, some Practical Confirmation of Experimental Milling Results) Shann shows the relationship between killer plate position and fibre throughput on a second mill. (See fig. IV.) It will be evident that there is only a very remote relationship between blanket thickness and fibre rate and understandably so since bulk density varies. For this reason, Shann recommends the use of killer plate control only in connection with floating top rollers. However, we feel that, once the floating top roller is regarded as being essential for correct and smooth milling, the float of the top roller should be used for the governing of the speed of the prime mover. This in turn will necessitate independent drive of the carriers which, moreover, must be of the short-retention type similar to drag carriers or rubber belts. A very ingeneous system was met with in Fairymead. The controlled variable was the torque on the mill drive coupling bar which was kept constant. In the feed chute, consisting of a variable speed, apron carrier, was a type of feeder roller also of variable speed. The speed increased when the torque became too low and vice versa. Observing the set-up, unfortunately during a short time only, gave the impression that it worked very well. The staff of the factory was very enthusiastic about it and identical feeding arrangements will be made on all units. (See fig. V.) O.HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS It is rather difficult to estimate the horsepower consumption in general. At many factories, indicator diagrams are not taken regularly and the engineers are only able to provide the size of the steam cylinders, steam pressure and r.p.m. of the engines. In other cases, the total installed horsepower is known and only in a few cases could a definite answer be obtained with regards to the indicated horsepower consumption. However, data as accurate as possible were collected and reproduced in Table XI for what they are worth. Generally speaking, it is our feeling that many mills in Queensland are under-powered which may explain the rather high moisture contents of the intermediate bagasse, as is shown in fig. I. P.MATTERS OF MECHANICAL INTEREST 1. Hot bearings in steam engines After the main bearings of a horizontal steam engine have become very hot, it often happens that the brasses are permanently distorted. Invariably they "curl up" when cooling down, clamping themselves to the journal. In one of the factories visited, they claimed to have a good method, shown in fig. VI, to restore the brasses to their original shape. Three bolts on each side pull the brass back into shape against the body of the bearing houses.
Another solution to the problem, often met, is that horizontal steam engines are fitted with roller bearings on main- and big-end bearings. Engineers are very satisfied with the results and they claim the following advantages: no hot bearings, the usual knock in the engine is eliminated, lubrication costs and maintenance are negligible. Figures VII and VIII give example of how such bearings are fitted. 2. Reduction of sidethrust of roller flanges A not unusual occurrence in sugar mills is that flange bolts sometimes break as a result of a heavy sidethrust by the bagasse. The engineer of Mulgrave has overcome this trouble by introducing the "upswept" trash plate as shown in fig. IX. He claims that the pressure on the flange is greatly reduced and that he has had no bolts break since the introduction of the system. 3. Reduction of friction over trash plate The same engineer claims better milling results by making the top angle of a mill as small as possible. This practice shortens the length of the trash plate, which can now be placed lower, because the moving bagasse blanket needs less support as a result of the shorter distance it has to traverse. In order to be able to accommodate larger roller diameters, the lower shell of the top bearing is packed up. Q.-CLARIFICATION It is well known that in Queensland the simple defectation process is used for raw sugar manufacture. In all factories visited, the process was controlled by a pH-controller. In the majority of cases "cold liming" was applied but it must be remembered that the temperature of the juice is considerably higher than normal as a result of the very hot imbibition. Settling takes place in Dorr's, Rapidorr's, Graver's, Bach's and more primitive continuous subsiders. In general the juice looks very good, but not clearer than in Natal. However, on no occasion did we find any suspended matter in the juice, only haziness. Vacuum filters are universally used and are under strict control. The "pick up" vacuum is kept constant and low and the "high vacuum" is kept as high as possible. The rotational speed of the drums is kept at a minimum and thick in. to | in. cakes are formed. In general the pol % cake is considerably higher than in Natal, as a result of less sweetening-off. At Proserpine, the filtrate is treated with lime to a pH of 8.0 and resettled in a small Graver. The juice from the Graveret (small Graver) is not completely clear but is used for preliming. Another way of dealing with the muds, is the socalled "Killer-process". In this process the muds are not filtered at all but are mixed with a part of or all the imbibition water and resettled. The thin juice after decantation is used as imbibition water and the "mud" is thrown away. Some figures concerning this process were collected at Inkerman and Pioneer. Inkerman uses 20% of its imbibition and the final
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mud contains 1.5 % sucrose. The mud is 5% on cane and hence the sucrose ioss in mud % cane will be
cane. From Pioneer less specific data are available but investigations have shown that: (1) Sucrose loss by the Killer-process is equal to or better than with filters.
(2) The loss in extraction by using Killer-juice instead of water is lower than the cost of installing, running and maintaining a filter station. The amount of insoluble solids in the returned "Killer-juice"' is very low; lower than in mixed juice and the mud will therefore not circulate. R.EVAPORATION A lot of attention is paid to the efficiency of the evaporator-station. Some factories are working with very low fibre percentages and only extensive use of bleeding and other means of steam economy avoids the use of additional fuel. In Proserpine where steam economy is not of primary importance because the cane contains 14.03% fibre, which in Queensland is considered high, the evaporator plant is boosted in the following way: As T.C.H. = 170 tons (2,240 lbs.) cl.j. % c a n e = 9 9 % brixcl.j. = 17.51 brix syrup=66 Then: lbs. clarified juice per hour=170 ; 2,240x0.99 = 376,992 lbs. water evaporated =
Total heating surface is 37,000 sq. ft. and therefore the
hour which is very high for a quintuple. However it will be noticed that this is achieved by bleeding the fourth vessel to the condenser and by blowing vapour into the atmosphere. The juice from the clarifier gravitates to the "pre-evaporator" but enters the big first vessel assisted by a pump. At various factories the evaporator stations are completely automatically operated. At Mossman the automation of the pH, heaters, evaporator, clarifiers and filters, and mud' disposal is so complete, that only one man supervises the whole operation. S.PAN BOILING Queensland is predominantly fitted with coil-pans, as may be seen from Table XII.
Table XII Pan Installed in 27 Queensland Factories
Type of Pan CoiJ Calandria Forced Circulation calandria (Webre)
High Grade 88 20 8
Low and High Low Grade Grade 8 22 2 6
Total 118 22 20
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' Association April 1963
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Of the 118 coil pans installed, 20 are fitted with oval coils in order to give less resistance flow. A modern trend is not to flatten the coils but to fit two small coils right above each other. instead of Completely different from Queensland are the views of the C.S.R. technologists in Sydney. They claim that their calandria-pans do better work. In their new pans, completely welded, they have done away with copper-tubing, mainly because they prefer sloping tubeplates. Hence the tubes are of steel and are welded in. Very good results arc claimed with these pans. Rather surprising is the claim of the refinery people in Sydney that automatic pan boiling on conductivity-control is successful. This system is used throughout the C.S.R. concern and, in fact, a good performance of automatic pan boiling was given by Macknade, boiling low-grade massecuite. The conductivity is kept constant during the filling of the pan and a program-disc controls the heavying-up period. Due to restricted pan capacity, the cycle is rather short, but as shown in fig. XI the regularity of boiling is excellent. Other factories that we visited and which used automatic devices were all using the same system. A novelty, worth mentioning, was a seed-container at the refinery in Sydney. In order to stop leakage through the gland of the main shaft, the worm-wheel had been removed and the shaft was sealed off completely as at the other end of the trough. The drive was performed by means of an internal sprocket-wheel, close to the front plate and driven by a chain and a small motor with reduction gear. The chain, therefore, is partially submerged in the seed-magma, but after a full season no signs of wear could be noticed. It is their plan to fit a crystallizer with the same type of drive. T.CENTRIFUGATION There is very little to say about this department. The same type of machines used in South Africa, Broadbent and Asea Lansverk centrifugals are encountered in Queensland. It is very obvious that the viscosity of the final molasses is lower than in South Africa. At one factory, it was observed that the B-molasses was treated by separators. The sludge had a purity of approximately 30-35 and was discarded with the final molasses. According to reports* the process does not seem to be very promising. U. -EXPORT SUGAR TO JAPAN A sample of J.A. sugar, collected at Inkerman and sent to South Africa had the following analysis: The analysis is compared with a shipment of sugar from South Africa to Japan per "Cape Ortegal" on 17.10.62.
* Two papers covering the subject were read at the 11 th Congress of the I.S.S.C.T. in Mauritius and will be published in the Proceedings.
Inkerman Reducing Sugars Sulphated Ash.. R.S.'Ash Fiiterability P502 SiO, Starch Wax Gums Pol Moisture Safety Factor Sieve Analysis 10 .. 14 .. 16 .. 20 .. 28 .. 42 .. Pan S.G.S 0.848% 0.629% 1.35 59% 25 p.p.m. 40 65 50 440 97.33% 0.60% 0.22 0.1% 0.7% 2.1% 5.3% 42.7% 43.4%
0 ' /<>
"Cape Ortegal" 17.10.62 0.746 0.560 1.33 40% 25 p.p.m. 60 230 90 1,170 97.09% 0.76% 0.26 1-1% 15.7% 25.1% 23.4% 27.4% 7.0% 0.3% 0.86 mm.
^ 7<>/
0.54 mm.
The export sugar is composed from A and B sugar. The A-sugar is not washed at all and the B-sugar is washed only very slightly or not at all. The sample has a reasonable safety factor, but in general the safety factors in Australia are 0.28-0.30, and in South Africa they can be as low as 0.18-0.20. The general trend therefore in Australia is to have rather high pols and safety factors whilst in South Africa, we used to have rather low pols and safety factors. The difference of course lies in the manufacturing method and it is obvious that for that reason the S.G.S. in South Africa is so much better. In order to leave sufficient non-sucrose on the surface, the surface must be big and hence the grain size small. If the grain size is so small that the pol is safely low, then the moisture content becomes too high as the water-non-sucrose ratio in A- and B-molasses is less favourable than in final molasses. It is well known that dryers handle bigger crystal easier than small ones. So in Australia, the manufacturing of J.A. sugar is a rather delicate undertaking resulting in a rather high pol and safety factor and an unsufficiently large grain size. However, from the grain size distribution it will be seen that the grain is very even, although the sugar originates from A- and B-strikes. The South African sugar, from A-strikes only, is far less regular. V.FUEL CONSUMPTION In Queensland, the fuel position of the factories is much healthier than in South Africa, notwithstanding the much lower average fibre content of the cane. Factories with 10.0% fibre will come out without any supplementary fuel, factories with 14.0% fibre have difficulty in disposing of their excess fuel. In general, it is found that 11.0 to 11.5 % fibre will provide a factory with sufficient fuel, to save during the week to provide fuel for the weekend stop. There are a number of reasons why this is possible:
S6
(1) The moisture content of the bagasse is lower and hence the L.C.V. higher. (2) There is less installed horsepower in the factories, especially at the milling tandems. (3) The rate of imbibition is lower than in South Africa especially when the fibre % cane drops below 12.0%. (4) The factories are equipped with extensive possibilities of vapour bleeding. As a result of coil pans being used, vapour bleeding to pans is not common (if used at all). (5) installation of prime-movers with a low steam consumption per unit of work delivered. (6) Higher prices of extra fuel and lower profitmargins of the factories. (7) Efficiency of furnaces, boilers, economisers and super-heaters. (8) All factories visited were equipped with efficiently working bagasse disposal- and return systems, as is shown in figure XII . Some factories use their excess bagasse in a profitable way, such as the generation of electricity. At Victoria, a huge 4000KWh de Laval-Ljungstrom turbine delivers between 1,000 and 2,000 KW to the Regional Electricity Board at a price of 0.55d per KWh. During week-end stops the factory purchases power at a price of 2.75d. per KWh. Per week the "sale" of power is 184,400 KWh, the "purchase" 5,400 KWh and the value of the difference is A360 per week. This factory does not burn any supplementary fuel and has an average fibre % cane of 11.74%. The production of live steam is much higher than necessary for heating purposes in the factory and as a result there is a constant blowing off of excess exhaust steam. At Millaquin, a rum distillery and small refinery are run, although some extra fuel is needed. At Pleystowe, the problem of dealing with excess bagasse has been dealt with by the installation of a
Reilly-boiler with a huge furnace. A certain amount of bagasse is stored only for purposes of week-end stops, breakdowns, etc. All bagasse in excess of that is incinerated in the huge furnace of the Reilly-boiler. A part of the combustion gases, however, is diverted from the boiler and mixed with air before it goes straight into the chimney. The mixing of air and amount of gases diverted is controlled automatically and the boiler therefore produces just the amount of steam required. W. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Too much attention cannot be paid to the feeding of each mill, whether first, intermediate or last. 2. Shredders should be placed in front of the first three roller unit, and should be installed "back-tofront". 3. If necessary, more power should be made available for preparation. 4. Small grooves with small included angles are advisable for the last mills. 5. Chevrons should be discarded, as they hardly improve the feed and are not necessary once proper feeding has been achieved. 6. Hydraulic pressures should be increased to 80 to 90 tons per foot roller length. 7. Restoring of worn groove tips by arc welding to improve grip on the bagasse and prolong life of rollers in addition to the usual carbon arcing in the grooves. 8. Circumferential speeds of rollers should be kept equal by choosing matching roller diameters, or by using pinions with differing numbers of teeth. 9. Increased control on milling performance by full scale control on each unit instead of the usual occasional milling test. 10. Circumferential roller speeds should be maintained as low as possible. 11. Mill ratio's should vary from 2.5 to 1.5 depending on the place in the tandem and type of feeding device.
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 196.
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TABLE xr
H.P. ON MILL ENGINES AS GIVEN BY MILL ENGINEERS

Some H.P.'s arc obviously "As Installed", and others "As Indicated'*. It is impossible to vouch for accuracy as far as the figures in the following table are concerned.
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' Association
April 1963
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96
97
98
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationiApril 1963
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Mr. Gunn (in the Chair) said he fell the authors of the two papers had found it difficult to get all they wanted to publish in their reports. The Mutual Milling Control Project had undoubtedly stimulated much more interest in milling than had been shown in the past. He commented that in 1956 Mulgrave Mill in Australia had installed a juice weigher and claimed that no difference was found between the extraction calculated by its use as compared with the method based on the usual assumptions employed. He asked if Messrs. van Hengel and Kramer had visited any factories which ground cane harvested by the Massey Ferguson harvesters. He also wished to know if the automatic vacuum pan. controls seen were of the Kelso type. He related that as far as woolly top-rollers were concerned, at Tongaat the top roller of the last mill, which was a pressure fed mill, the dirty top roller wore more than the discharge roller, which appeared to indicate that the bagasse in the grooves did move as the roller went over the trash plate. Although, it was thought by some people in South Africa preferential to have rollers of different diameters in a mill to obtain, a grinding action as well as a squeezing action, it was noticeable that in Australia special effort was made to get the roller speeds exactly the same. Hydraulic loading of mill rollers in Australia, where fixed mills were favoured, was used merely as a safety device. Chevrons were not used in the pressure fed mill at Maidstone and no ill effects were noticeable. Mr. van Hengel said a number of factories in Australia weighed the juice and ran a separate factory control as well as the prescribed one. This indicated that differences were found as otherwise it would not be necessary to run two different methods of control. Two factories dealing with Massey Ferguson harvested cane were visited and both factories were pleased with these reapers, which topped and cut the cane into short lengths and loaded it into containers. In Australia he had seen apparatus for pan control which he was told was the "normal" conductivityelectrode type using a commercial controller. He felt that in Australia the preference was for high pressures, low speeds, big openings and small grooves on the last mill. Hydraulics, as Mr. Gunn had pointed out, were still largely a safety device, but many people thought they should be used as they were designed for, that is to say to keep a constant pressure under varying thicknesses of the layer of bagasse. Mr. Kramer said that in certain factories it was found that allowing the top roller to become woolly did not lead to extra wear. Mr. Grant recalled that Dr. Kerr, when he was in South Africa, said gravity chutes installed in Australia were eliminating the old pusher gear. He wished to know if the pusher gear was still in use in certain mills and in the case of gravity chutes were feeder rollers also used? Dr. Kerr considered feeder rollers
were not necessary in this case but South. African opinion differed from this view. He noticed from the report that in Australia most or all mills had pressure feeders on the last mill. Some of the intermediate mills had pressure feeders and some had gravity chutes. The moisture content of bagasse varied considerably at the intermediate mills and he asked if this indicated that the pressure feeder was more effected than the gravity chute. When pressure feeders were installed, was the load on the prime movers increased or reduced? Mr. Kramer said that in many cases an extra roller, situated anywhere on the intermediate carriers, was used in. conjunction with the pressure chutes. In Australia more emphasis was placed on the performances of the first and the last mills than on that of the intermediate mills. It had not been found necessary to increase the horsepower of the prime movers when feeder rollers were installed unless the crushing rate was increased when more powerful turbine units were put in to replace the older engines. The old pusher gear was still being used in. places and he had seen, a special type which pushed from the top and bottom alternately but this was not greatly favoured, most engineers prefering the pressure type of feeder. Mr. van Hengel pointed out that many intermediate mills in Australia were old mills which, did say 60 tons per hour previously while the throughput had now been increased by installing very big first and last mills. Mr. F. Johnson said the report stated that the quality of Australian sugar was better while the clarity of juice was not as good as that in South Africa. He asked if this was due to the extensive use of coil vacuum pans as he considered that coil pans produced a more regular grain than did calandria pans. Mr. van Hengel said that even newly installed pans were often of the coil type and it was apparent that in Australia this type was favoured. However, he thought the better sugar produced was mainly due to a more favourable juice to deal with. Mr. Hill asked if the use of hot maceration water in Australia did not cause the mills to choke as had been found in South Africa. He was surprised to learn that in some Australian mills the juice had been seen to run over the top rollers as Dr. Kerr had advocated a dirty top roller to prevent this. As to the Milling Control Project paper, the figure quoted of hydraulic weight compared with the unit of fibre passing through the last mill appeared to show no correlation and the figures quoted for Queensland of 90 lbs. of fibre per cubic foot of bagasse showed that terrific pressures were used. Mr. Kramer replying to Mr. Hill said that in many instances juice flowing over the top roller from the discharge roller was seen, whether the top roller was woolly or not. As far as hot maceration was concerned, the Australian engineers averred that the use of cold maceration resulted in the mill not slipping sufficiently and the factories became full up with juice.
100
Mr. Buchanan did not think the relationship between hydraulic load and weight of fibre per cubic foot of bagasse was a very useful one. An increase in the roller pressure would result in higher density of bagasse but of more importance was the feeding of the mill. Mr. Fourmond enquired why no figures of boiling house performance or even boiling house recovery were shown in the Report on Australia. He also enquired if it were possible for a quintuple effect evaporator which was being bled could average an evaporation, rate of 7.5 lbs. per square foot per hour. He wanted to know if there was a great difference between the method of calculating the extraction of the first mill as advocated by the Mutual Milling Control and that normally used in performing milling tests. Mr. van Hengel replied that to include factory figures in the Report would have made it too bulky but such figures were obtained. It would require an additional Report to be written to cover that aspect. The figure of 7.5 lbs. evaporation per square foot per hour attained by a quintuple evaporator was quoted because it was remarkable. The method advocated of calculating the extraction of the first mill gave a fibre per cent cane one per cent different from that obtained by normal method and large differences noted should be investigated jointly by the S.M.R.I, and Mr. Fourmond. Mr. Main said he welcomed the Mutual Milling Control Project which must result in improving milling. He recalled that some years ago in Hawaai sucrose per cent bagasse had averaged 0.8% for a season which showed that improvement was possible. He would like the figure of fibre stress ratio to be introduced. In India this figure had explained a remarkable and otherwise unexplainable difference in milling efficiency as between factories with similar plant and milling the same variety. In Natal we were now milling canes with a fibre stress ratio similar to those crushed in other countries. The highest extractions he had come across were on high fibre stress canes. He had carried out fibre stress tests on different varieties grown under identical conditions and of the same age and these showed a large variation in fibre stress ratio. Mr. Buchanan said that the milling efficiency figures obtained so far at different factories did not reveal any great variation which could be attributed to cane quality. Mr. Royston regretted that owing to certain mechanical factors Gledhow had not been able to share in the Mutual Milling Control Project up to now. However, recommendation in the Report, of which he had prior information, such as smaller grooving at the last mill, deeper grooves and a narrower angle, had been incorporated in the Gledhow milling plant this year as far as possible. To compare Australia with South Africa was perhaps unfair because the Australian calculations were based largely on assumptions and the chemical control
was not as strict as here, while the cane was also more easily milled. Mr. van Hengel said he was satisfied that, for example, moisture per cent bagasse was determined with the greatest possible care in Australia. Sucrose per cent cane figures were avoided in making comparisons by adopting the absolute juice loss per cent fibre figure. Mr. Lenferna asked if third massecuites were cured in Australia for as long as forty-five minutes. Mr. van Hengel said that while this might be true under certain circumstances, this had not been witnessed and the usual time was from 10 to 15 minutes. Curing time in Hawaai however could be as long as one hour and a quarter. Mr. Rault said that the new method of fibre determination in 1st mill bagasse did not present any special advantage over the one commonly used for individual units control on lines similar to the last mill bagasse. He had also noted the record low bagasse moisture content reached by Darnall's first crushing unit and consequently excellent extraction at that stage. Together with liberal use of imbibition this factor had contributed to the total extraction which topped that of other up-to-date South African factories, notwithstanding Darnall's shortage of one milling unit. Mr. van Hengel said about 65 % of the juice in the cane was extracted by the first mill at Darnall at a high purity. This meant that the purity of the mixed juice was also high while that of the juice left in the final bagasse was as low as 75 deg. Dr. Douwes Dekker said it was hoped to find a better method of determining the fibre content of first mill bagasse but the difficulty so far was to get a representative sample. Now, however, a machine was being obtained from Australia which enabled one to obtain a small sub-sample for analysis after taking a big sample. Mr. Hibbert asked if the trash-plate described was used generally in Australia and if it was cast in that particular shape or built up. Mr. Kramer said that particular shape was not generally used in Australia. The method of obtaining the shape could be done either by casting or building up by welding. Mr. Gunn remarked that there had been a theory in Australia for years that better extraction at the first mill led to a lower purity of the juice resulting in a lower price being paid for cane. As far as the horsepower required when pressure feeders were installed, he had visited a factory in Australia which studied this aspect and it was found that the horsepower required was less than before the pressure feeder was installed and that while the speed of the engine was reduced by about one half, the through-put of the mill increased about 10 per cent. He went on to remark that as they had found in Australia that cold maceration caused less slip and the engines would pull up. This probably accounted for the roller wear being so remarkably low in that country.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 196J
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CALCULATION OF MILL SETTINGS

By G. G. ASHE The following is a simplified method of getting approximate mill settings, using first principles. For the purpose of these calculations we assume that cane consists of three ingredients, i.e. fibre, sucrose and water. Also that the S.G. of fibre, sucrose and water is 1.35, 1.55 and 1 respectively. It is necessary to have these values so that volumes in cubic feet can be calculated. The figures used in the following calculations are those for the 84" x 39" mill at the Umfolozi Co-operative Sugar Planters' factory at Rivcrview. The following figures are the expected averages for the season: 13% Sucrose (S.G.-1.55) 13% Fibre ( S . G . - 1 . 3 ) 74% Water (S.G. = 1 ) The cubic footage for 1 ton (2,000 lbs.) of cane can be calculated as follows: Sucrose =2,000 lbs. x . 13 260 lbs. Fibre - 2,000 lbs. x .13: 260 lbs. Water -2,000 lbs. x .74-1,480 lbs. 2,000 lbs. Sucrose The weight of sucrose is 260 lbs. and the specific gravity is 1.55. Therefore, in order to get the volume, we divide the weight by S.G. X62.5, thus: Vol. of Sucrose/ton Cane 260 1.55x62.5 = 2.69 cu. So far we have worked on one ton of cane and as mill roll speeds are usually given in feet/minute we must now establish a crushing rate in tons per minute. Crushing Rate= 170 tons cane per hour = 170 tons cane per minute "60 =2.83 tons cane per minute... (4) We now have to calculate the peripheral speed of the mill, in this example we have taken the average outside diameter of the three rolls, whereas the mean diameter of the top roll only is sometimes used. The following figures and calculation are based on our No. 6 (last) mill. Top 39" Circumference Feed 39" Discharge 39"
12
Average Diameter 39"
Dia. :3.14 - 3 9 x 3 . 1 4 - 10.02 ft.
Average revolutions per minute at which the mill runs ==3.6 r.p.m (5) Peripheral speed =Circumference x r.p.m. =-10.02x3.6 = 3 7 feet per minute (6)
ft.
(1)
Fibre The weight of fibre is 260 lbs. and the specific gravity is 1.35. Therefore, in order to get the volume, we divide the weight by S.G. X62.5, thus: Vol. of Fibre/ton Cane 260 1.35x62.5 =3.07 cu. ft. =
Width of Roller =7 feet Escribed Area Peripheral -speed x Width of Roller = 37x7 =259 sq. ft. (7) Escribed area can be described as the area that the roller will cover if rolled on the floor for 3.6 turns. From the graph shown in figure A it will be seen that we expect an extraction of 96.5% and a moisture of 49% from No. 6 mill. In order to achieve this it means that the bagasse passing out of this mill must contain only 3.5% of the original weight sucrose in the cane, all of the fibre and only have a moisture content of 49 %. Therefore the volume of these three ingredients must be the volume passing through the discharge opening. This volume is calculated as follows: Sucrose From (1) we see that the total sucrose weighed 260 lbs. and had a volume 2.69 cu. ft. .-.3.5% of this sucrose will weight 260 X .035 lbs. = 9 . 1 lbs (8) The volume occupied by this sucrose will be 2.69X.035 cu. ft. = .094 cu. ft.
(2)
Water The weight of water is 1,480 lbs. and the S.G. of water is 1. Therefore, in order to get the volume, we divide the weight by the S.G. x 62.5, thus: Vol. of Water/ton Cane 1,480 1x62.5 23.7 cu. ft.
(3)
We can summarise as follows: Sucrose ==2,000 x . 13= 260 lbs.= 2.69 cu. ft. Fibre =2,000x .13= 260 lbs.= 3.07 cu. ft. Water =2,000x .74=1,480 lbs.=23.7 cu. ft. 2,000 lbs.=29.46 cu. ft.
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 196.
Fibre The bagasse contains all the original fibre. Therefore from (2) we get weight of fibre which is 260 lbs. and has a volume of 3.07 cu. ft. (9) Water The water content of the bagasse is 49 %. Therefore, the weight of water will be (weight of sucrose jweight of fibre) x 49 lbs. 5l -=(9. 1+260) x49 lbs. 51 =269.1x49 51 ==258 lbs. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 lbs. .. Volume occupied by water = 258 62.5 = 4.14 cu. ft. .. Volume of Bagasse=Vol. of sucrose + Vol. of fibre +Vol. of water -=.094+3.07+4.14 cu. ft. = 7.304cu.ft./toncane . . . (11) This volume is per ton of cane and we now have to multiply it by the volume factor worked out in (4) to get the volume per minute. ..Volume of bagasse/min.=7.304x2.83 cu. ft./min. =2.07cu.ft./min. . .. (12) This can now be termed the escribed volume per minute. In order to get the discharge opening we divide the escribed volume per minute (12) by the escribed area per minute (7). Discharge opening = Escribed Volume ft. Escribed Area = 2 0 . 7 x 1 2 ins. 259 = .96 ins (10)
Feed Opening From graph B it will be seen that the ratio of feed to discharge varies from 2 to 1 at the crusher to 1.5 to 1 on the last mill. Thus, the set feed opening will be = . 7 2 x 1 . 5 ins. = 1.08 ins. Say 1 1/16th"
(15)
The settings for the remaining mills can be founc in a similar way. The extraction and moisture figure: will of course differ from mill to mill. Graph "A" This graph has been drawn using the average figures from over one hundred individual mill tests and is reproduced here as a guide to indicate what extraction can be expected from each unit. In the actual calculations higher extractions for each mill have been used than the average shown by the curve. Maximum and minimum figures are also plotted. As a check on the above figures, Noel Deerr states that no advantage can be had by squeezing the bagasse to a density of more than 76 lbs. to one cubic foot. Check From (8)Sucrose= 9.1 Ibs.= .094 cu. ft. From (9) Fibre =260 lbs.=3.07 cu. ft. From (10) Water =258 lbs.=4.14 cu. ft. 527.1 lbs. =7.304 cu. ft. .'. Density of bagasse =Weight cu. ft. =527.1 lbs./cu. ft. 7.304 = 72 lbs./cu. ft. This figure of 72 lbs./cu. ft. is only 95 % of that stated by Noel Deerr but we have more than accounted for that by taking 75 % of the calculated opening. Trashplate The sole object of a trashplate is to convey the bagasse from the feed roller to the back roller and therefore the clearance between the top roller and the trashplate should not be smaller than the feed opening, so as to allow the bagasse to pass freely from the front to the back. In the event of the trashplate being set too high, choking of the mill will occur and unnecessary power is lost due to the pressure of the t o p roller on the bagasse between the trashplate and t o p roller. In order to prevent this we set the toe opening equal to the feed opening+1/4", for mills with grooving over 1" pitch, and for 1" and below, feed opening + 1/16". The opening between the heel of the trashplate a n d the top roller should vary between 1/2" and 1" greater than the toe opening, depending on the size of the mill. In our case we use 1".
(13)
The discharge opening which we have calculated is the total opening and is measured from point to bottom of the grooves provided the grooving is the same on both rollers. Set Opening In order to take cane of fibre variations and also allowing for top roller lift the set opening is taken as 75 % of the calculated opening. Therefore set opening==. 96 X . 75 ins. =72 ins. Say 23/32"
(14)
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Fibre The bagasse contains all the original fibre. Therefore from (2) we get weight of fibre which is 260 lbs. and has a volume of 3.07 cu. ft. (9) Water The water content of the bagasse is 49 %. Therefore, the weight of water will be =(weight of sucrose -f weight of fibre) x49 lbs. 51 =(9.1+260) x 49 lbs. 51 = 269.1x49 51 = 258 lbs. (10)
Feed Opening From graph B it will be seen that the ratio of feed to discharge varies from 2 to 1 at the crusher to 1.5 to 1 on the last mill. Thus, the set feed opening will be = .72x1.5 ins. = 1.08 ins. Say 1 1/16"
(15)
The settings for the remaining mills can be found in a similar way. The extraction and moisture figures will of course differ from mill to mill. Graph "A" This graph has been drawn using the average figures from over one hundred individual mill tests and is reproduced here as a guide to indicate what extraction can be expected from each unit. In the actual calculations higher extractions for each mill have been used than the average shown by the curve. Maximum and minimum figures are also plotted. As a check on the above figures, Noel Deerr states that no advantage can be had by squeezing the bagasse to a density of more than 76 lbs. to one cubic foot. Check From (8) Sucrose- 9.1 lbs. = .094 cu. ft. From (9) Fibre =260 lbs. = 3 . 0 7 cu. ft. From (10) Water =258 lbs. =4.14 cu. ft. 527.1 lbs. =7.304 cu. ft. .'. Density of bagasse = Weight cu. ft. = 527.1 Ibs./cu. ft. 7.304 =72 lbs./cu. ft. This figure of 72 lbs./cu. ft. is only 95 % of that stated by Noel Deerr but we have more than accounted for that by taking 75 % of the calculated opening. Trashplate The sole object of a trashplate is to convey the bagasse from the feed roller to the back roller and therefore the clearance between the top roller and the trashplate should not be smaller than the feed opening, so as to allow the bagasse to pass freely from the front to the back. In the event of the trashplate being set too high, choking of the mill will occur and unnecessary power is lost due to the pressure of the top roller on the bagasse between the trashplate and top roller. In order to prevent this we set the toe opening equal to the feed opening +1/4", for mills with grooving over 1" pitch, and for 1" and below, feed opening + 1/16". The opening between the heel of the trashplate and the top roller should vary between 1/2" and 1" greater than the toe opening, depending on the size of the mill. In our case we use 1".
One cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 lbs. .'. Volume occupied by water = 258 62.5 =4.14 cu. ft. .'. Volume of Bagasse=Vol. of sucrose + Vol. of fibre + Vol. of water = .094+3.07+4.14 cu. ft. =7.304 cu. ft./ton cane . . . (11) This volume is per ton of cane and we now have to multiply it by the volume factor worked out in (4) to get the volume per minute. .. Volume of bagasse/min. = 7.304x2.83 cu. ft./min. =2.07cu.ft./min. . . . (12) This can now be termed the escribed volume per minute. In order to get the discharge opening we divide the escribed volume per minute (12) by the escribed area per minute (7). Discharge opening = Escribed Volume ft. Escribed Area = 2 0 . 7 x 12 ins. 259 = .96 ins
(13)
The discharge opening which we have calculated is the total opening and is measured from point to bottom of the grooves provided the grooving is the same on both rollers. Set Opening In order to take cane of fibre variations and also allowing for top roller lift the set opening is taken as 75 % of the calculated opening. Therefore set opening =. 96 X . 75 ins. =72 ins. Say 23/32"
(14)
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To show how important it is to keep the moisture low let us use the same fibre % cane figure, the brix % bagasse figure and the sucrose % bagasse figure, but make the moisture 45 % bagasse. If we have 45 % water and 2.69 % brix, the remainder is fibre '% bagasse, thus: I would like to mention here that at Umfolozi during the last season not a single trashplate was renewed and on the 84"x39" mill 800,000 tons cane was milled, or 130,000 tons fibre. The trashplates are made of semi-steel. Bagasse The following notes on bagasse may be of interest to engineers who are newcomers to the Sugar industry. Bagasse plays a big part in the engineer's life. He mills it all day and burns it all day in the boilers. !t depends on how well he mills it, just how good, the extraction will be and how good it will be as fuel. We will separate the bagasse into the parts that mean most to the engineer. Bagasse consists of fibre, plus moisture plus brix. Firstly, fibre. This is given as 13% on cane, that is for every 100 tons of cane crushed we get 13 tons of fibre. Brix Brix is a measure of solids in cane, or juice or bagasse. Some of the solids are soluble, like sucrose, and some are insoluble. As we are dealing with bagasse let us take the milling figures for any day to illustrate roughly what it consists of: (Umfolozi 5.7.62) Bagasse % Cane : 28.10 Fibre % Cane : 12.5 Sucrose % Bagasse : 1.83 Moisture % Bagasse : 52.84 Fibre % Bagasse : 44.47 Brix % Bagasse : 2.69 These figures show that there is 28.10 tons bagasse to every 100 tons cane crushed and this bagasse can be separated into different parts as follows: Moisture % Bagasse : 52.84 : 14.85 tons Fibre % Bagasse : 44.47 : 12.5 tons Brix % Bagasse : 2.69: .75 tons 100.00% 28.1 tons Fibre % bagasse- 100 -(45-| 2.69) 52.31 % The 52.31% fibre will still weigh only 12.5 tons. The tons of brix will now alter and our bagasse will now show a new weight, thus: Fibre 52.31% : 12.5 tons Moisture 45.00% : 10.75 Brix 2.69% : .64 100.00%; 23.89
Tons of sucrose left in bagasse will now be64x 1.83 2". 69 .436 tons sucrose .436) tons other solids or . 206 tons other solids The difference in the weight of water is 14.85-10.75 tons =4.1 tons of water Taking the sucrose % cane as 13 % the extraction in the first example with 52.84% moisture will be: Subtract the loss of sucrose in bagasse from sucrose in cane. Weight 13.51 --12.49 tons sucrose in mixed juice .'. Extraction Sucrose in mixed juice X 100 Sucrose in cane =12.49 13 =96% In the example with 45% moisture the loss is .436 tons of sucrose. .". Sucrose in mixed juice = 13-.43 6 = 12.564 tons sucrose in mixedjuice X 100 13 =96.5% This shows an increase of . 5 % in extraction. A very important observation from the above is the gain in heat value of the bagasse. In the first example we have to evaporate 14.85 tons of water per hour from the bagasse while burning it, whereas in the second example we have to evaporate 10.75 tons of water or 4.1 tons less per hour, thus effecting a considerable saving in fuel. (All calculations have been done on slide rule.) .'. Extraction =12.564 leaving (.64
That is to say that in every 100 tons of cane there is 14.85 tons water, 12.5 tons fibre and .75 tons brix or solids. Let us go further with the above sample of bagasse and separate, again roughly, the sucrose part. Of the 2.69 parts brix, 1.83 parts are sucrose, or . 75 x 1.83 tons of sucrose =. 51 tons sucrose 2.69 leaving (.75.51) tons other solids or .24 tons other solids.
SUMMARY OF DATA REQUIRED FOR CALCULATING MILL SETTINGS
105
GRAPH A
GRAPH B
106
Mr. Gunn (in the Chair) said that the author apparently did not account for the fact of reabsorption and as Mr. Ashe had stated that the set opening was taken as 75 per cent of the calculated opening, he wondered if this allowance was helping to overcome the effect of reabsorption. Mr. Ashe said that this allowance was used to make up for reabsorption and like assumptions made in Australia, this allowance was found at Umfolosi to be quite effective. He had called his method a simplified, one because while all. the things mentioned by Dr. Douwes Dekker should be taken into account when calculating mill settings, when the hydraulics lifted, the mill settings worked out would probably be a few decimals of an inch out. Dr. Douwes Dekker said Mr. Ashe had given a method for calculating mill setting which was different from that used by the S.M.R.I, in the Mutual Milling Control. Project. Of course every engineer was entitled to use any method he thought suitable and which he thought gave the best results. Mr. Ashe claimed his was a simplified method but he had not shown which were the simplifications used to arrive at his method. On looking at the various figures given, it was apparent that the author assumed that the volume of the cane and the volume of the bagasse could be calculated from the percentage of sucrose, fibre and water. Dr. Douwes Dekker said he could not agree with this method. In the first place the water in the cane and that in the bagasse was not always present in the same way. Some of the water was attached to the fibre as socalled Brix-free water and apparently we could not assume that volume of the Brix-free water attached to the fibre was of the same order as the free water. When the specific gravity of fibre in an organic liquid was determined, we found that it was about 1.3. When this fibre absorbed moisture of a specific gravity of 1.0, one would expect its specific gravity to be lowered. On the contrary, the specific gravity increased and from this fact we could only assume that the water added was absorbed in some way, such as the small molecules of water becoming so attached to the fibre that it did not increase the volume. Thus a calculation of the volume of cane or of bagasse passing through a mill, made by assuming that these substances consisted simply of sucrose, fibre and water was, for this reason, difficult to justify. Moreover, there was not only sucrose in the cane, there was Brix in the cane and its amount could be very different from the amount of sucrose in the cane. The sucrose was quoted as having a specific gravity of 1.55 but this did not exactly apply to that of the Brix. This was one of the simplifications used by the author for which there was no justification. Another point was that the reabsorption problem was not taken into account, although it had been referred to. It was not correct to say that 75% was one of the assumptions used in Australia but of which we were not sure. There was no doubt about the fact
of reabsorption. When we calculate the volume of cane or bagasse going through the ascribed volume from its constituents, as compared with what actually occurred, a big difference was found from which we must conclude that more material was passed through the opening of the mill than the space available was calculated to accommodate. This meant that either the speed of the juice alone, or that of the fibre plus the juice, was larger than the circumferential speed of the roller. The two things mentioned should be remembered when calculating mill settings. He pointed out also that while the Brix was a measure of soluble solids, particles of fibre in the juice should also be allowed for, and added to the Brix. Mr. van Hengel said the author had stated that all the discrepancies due to reabsorption were accounted for in the allowance of 75%, but more than 75% allowance should be made because when the setting of a mill was worked out we knew that the set opening was going to be smaller than the work opening because of the lift of the top roller. The author had used two figures in which the discharge opening was going to be 0.72 inch and the feed opening 1.08 inches. If we do not forget that there is reabsorption Mr. Ashe's calculation of the density of bagasse as 72 lbs. per cubic foot was similar to that of Noel Deerr and the S.M.R.I, normally took 75 lbs. for all bagasses and so the 72 lb. figure was acceptable. If the mill settings are worked out according to the S.M.R.I, formula, the discharge work opening will be found to be 0.69 inch, and the feed work opening 1.5 x 0.69=1.04 inch, (using for a moment the same ratio 1:5). These are figures in which reabsorption is taken into account and which, in fact, differ little from the 0.72 inch, and 1.08 inch, mentioned by the author. However, the settings of a mill are normally considerably narrower than calculated for the workopenings as a constant lift of the top roller of approximately 0.25 inch should be maintained. For this reason 0.2 inch should be subtracted from both discharge- and feed-openings, bringing them to 0.49 inch and 0.84 inch respectively (ratio 1:7). Now it is not customary to apply the mill ratio to the setopenings as was done by the author, as the set-openings have no real practical meaning with respect to milling. If the same procedure had been used in the case of the S.M.R.I, settings it may have resulted in a feed set-opening of 1.5 x 0.49 = 0.74 inch and in lifted position of the top-roller the ratio would have been =1.36, extraordinarily low indeed.
Obviously, the factor 0.75 is too small to take the lift into account as well and, therefore, a mill set according to the method propagated by the author cannot work well. Of course, it can be reasoned that the discharge opening could be pulled in until sufficient lift occurs, but that would change the mill ratio to a large extent, and the primary goal, i.e. to predeter-
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'" Association-April 1963
107
mine the optimum position of the rollers, has not been achieved. Mr. Ashe pointed out that no two factories could apply the same method, as variations would depend upon the way the mills were fed. With a pressure feeder one had a different set of circumstances as compared with when no forced feeding was used. Once the mills were set it was necessary to carry out regular observations and laboratory tests on each mill. Such tests would show which mills did not
measure up to the standard required and needed further adjustment. Mr. Kramer said that after concentrating on mill settings for many years he had found the formulae used by the S.M.R.I, gave best results. Mr. Gunn said that with a more or less identical, pressure fed mill at Tongaat with 20% more fibre but the same crushing rate the setting of the discharge roller differed by almost 100% from that used by Mr. Ashe and amounted to 0.43 inches. The peripheral speed of the mill was much slower and this would account for some of the difference.
108
IMPROVING THE CANE KNIVES

By D. J. L. HULETT During the trials after the completion of the Triangle Mill, it was found that the cane knife arrangement was inadequate to cope with the type of cane peculiar to the Triangle Estates at a reasonable throughput, and it was necessary to improve the situation. The cane knife arrangement at the time was as follows: Primary Knives These consisted of the old shaft from the Z.S.M. Mill having 36 knives made from 6 x 3/4 hard steel flatbar. The knives were sharpened by chamfering to one side only along the tips and leading edges, making a cutting edge as that of a carpenter's chisel. They were hardened throughout and no hard surfacing tungsten carbide deposit had been applied. They were assembled on palms in such a way that 4 knives cut along the same path. The assembly was mounted with its axis 3 ins. in front of the centre line of the head shaft of the auxilliary carrier and with the tips of the knives reaching to within 15 ins. of the carrier slats. The knives were driven by a 250 h.p. 485 r.p.m. slipring induction motor. Secondary Knives These consisted of a brand new robust assembly of 84, 6 x 3/4 hard steel knives, sharpened by chamfering the tips and leading edges to the centre, making a cutting edge as that on an axe. The 84 knives were set up to cut 84 separate paths, spaced equi-distantly across the 66 ins. carrier and were set to reach to within 1 ins. of the main cane carrier slats. The knives were driven by a 400 h.p. 580 r.p.m. slip ring motor. The Carriers Both main and auxilliary carriers were driven through Heenan and Froude eddy current couplings and both were arranged to slow the carrier speed in the event of the respective knife motor currents becoming excessive. The First Run The cane supplied to the mill at Triangle is clean, thick and essentially straight, arriving in bundles carefully stacked as neatly as matches in a box. This cane, when fed from the feeder table, fell into the auxiliary carrier, and occasionally one whole 3 ton bundle filled the carrier again as matches in a box. This bundle, on entering the primary knives, had nine grooves chopped into it by the nine sets of knives, and the main bulk of the cane built up to the axle of the assembly. The motor current increased to its maximum, the carrier automatically stopped and the resulting choke had to be pulled out by hand. The running of the mill at this stage was very erratic, and it was difficult tc assess the throughput. However, it was estimated to be in the region of 65 tons cane per hour at + 13 per cent fibre. The current drawn by the second set of knives was not much more than the magnetising current of the motor and the overall preparation of the cane was disappointing. The First Change Seeing that the primary set of knives was struggling and that the 400 h.p. potential of the secondary set had hardly been tapped, it was decided to remove the primary knives altogether and do all the work with the large set. This was done during the week-end. The result of the change was disastrous! The secondary knives by this time had become blunt and had great difficulty in handling the cane. The motor continually overloaded and blew fuses, while the preparation of the cane was appalling whole bundles of cane being dragged through by the knives and hardly cut. So bad was this run, that within the day, it was decided to replace the primary knives immediately. The mill was stopped and the primary knives were installed, but this time with a difference. The Second Change Before replacing the primary knives, half the knives were removed from the hub, leaving only two opposite knives in each palm assembly. The cutting ends of these knives were set slightly in opposite directions so that, instead of cutting nine narrow paths, they now cut across the whole front of the entering cane. The knives were hard surfaced with Cobalarc LA. on the flat or non-chamfered side of the knife. The hard surfacing beads were laid close together but not touching and the end of each bead looked directly into the cane as the knife rotated (see photograph No. 1). The idea behind this was that the softer metal of the knife itself would wear away and leave the ends of the tungsten carbide beads proud, as a number of sharp, pointed fingers. These points, at the cutting edge of the knife, tear into the cane and shred it (see photograph No. 2). With the primary knives modified as described above and back in position, the situation improved tremendously. No longer did the primary knives choke and the preparation of the top layer of cane was good. With the replacement of these knives, the load vanished from the secondary knives and the 400 h.p. motor current returned to its minimum. The overall preparation after this set of knives, however, was poor. The shaft of the primary knives was mounted in 4 in. plumber blocks and it was obvious from the excessive whipping, that the shaft was too flimsy.
109
With this fact in view, and the poor preparation, it was decided to design and install a new heavy duty set of primary knives. These knives were designed and made and within two weeks were installed. Heavy Duty Primary Knives These knives consisted of a mild steel palm assembly fabricated out of 2 in. plate, mounted on a 7 1/2 in. shaft and running in 7 in. bearings. The knives themselves were made from 6 x 1/2 Benox flatbar and sharpened and hardened as previously described for the old primary knives with the exception that the knives were left straight. The assembly contained 36 knives, chopping in paths equally pitched across the 66 in. carrier. The knives reached to within 2 ins. of the carrier and were mounted on the same centre as the smaller knives had been. In view of the small load drawn by the secondary motor, it was decided that a swop of motors be made. The 400 h.p. 580 r.p.m. motor would drive the primary knives and the 250 h.p. 485 r.p.m. motor, the secondary knives. Secondary Knives The 6 x 3/4 secondary knives were replaced with 6 x 1/2 Benox knives, hardened and sharpened in the same manner as the primary knives. The motor, due to the change over, was now only 250 h.p. and revolving at 485 r.p.m. The preparation with this arrangement was very much improved. However, investigation revealed that the entire preparation was being done by the primary knives, the motor of which became fairly well loaded, while the secondary motor still only drew magnetising current.
The Third Change Bent knives were tried on the primary assembly with little improvement in preparation. These were soon replaced with straight knives again, as the incidence of knives breaking became excessive due to the bent knives breaking from fatigue failure at the point where the blade emerges from the palm. The Final Change A 250 h.p. 960 r.p.m. motor, being available in the plant, was mounted to drive the secondary knives as a trial. This doubling of the speed had a remarkable effect as could well be expected. The motor load increased to 200 amps and the cane emerged from the knife house, shredded. Conclusion Although there are undoubtedly further aspects of the cane knives which should be investigated, particularly with respect to the elimination of the odd stick of cane which arrives intact in the mass of shredded cane, it is felt that the principle difficulties have been solved. The three main factors which seem to have had the most influence are: (a) That the primary knives should chop right down to the carrier, thereby turning over all the cane and preventing long sticks creeping through both sets of knives in the clearance between the knife tip and the carrier slat. (b) That the speed of the secondary knives can be increased to 960 r.p.m. with a consequent improvement in the preparation. (c) That the method of hardening the knives, so as to make them self sharpening and jagged, plays an extremely important part in the preparation of the cane and the H.P. consumption of the knife motors.
SUMMARY
111
Photograph No. 2.
112
Mr. Grant considered that in some cases if the primary knives were set to cut right down to the carrier the cost would be excessive, especially with the very much harder cane in South Africa as compared with that at Triangle. Much depended on the loading of the carrier so as to avoid excessive loads. Mr. Hulett said that the knives at Darnall cut down to within two inches of the carrier and the motor used was of only 450 h.p. At Darnall twice as much fibre was passed through whereas at Triangle 400 h.p. was used. He considered that knives should cut right down to the carrier but if the carrier were split this would help by rearranging the cane at random so that all. of the cane could be cut by the second set of knives. Mr. Gunn stated that it had been found at Maidstone if the first part of the carrier were not fed very heavily good preparation by the knives was not obtained. Mr. Hulett said the way the carrier was fed played a very important role in preparation by the knives as wellas the milling thereafter. At first the carrier was completely automatically controlled, arrangements being made that the feed was not so great as to choke the second set of knives while the first knife motor was the over-riding control so the first set could not choke either. It was found that if the auxilliary carrier which fed the primary knives was over-filled this caused the knives to cut a hollow in the cane while the rest built up until the motor tripped out. The preparation in this case was extremely good but the mill could not be kept fed and an operator had to be employed to over-ride the automatic control so that the layer of cane kept to a suitable level. Mr. Saunders asked if any extra support was given under the carrier when the knives were set to cut to within one inch of it. Mr. Hulett said that at Triangle this was not done as yet and resulted in the carrier slats being bent and damaged. Support would be provided as soon as
possible to obviate this. At Darnall, where the knives cut right down to the carrier, big re-inforcing plates were placed under the carrier and the primary knives cut over a solid drum shaped to allow the chain to pass over it. Mr. Dent said he had been told that in Australia, pneumatic tyres had been placed under the carrier to provide the necessary support. Mr. Buck asked how long a set of knives lasted. Mr. Hulett replied that the primary set of knives had got six rows of knives and he found he had to replace two opposite sets of knives every week. The other set, he thought, had eight sets and two rows had to be changed every week. Mr. Camden-Smith agreed with the author that the knives should cut as low as possible but he had found that the speed of the knives had a great bearing on the horse-power required. Usually knives were mounted in the form of a helix and he wanted to know if the result was that the cane accumulated on one side of the carrier. Mr. Hulett replied that he had set down in his paper the power required. The secondary knives had originally to chop into a two-foot blanket of cane and had little to do. They had therefore to be speeded up to do their part in preparation. The knives were champered down on the one side and were so arranged that the one knife threw the cane one way and the next the other way so that there was no piling on the one side of the carrier. Where the knives came out of the palm and cut one way, they exhibited a fatigue crack, but when they were bent this became worse. Now the knives were no longer bent and only one or two were broken weekly on the primary knives and on the secondary set none were broken at all. Mr. Chiazzari (in the Chair) said that obviously this subject interested every engineer and this accounted for the numerous questions asked.
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THE FEEDING VALUE OF MOLASSES

By T. G. CLEASBY Molasses is the most valuable by-product from the Sugar Industry. The molasses referred to in this article is blackstrap molasses, that is the molasses from the production of raw sugar from sugar cane. It is similar to, but should not be confused with, beet molasses, refinery molasses, corn molasses or hightest molasses, all of which have slightly different analyses. Molasses has been used to manufacture a number of industrially important compounds by fermentation reactions. Ethyl alchohol is the best known of these, although its production from molasses has been largely superseded by more economical methods. Citric and Glutamic acids are other products which are made from molasses. Today, however, the bulk of the world's molasses, for example 85 % of that imported into the United States of America, finds its way into animal feeds. Its value is therefore determined by its feeding value and is obviously related to the price of other animal feeds, such as barley, oats, maize, etc. The London price of molasses has varied between R14 and R28 per long ton over the last five years, not due to the variations in the price of the other feeds, but mainly due to the relation between the supply and demand. The New Orleans price for molasses has varied similarly, which shows that in Europe and in America, even at the lowest price, the value of molasses as a feed is high, particularly as these landed prices, and additional distribution costs, must be incurred. The reason for publishing this paper is that facts relating to the feeding value of molasses are not generally appreciated. There is, however, a growing interest in the value of molasses in South Africa, which in the past has been content to export the bulk of it to other countries where it has been chiefly used in animal feeds. This paper is not an original one, but a survey of facts relating to the use of molasses as an animal feed supported by some work which has been done at Tongaat. The growing appreciation of the feeding value of molasses in South Africa is evident by the number of new products reaching the farmer, based on molasses or molasses residues. These include products marketed under the following trade names:Rumevite, Fermavite, Morea, Molameal, Voermol Meal, and a high molasses ruminant feed X-16. In addition to this, there are many blocks on the market which contain molasses and serious attempts have been made to dehydrate molasses in order to convert it into a more easily handled form. Molasses is also a constituent of the majority of compounded animal feeds, excluding poultry and pig feeds where it is used up to 121 % because of its palatability, nutrient value and its physical properties which reduces the dustiness of feed and helps in the manufacture of pellets. The feeding value of molasses is based on the fact that it contains approximately 50% sugars in the form of sucrose and invert sugar. It is therefore a source of readily available energy. Molasses contains 4% protein based on its nitrogen content multiplied by 6.25. It also contains mineral and trace elements and vitamins of the B complex. It is a good source of pantothenic acid but is deficient in riboflavin-thiamine. It is interesting to compare its analysis with maize or yellow meal as shown below: Molasses
%%
Yellow Meal 8.25 68.00 3.80 15.00 0.02 0.25 80.00
Crude Protein Nitrogen-free extract . . Fat Water Calcium Phosphorus Total digestible nutrients .
4.00 62.00 22.00 0.60 0.02 55.00
Work in America has established that when molasses is fed correctly, its feeding value is at least 70% that of maize and some experiments show it as high as 85 %. Experiments have also shown that the maximum feeding value of molasses occurs when it is fed at approximately 10% of ruminant rations. Above this level, the feeding value tends to decrease. This does not, however, mean that 10 per cent is necessarily the most optimum economical level to feed as the price difference between molasses and other sources of carbohydrate is obviously important. It is proposed to discuss the feeding value of molasses under the following headings:its palatability factor, use in silage, use of molasses for feeding ruminants including the use of urea, uses of molasses for feeding pigs and the use of molasses with sugar cane bagasse or pith. Palatability Factor This is the feeding value "plus" with molasses. It is universally liked by stock; cattle, sheep and pigs being immediately attracted to it. A very important part of the feeding value of molasses is therefore its ability to enable stock, particularly ruminants, to eat unpalatable feeds, such as mealie cobs, poor quality damaged hay or pastures, sweet veld in winter, chaff and. stover. This is particularly important in times of drought or shortage of food during winter. If urea is added to the molasses, the mixture can serve as a source of protein, which together with one or other of the unpalatable roughages mentioned above can mean the difference between losing or saving animals during difficult times. The usual practice is to dilute the molasses with water and then spray it on the material to be eaten. It is tragic to think of the number of cattle and sheep which could have been saved by such a simple procedure during times of drought.
114
Use of Molasses in Silage Another important use for molasses is in making silage, which is the preservation of fresh fodder by packing and compacting it in a pit, bunker or silo. Under these conditions, the living cells rapidly use up the oxygen in the air, trapped in the mass, and give off carbon dioxide. This prevents the development of moulds which are unable to grow in the absence of oxygen. Acid forming bacteria multiply enormously in silage by attacking the sugars in the forage and forming chiefly lactic acid with some acetic acid. The production of acids is the most important change in the process, the acidity preventing the growth of undesirable bacteria which cause rotting and putrifaction. The value of silage can generally be improved by the addition of molasses which provides a ready source of sugar for the acid forming bacteria. The drier and less succulent the material ensiled, the more important the addition of molasses becomes. Morrison recommends the addition of 50 to 100 lb. of molasses per ton of material being ensiled and states that 75% of the nutritive value of the molasses is retained in the silage. In addition, it improves the quality, palatability and carotene content. It is fact that the bulk of silage made in South Africa could be improved economically by the addition of molasses. Use of Molasses for Feeding Ruminants Molasses can be fed to ruminants, cattle and sheep in many different ways. In the case of cattle it can be used with advantage for both dairy and beef animals either (1) as a lick to stimulate the appetite and condition of the animals in addition to providing carbohydrate; (2) as an ingredient of mixed rations for dairy, maintenance, or fattening (as already mentioned commercial rations contain up to 12 % molasses) for its carbohydrate and palatability; (3) as a winter maintenance feed or a drought relief ration. The main uses of molasses with sheep is as a constituent of a winter maintenance ration which will improve the condition of ewes and lambs and also the quality of the wool. The improvement in wool quality has been attributed to molasses feeding, but it is probably only a direct means of better nutrition. Before going on to discuss these uses, it is appropriate to say something on the subject of urea as a source of animal protein. A great deal of work has been published on this, and the main factors can be summarised as follows: (1) Urea contains 46% nitrogen and if this is converted into crude protein, it represents 287.5%. (2) Excess urea is toxic to cattle and sheep and the generally recommended rates of feeding for adult animals are 3 ounces a day for cattle and oz. for sheep. Although the animals can take over twice these quantities without any serious effect, there is definitely a point where urea becomes dangerous and deaths result. (3) Urea can definitely be converted to protein by ruminants. The efficiency of this conversion
has occupied research workers for a long time. One thing, however, must be remembered, in that urea is a cheap source of protein in which the cost per lb. of protein is 26 cents compared with R1.25 per lb. of protein from ground nut oil cake. The efficiency of urea as a protein source is apparently effected by two factors. (a) The total amount of other proteins available to the animal. In general, the efficiency of urea protein decreases with an increasing amount of other proteins. In other words urea is of greatest value as a supplement to poor quality grazing or roughages in the form of a maintenance or drought relief ration. (b) The carrier used with urea is also important. It is essential that the carrier provides the ruminant with energy, in order to enable it to convert the urea into protein. Two main carriers have been used molasses and maize or yellow meal. The results of the work done indicates without any doubt that molasses is the most efficient carrier for urea. It is certainly the cheapest. With regard to the use of molasses as a lick for cattle, the main point is that the intake has to be limited to an economical amount, depending on the price of molasses delivered on the farm. If ad lib. feeding is practiced, then cattle will take up to 1 gallon of molasses per head per day. The Natal Estates and Wewe Sugar Planting Co. dairies, situated adjacent to sugar industries, allow their cows half to three-quarters of a gallon of molasses per head per day. Also a beef breeding herd, run by The Tongaat Sugar Company on Cranbrook Estates, receives ad lib. molasses when it is available and the cattle consume a similar amount. In none of these instances do the cattle suffer from being over laxative. As a matter of interest, the United States Sugar Corporation Factory at Clewiston, Florida, disposes of the whole of its molasses from a crop of 60,000 tons of sugar by feeding it to its beef cattle on an adjacent ranch. There is no doubt that feeding molasses to cattle on the veld, particularly in winter, can be advantageous, but where the molasses has to be transported over large distances, the amount fed has to be limited to 1 to 2 lb. per head per day. In order to be economical, the amount actually fed will depend primarily upon the price of molasses on the farm. In spite of high railage charges due to the large distances of the main cattle areas from the sugar belt, molasses is still by far the cheapest feed supplement available to farmers. Farmers mixing their own cattle rations, either for dairy, maintenance or fattening, can certainly improve them, and generally cheapen them by including molasses. The difficulty in this is the problem of incorporating the molasses in the ration. It can be mixed easily if it is diluted with its own volume of water and mixed by hand. Alternatively, it can be
115
done by feeding the molasses portion of the ration separately in a small trough or simply by pouring the required amount of molasses over dry mix ration, when it is in the manger. The recommended level of feeding in these rations is between 10 and 20 per cent, replacing other carbohydrate sources, such as maize or yellow meal and ground corn and cob meal. If as much as 20 per cent is used in the ration then the protein level should be insreased to compensate for the protein difference between molasses and the material it is replacing. As already mentioned, this can be done cheaply by using urea. A typical cattle fattening ration which has been fed at Tongaat with cane tops and which has produced weights gains of over 2 lb. per head per day on an ad lib. basis, has been made up of the following: 40% molasses 35% Corn and Cob meal or yellow meal 12% bagasse pith 8% nut oil cake 2% urea 3% minerals, vitamins and trace elements. The crude protein content of this ration is about 12% but it has been kept low on purpose because of the ad lib. basis of feeding. The animals consumed about 15 lbs. per head per day, together with approximately 40 lb. of freshly chaffed cane tops. The value of molasses in mixed rations can be summarised easily and accurately as follows. If its price, delivered on the farm, is less than three-quarters of that of yellow meal, then it can be used economically by replacing yellow meal by something between 10 and 20% of the total ration. It will also improve the palatability of the ration. The use of molasses as a drought relief ration has already been dealt with under the heading of molasses and urea mixtures. However, to appreciate the importance of molasses as a maintenance or drought relief ration, it is necessary to consider the rumen. This is the vital part of the ruminant's complicated stomach which has been likened to a vat, where the micro-organisms break down the fibrous tissue of roughages into carbohydrates which can be utilised for energy. The winter feeding of cattle in South Africa is based on hay and silage, reaped and stored during the summer months. In the majority of cases it consists mainly of hay or dry grass on the veld. In order to work efficiently, the micro-organisms themselves have to be fed carbohydrates and protein, both of which are deficient in the normal winter feed. Molasses can supply the carbohydrate in a very readily available form and in combination with urea, can provide the protein as well. There is no doubt that molasses/urea mixtures do have a very important part to play in minimising the effect of droughts and winters and that they have been recommended by the Department of Agriculture for this purpose. The fact that they have not been used to a much greater extent already can only be due to ignorance of their value on the part of the farmer; also handling and feeding difficulties, aggravated by the toxic nature of urea.
The Use of Molasses for Feeding Pigs Very little molasses is used at the present time for feeding pigs; practically none is used by the farmer who is mixing his own rations. Experiments which were started in Hawaii and which have been, continued by The Tongaat Sugar Company over the last two years, suggest that molasses has a very important part to play in feeding pigs and that it can lead to more palatable and cheaper rations. The reason for its neglect is probably the fact that molasses is believed to cause scouring in pigs, and scouring is well known to be the worst enemy of the efficient pig man. Again the work done at Tongaat shows that this danger has been over-emphasised and that with proper feeding it can be overcome. The work done in Hawaii showed that economically as much as 20% of weaner rations, that is the ration fed from weaning to 70 lb., could be molasses and as much as 40% of pig fattening rations. In these experiments, the molasses was costed at approximately one-third the price of rolled barley. As mentioned above, this work has been repeated at Tongaat. The rations that have been fed are shown below together with the results of one experiment, in which these high molasses rations were used. The high molasses rations had some laxative effect on the pigs, which horrified pig experts, but as the rations gave results recorded below, the overall effect could not have been serious. As a matter of interest, it might be mentioned that new experiments are now under way at Tongaat, utilising a mixture of molasses and bagasse pith and even in cases where this mixture has constituted 50% of the ration, no marked scouring has been observed.
PIG RATIONS used by THE TONGAAT SUGAR CO. LTD.
Ingredient Sow and Growth 1 Growth 2 Fattening Fattening Boar Weaning 70-100 1 Creep 2 Ration -70 lbs. lbs. 100-150 150-220 Ration lbs. lbs.
Molasses. Yellow Meal Lucerne Meal Nut Oil Cake Fish Meal Carcass Meal Mineral Supplement (No. 3) . Vitamin Supplement Anti-Biotic (Rx444) . .
%
40 23 20 10 3 4
14 60 5 8 6 7
20
30 37 15 12
40 27
%
7 63 5 10 14
50 10 12 4 4
15 12
20 20 lbs/Ton lbs/Ton 1 lb/Ton
20 20 lbs/Ton lbs/Ton 1 lb/Ton 1 lb/Ton 1 lb/Ton 1 lb/Ton
20 40 lbs/Ton lbs/Ton 1 lb/Ton 2 lbs/Ton 8 lbs/Ton 4 lbs/Ton
lb/Ton 4 lbs/Ton 2 lbs/Ton 2 lbs/Ton
1 lb/Ton
2 lbs/Ton
Ferrous Sulphate Copper Sulphate
2 2 lbs/Ton lbs/Ton
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RESULTS OF PIG FATTENING EXPERIMENT WITH THE ABOVE RATIONS FROM WEANING TO BACON WEIGHT AT 220 LBS. No. of Pigs tested No. of days from weaning to bacon weight Mean daily weight gain in lbs Feed conversion ratios: Growth 1 Growth 2 Fattening 1 Fattening 2 Mean *Mean cost per lb. gain in cents Grades of pig marketed: Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 * Molasses costed at R4.00 per ton. . . 10 130 1.38 4.4 3.2 4.5 4.0 3.95 8.3 7 3 T
and 70% molasses mixture mentioned above. This mixture can be packed in paper pockets and stored without any seepage of molasses through the paper. There appears to be no reason why, in time, molasses meals with bagasse pith should not be as popular as their counter-parts in America, and Europe, molassesbeet pulp mixtures from the sugar beet industry.
Mr. Wilson (in the Chair) said the paper was of great interest especially as many cane growers were going for diversification in their farming. Mr. Coignet remarked upon the sulphur content of molasses, especially from sulphitation factories. In the case of sheep, sulphur apparently improved the quality of wool whilst in the feeding of cattle and pigs sulphitation molasses caused galls. Mr. Main stated that his experience with the manufacture of Molameal, which was a mixture of bagasse and molasses, showed that the scouring particularly in the case of pigs could be avoided if the bagasse were sifted before mixing to get rid of sand. The keeping quality of molasses mixtures deteriorated after a time causing them to become hard and decomposing eventually into a charred mass. This was a great handicap in the transportation of Molameal from the coast to up-country. Mr. Ritter's patent for the preparation of paper from bagasse might be to some extent applicable to bagasse/molasses mixtures provided that the product did not become toxic. Some sort of preservative added to the bagasse before mixing might result in a long lasting cattle feed which would fetch a better price. There was a world-wide competition for molasses because of its shortage and prices were very high and the whole question of the most lucrarive disposal of molasses was ripe for reconsideration. With the possibility of the construction of a pipe line to convey fuel to the hinterland it was likely that many tank-cars would become available in the near future and these could be used for distribution of molasses throughout the country. In the past the transport facilities had proved to be a bottle-neck. Dr. Cleasby said that the storage quality of molasses/bagasse mixture was very largely a function of the amount of molasses in the mixture. Mixtures with a high proportion of molasses, say 90 or 80 per cent did not store well, but if the bagasse pith content was increased to about 30 per cent the mixture kept well under dry conditions and after several months no deterioration was detected. The Ritter process has been tried on cane tops to see if the feeding value would be enhanced but unfortunately only good compost was produced. The use of the process on bagasse met with the difficulty of putting it into suitable heaps which would enable the fungus to do its work properly. His opinion was that it was criminal to export molasses at all and the Industry should see that all of this product was used in this country.
As the price of molasses at Tongaat is obviously very different from its price when it has been transported to a farm away from the sugar belt, the above rations are not recommended for general use. However, as the price of molasses delivered on the farm is cheaper everywhere in South Africa than yellow meal, it has really a place in the rations, not only for its feeding value but also for its ability to make dry rations more palatable. The problem of getting pigs to eat dry and sometimes dusty home-mixed rations can readily be overcome by incorporating some molasses, either by diluting it and mixing it in or simply by pouring it over the dry ration. It is suggested that pig rations could be improved by including up to 10 % molasses in the growth ration and 20 % in the fattening rations. It can also be used up to 1\ % in the creep feed where it definitely encourages the young pigs to eat. Pigs universally like molasses and will always pick our molasses lumps first in any home-mixed rations. Use of Molasses with Bagasse Pith A paper on the feeding of molasses would not be complete without mentioning the amount of work which has been done on the combination of molasses and bagasse pith. It is significant that many sugar beet companies dispose of the whole of their molasses production in the form of a molasses meal made by absorbing molasses on the dried beet pulp. Unfortunately, bagasse pith does not have the feed value of best pulp but it does have the ability to absorb large quantities of molasses, which enables the molasses to be bagged. A solid mixture can be made with 10% dry bagasse pith and 90% molasses, but it is sticky and not easily handled. A mixture of 30 % dry bagasse pith and 70 % molasses is, however, relatively friable. It is interesting to note that in a paper presented to the recent meeting of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists in Mautitius on "Sugar Cane Bagasse and Molasses Rations for Beef Cattle" showed that bagasse from sugar cane is an excellent roughage carrier for feeding blackstrap molasses to cattle, also that optimum results were obtained when the rations contained 20% bagasse and 50% molasses which corresponds roughly to the 30% bagasse pith
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Mr. Boyes said that in 1957 Dr. Douwes Dekker had presented a paper to our Congress in which he showed that there was no difference in the sulphur content of sulphitation molasses as compared with that produced by the defecation process. When 80-90 parts of molasses to 20-10 parts of bagasse pith was made into the mixture the moisture content was about 19 to 20 per cent which was sufficient for bacterial activity to take place. By decreasing to a mixture of 70 molasses and 30 parts of pith and making sure the moisture content of the pith was reduced to about 6 per cent the resulting mixture had a moisture content of only about 16 per cent and this preserved extremely well. He had found that quicklime added to the extent of about 1 per cent acted well as a preservative as the high pH thus produced destroyed all bacterial activity. However this was unnecessary as a 70/30 mixture was quite stable. Mr. A. C. Barnes referred to his experience in the West Indies where he found that the use of molasses as a supplementary feed increased the yield of milk from dairy cattle and the herd itself improved in health. The molasses was used in silage as described in the paper, the other components being chopped young cane and Guinea corn. The silage was readily taken by the animals and it was a standard feed during the Winter season when other feeds of that type were not available. The feeds were supplemented by high protein substances such as oil seed residues. There was a great field for the use of molasses for dairy cattle and this subject was worthy of further investigation. Dr. Cleasby agreed with Mr. Barnes that molasses was useful for dairy cattle. He had mentioned only the use as a lick in the case where it did not have to be transported and where it could be supplied ad lib. Another important point in the use of molasses apart from its nutrient value for dairy cattle was the fact of its palatability. Often the dairyman when he prepared his own feed ration produced a very dry one and the problem of inducing the animals to take it could be solved by adding molasses. Mr. Grice asked if the author had any information on the use of molasses in conjunction with pineapple
residues from the canning factories. He had been told in Hawaii that the excellence of beef there was due to the use of pineapple residues together with molasses as feed. Dr. Cleasby replied that this type of feed had been used at Empangeni for fattening cattle with success. This raised the controversial point of the value of alcohol in the ration. One feed on the market for addition to molasses contained urea and in addition to all the trace elements had 6 per cent alcohol, which was said to improve the absorption of the urea by the animal and the quality of marbling of the meat. In Japan a certain farm, renowned for the steaks it supplied, was said to give its animals a bottle of beer daily. The whole point was still an unsolved problem. Mr. de Robillard said there was a mortar prepared from quicklime and molasses which set very hard and he asked if Mr. Boyes could enlarge on the use of quicklime as a preservative. Mr. Boyes said when only 1 per cent of quicklime was added the mixture became very hot, pointing to the formation of calcium hydroxide before calcium saccharate was formed, but in his opinion the preserving action of the lime was due to the high pH produced. The product did not become hard with the addition of the small amount of lime used. Mr. Main said if it could be proved that alcohol was of value in cattle feed this suggested that a small distillery could be with advantage attached to the sugar factory as was done in other countries and feed consisting of molasses, alcohol and roughage could thus be produced. Mr. Coignet asked if the use of lime as a preservative might prevent the digestion of the proteins and roughage by the animal. Dr. Cleasby thought this unlikely as the sugars present would enhance the activity of the digestive process. Mr. Boyes asked if the use of a preservative to kill off the bacteria would affect the value of molasses in silage. Dr. Cleasby replied that the molasses so treated would be quite suitable for silage production.
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A LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM IN RELATION TO FARM PLANNING IN THE NATAL CANE BELT
By Q. V. MANN The sort of "planning" that has grown up with the Sugar Industry is a far cry from the concept of correct land use which is being implemented in many progressive agricultural communities. This paper is intended to show in broad outline exactly what is meant by Farm Planning. A land capability classification system will be described. No attempt will be made to demonstrate the details which will make up the planning of a cane farm or to evaluate the advantages thereof. The bold few who are demonstrating for themselves the value of planning have sufficient proof that a need for such planning exists and that the advantages are real. It is sincerely hoped that this paper will enable the neighbour and the rival alike to think it out for himself and to watch with greater understanding the changes that are taking place over the fence. What is farm planning? The question is best answered by dividing it up into its five basic steps. These are: a soil survey, a land classification, an assessment of the possible courses of action, the actual planning and finally the implementation of that plan. The soil survey is a factual assessment and definition of the broad soil groups. This gathering together of the facts is purely empirical and quite unrelated to farming practice. The initial part of this work has been admirably completed by Dr. Beater in his three volumes on the "Soils of the Sugar Belt". Any farmer wishing to avail himself of this work can do so. Having defined the soil groups, they should be further assessed and classified into broad terms of land use capability dependent upon their inherent hazard of use. The farmer, who invariably knows more about his land than any one else, does this mentally but there are several scientific approaches which provide a more complete picture. A land capability classification system is suggested as the most efficient system for use in detailed farm planning, as the experience of the farmer coupled with the knowledge of a person trained in farm planning are used to gather all the required information. The Rhodesian system's use of aerial photography, coding of the various land and soil characteristics and its completely logical approach make it extremely practical. This system was first developed and used extensively in the United States of America. Improvements to the system made in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland make it capable of very wide application. The Land Classification Method 1. The Use of Aerial Photographs.Aerial photographs provide an extensive clear-cut view of ground conditions at the time of the flight. The scale of photography best suited to land classification is 1:20,000 9" x 9" formats, and photographs should be logotronically printed to provide even grey tones. Viewed stereoscopically and correctly interpreted, these photographs can be marked with the main topographical features viz. ridges, high points and drainage lines. Vegetation changes and soil changes (where visible) can be observed. Areas of steep, eroded, rocky, wet land and other significant features can also be observed and demarcated. 2. Map making.All this information extracted from stereo pairs of a suitable scale of vertical photography can be transferred to enlargements or photographic mosaics of the area in question at a practical scale of between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. This mosaic provides the basis of the land classification map. Before leaving the office for a ground survey of the area, suitable points on the mosaic should be selected along a fairly level straight road or path so that the distance may be chained and an accurate scale calculated. 3. Pit siting.Exploratory soil pits should be provisionally sited using a stereoscope. The sites being selected within apparent homogeneous areas, to disdover soil variations to check the similarity of separate homogeneous areas. Naturally the number of exploratory soil pits will depend upon the uniformity of the area concerned but for practical reasons the number usually varies between twenty and fifty per 1,000 acres. Confirmatory soil pits and soil auger-borings are subsequently sunk to confirm soil changes and to locate soil boundaries. 4. Coding Soil and Land Characteristics.All the various soil and land characteristics are described and coded. A brief tabulated summary of these characteristics and their codes is given in Appendix I of this paper. An example of the coded characteristics is described thus:
All soil characteristics are coded above the line and all land characteristics are coded below the line. The coded characteristics are always written in the same order so that the code can be readily understood by anyone knowing the symbols. In addition to the
il9
coded data a description of the soil profile, vegetation or cropping history and points of general interest should be made at each soil pit. 5. The Land Classification.The land capability classes have been defined and each soil pit or augerboring is allocated a class which is assessed by examination of the criteria and determining which characteristic is limiting. The criteria for each class has been arrived at by long use of the system and a sound application of practical farming. Brief definitions of the land capability classes and some of the important criteria are given in Appendix II. Once all homogeneous areas have been allocated classes and their boundaries checked, the areas of the land classes and mapping units are calculated in the office with a planimeter. Discussion and Conclusion The most important observation which can be made in considering the application of this system to cane farming is that cane farming is a class VI practice; i.e. being a perennial crop it is found growing at sustained productivity on classes I, II, III, IV, V and VI land. Sugarcane is also found on class VII land but the profitability of this practice may be questioned. Despite the fact that cane is found growing on most land classes the use of the land classification system is thought to be very worth while because the various land capability classes or grouped classes should be receiving different managerial treatments, and different soil and water conservation techniques. To cite but a few obvious examples: classes I, II, III and IV land on slope are all capable of being worked by wheel tractors. Class VI land on slope invariably requires crawlers and class VII land would require animal draft. All class IVw and V land required for cane planting should be drained and will require the most careful layout and management. Classes II and III land on texture might be subject to wind erosion and therefore require special considerations when ploughing out and re-establishing cane. Different varieties will be found more suited to different land classes. Shallow soils will be more prone to drought and more difficult to irrigate. The list is almost unending, but the important point is that only by mapping these land classes or at least recognising their existence can the remaining three basic steps in farm planning be efficiently carried out. In the assessment of the possible courses of action the land capabilities must be considered; so too should the resources of labour, capital, markets, the findings of agronomic research, economics, possible trends in labour saving devices and mechanization. It is the farmer who should think on these things. The farm planner is there to help him and to see that all possible courses of action are covered. It is not his job to meddle or to take away the initiative and the individuality of the farmer, but rather that he should assist in developing the ideas of the farmer to best advantage. The farm planner should certainly inform the farmer of all the findings of agronomic research and draw on his own experience in assisting other farmers under similar conditions. The planning should be done for sustained and economic production in a logical sequence of develop-
ment. The plan should be within the capabilities of both the farm and the farmer. It should be flexible enough to be changed with changing economic conditions. All sections or enterprises within the farm should form an integral part of the whole. Each should pay its way. The individual farm plans should also form an integral part of a much broader regional plan. All roads and other forms of access should be aligned on an efficient topographical layout. Water should be conserved and used where possible or provision made for its safe disposal. The Government Soil Conservation Department provides loans and subsidies on numerous projects which, on a long term basis, are for the benefit of the land or the community that farms the land. Full advantage of this service should be taken at the planning stage so that deserving projects may be approved in good time. Legislation has also had to be introduced by the Government to safeguard the community and the land against known undesirable practices. Attention should be drawn to the existence of this legislation where applicable and. the farm planned to respect the law. The final stage of farm planning is the practical application of the plan in the field. It includes the correct phasing of the different stages of development and complying with the various conditions and specifications as laid down in the plan. No plan can be complete. Part of the implementation must be to keep abreast with the findings of research, modern trends and changing markets. The farmer should continue to plan ahead. He should improve the things he can improve, accept the things he cannot and have the wisdom to know the difference. APPENDIX I A Summary of the Fundamental Land and Soil Characteristics and their Code Symbols A. Soil Characteristics 1. Effective Depth.This is the depth of soil that can provide a medium for root development, retain available water and supply available nutrients. Symbol 1 2 3 4 5 Descriptive Term deep moderately deep moderately shallow shallow very shallow Range more than 60" 36" 60" 20" 36" 10" 20" less than 10"
2. Soil Texture.This is assessed by working the moistened soil in the hand. Symbol A X B C Texture sand loamy sand sandy loam sandy clay loam Definition more than 85 % sand 80 % 85 % sand less than 20 % clay 50% 8 0 % sand 20 % 30 % clay 50% 8 0 % sand
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Symbol D
Texture clay loam
Definition
Symbol t1 t2
Description slightly unfavourable conditions unfavourable physical conditions
20 % 30 % clay less than 50 % sand E sandy clay more than 30% clay 50% 7 0 % sand F clay 30% 5 0 % clay G heavy clay more than 50% clay Where gravelly, stony, bouldery or rocky conditions in the plough zone hinder or prevent cultivation, the following symbols precede the surface texture symbol: Symbol g s b v 0 x Description gravelly or stony very gravelly or stony bouldery very bouldery outcrops extensive outcrops Significance hinder cultivation prevent cultivation hinder cultivation prevent cultivation hinder cultivation prevent cultivation
6. Colour of Upper Sub-soil.moistened, reds of about " diameter should be compared with standard colours of a Munsell colour chart. The Munsell colours are grouped for coding. Symbol 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 B. Colour Description all reds reddish browns yellowish reds and reddish yellows browns grey browns yellowish browns yellows and olive yellows mid grey dark greys and dusky colours all very pale colours
3. Permeability.The ability cf the soil to transmit air and water. It must not be confused with infiltration. Since it is not practical to measure permeability in every soil examined it must be assessed and described qualitatively by observing texture, colour and other soil properties. Symbol 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Permeability relatively impermeable severely restricted restricted moderately restricted good rapid excessive
Land Characteristics 1. Slope.Slope is measured with an abney level and is expressed as a percentage: Symbol Percentage Slope A0%"-2%" B C D E F G 2%-5% 5 % - 8% 8%-12% 12%-17% 17%-25% 25 % and over
2. Erosion.This term refers to accelerated erosion, whether induced by man or resulting from natural factors. Symbol Description no apparent erosion moderate erosion severe erosion very severe erosion 1 2 3 4
4. Limiting Material.This refers to the nature of the material that limits the effective depth. Symbol Description relatively impermeable clay cemented hard pan or clay pan laterite periodically waterlogged horizon into which roots are unlikely to extend Z gravel R hard or relatively unweathered rock W weathered or partially weathered rock 5. Physical Characteristics of the Surface Soil.This refers to soils heavier than a loamy sand, particularly those of unstable structure and porosity and greyish or yellowish in colour which frequently have a tendency to seal and compact at the surface under cultivation. High intensity storms and bad management can also induce these unfavourable physical conditions. C H L M
3. Wetness.Degrees of wetness are defined in terms of the expected frequency and severity of the wet conditions. Symbol Description W1 wet for relatively short and infrequent periods w2 frequently wet for considerable periods w3 very wet for most of the season 4. Parent Materials.Symbols for all geological formations can be given, e.g.: Symbol Parent Material Gr granite Do dolerite Sh shales Tms Table Mountain sand stone Al alluvium
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APPENDIX II Brief Definitions of the Land Capability Classes and some of the Important Criteria Class I.Land of stable structure that can be safely cropped annually for long continued periods. Soils must be moderately deep, well drained, sandyloam or heavier with no limiting characteristics and on slopes between 0 per cent and 5 per cent. Class II.Land that can be safely cultivated with protection measures or special management practices. It is subject to moderate limitations in use or risk of damage because of permanent land characteristics. Effective depth should be at least 20 ins. of sandy loam or heavier, well drained and on slopes not exceeding 8 per cent. Class III.Land that can be cropped only in a fairly long rotation with a short cropping sequence, or land that requires elaborate conservation. It is subject to severe limitations. Sandy soils of adequate depth, severely eroded, wetfor short periods, or slopes not exceeding 12 per cent. Class IV.Land best maintained under perennial vegetation, but can be cultivated occasionally if handled with great care. It is subject to very severe permanent limitations. Shallow, severely eroded, wet or unfavourable physical conditions or slopes not exceeding 17 per cent. Class V. Water courses or sources of water not normally subject to erosion. It is subject to very severe limitations and is best left under natural vegetation. Natural stream lines or land which is wet for most of the season. Class VI.Land unsuitable for annual cropping. Very shallow, physical hazards such as boulders, uneveness, very severe erosion and on slopes not exceeding 25 per cent. Class VII.Hill or Mountain land which can only be used for rough grazing or in some instances for forestry. Ploughing is prevented due to physical limitations or the land is on slopes in excess of 25 per cent. Class VIII.Non-agricultural land. Very steep hills, rocks, sponges, etc. Suitable only wild life.
Mr. Mann said if the classification was complete it should, be possible to determine which land was suitable for sugar as against that which was unsuitable for this crop. If we map and describe every variable soil and land characteristic on any piece of land, then in the future we would find that one variety was more adaptable to a certain range of conditions. Dr. Brett remarked that soil type was only one of the factors that influenced the choice of variety. For example, disease prevalence, proneness to flowering, and the use of irrigation were all factors influencing the choice of variety, and these factors were not themselves necessarily correlated with soil type. Mr. A. C. Barnes said it was obvious that climatic considerations entered into planning of this description as also did exposure, which was not mentioned in the paper. Farm planning was the final stage of regional planning. Following on regional planning one came to district planning and finally to the individual farm planning. He asked the author to state, from his experience in Rhodesia, to what extent regional planning had been investigated in advance of land classification in relation to farm planning. Mr. Barnes went on to say that he had previously called attention to the fact that the collection of essential data in relation to regional and farm planning was short of what was desired. The data was available from different institutions on each aspect and the planner had to visit each in order to prepare his final scheme. He therefore suggested a central organisation for collecting this essential data. Mr. Mann said that a certain amount of the effects of climate were revealed in the soil type formed under the various climatic conditions. All climatic data at our disposal was used when thinking of the final farm plan. Aspect was clearly demarcated on every farm plan and after studying the photos stereoscopically, drainage channels, high points and so on were transferred onto the plan. By merely looking at the final mosaic one could see what the aspect was and if one had a pit close at hand the slope was revealed as well. Regional planning has only been done in those areas of Africa which were relatively undeveloped as far as access facilities were concerned. This regional planning was followed up as stated by Mr. Barnes by district planning and finally by farm planning. In a developed community as on the Natal coast where every farm was developed we had to accept the regional plan as it was. There might be isolated places where the plan could be improved but largely we were limited to planning each individual farm, and then integrate each farm plan into some sort of regional plan. Mr. Wilson (in the Chair) referred Mr. Barnes to a recent Rhodesian Agricultural Journal in which was published a very comprehensive article on the Rhodesian regional planning. Mr. Grice felt there was much room in the Industry for the use of much of the information given by the author. Another important question which was not mentioned, was the moisture retaining quality of the soil relating ultimately to the use of fertilisers and of course to the crop produced. The moisture retaining
Dr. Cleasby said the paper introduced a new and very important subject. Each farmer knew his lands, but only when these lands were classified on paper could the farmer begin to realise their true potential. He asked if this classification could be extended to help farmers to know the best lands for the different varieties.
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists* Association April 1963
quality should be added for the guidance of those engaged in fertiliser advisory capacities. Mr. Wilson said he considered that although farm planning as outlined in the paper might seem to appear far distant from our general practice in the Cane Belt, there was considerable scope for going through the routine of land classification and assessment of the potentials of the land in the Cane Belt. Until this was done, we did not know whether we were now making the best use of the land or not.
Growers possibly could make more money by going in for diversification, in which farm planning would be very valuable. The Experiment Station hoped to start next year to carry out individual planning investiga tions in a modest way in keeping with existing of equipment and staff although these limiting factors would no doubt be overcome in future. A private consultant was offering such a service but he felt the Experiment Station should eventually provide this service for the Industry as a whole if the demand arose
\ 23
THE MOSAIC TOLERANCE OF FIVE SUGARCANE VARIETIES IN NATAL

By G. M. THOMSON Summary In order to determine the effects of mosaic disease on five Natal sugarcane varieties an experiment was planted at Mount Edgecombe in which plots were represented by single stools. The two treatments were "planted healthy" and "planted diseased". The results from the plant cane crop and first ratoon crop show that N:Co.339 is more tolerant than the other varieties although it cannot be said to be unaffected by mosaic disease. The tolerance of N:Co.334 is of the same order as N:Co.339. The variety N:Co.376 shows the least tolerance while N:Co.292 and N:Co.293 are affected to more or less the same degree. There was evidence of recovery from mosiac disease in N:Co.292, and to a lesser extent in N :Co.293 and N:Co.376. There was no recovery in N:Co.334 or in N:Co.339. In January, 1961, four months after planting, the effects of planting mosaic-infected setts were becoming evident. This showed up in a pronounced stunting of the diseased plots compared with the "planted healthy" stools. This effect was particularly noticeable in N:Co.292, N:Co.293 and N:Co.376. Six months after planting a check was made on the extent of secondary infection in the "planted healthy" plots. The following table shows the number of stools (out of 12 originally planted with healthy setts) which had become infected.
Table 2 Extent of Secondary Infection (Number of infected plots after 6 months) N :Co.292 1 N :Co.293 1 N:Co.334 8 N:Co.339 9 N:Co.376 6
Introduction During the course of disease survey work over the past two years a disconcerting number of cases of mosaic-infected N:Co.376 was noted. The degree of infection in this variety appeared to be increasing and furthermore it was apparent that the disease was having a considerably adverse effect on the variety. This survey work also suggested differences between various varieties in their reaction to infection and indeed the reaction of N :Co.339, traditionally accepted as being tolerant, was open to question. Method In order to determine the effects of mosaic disease on five well-known varieties, an experiment was laid down at the Experiment Station in which the plots were represented by single stools, spaced at 5 ft. in the line. The line spacing was 5 ft. 6 ins. There were two treatments, ("planted healthy" and "planted diseased") and 12 replications. Early Observations As can be seen from Table 1, the germination of the healthy setts was distinctly better than that of the mosaic-infected setts, with the exception of N:Co.376.
Table 1 Percentage Germination N:Co.292 N:Co.293 N:Co.334 N:Co.339 N:Co.376 Planted Healthy Planted Diseased 79 52 71 58 75 65 69 56 56 58
The Course of the Disease and the Yields over Two Crops Frequent inspection of the developing crops indicated just how much these varieties vary in their reaction to mosaic disease. The expression of these differences in the two crop yields certainly presents an interesting picture and in at least one case brings to light new facts to be considered. N:Co.292.The symptoms of mosaic disease in N:Co.292 are very clear with a pronounced difference between the chlorotic areas and the normal green of the leaf. The major portion of the leaf is chlorotic. Most of the "planted healthy" plots remained free of the disease but there were odd cases of secondary infection and subsequent recovery. Thirteen months after the plant cane harvest half of the "planted diseased" plots showed no symptoms of the disease although the plants themselves were very weak with a pronounced chlorosis. Small quantities of material taken from such plots and planted in the greenhouse produced healthy shoots on germination. One month after the second crop was harvested only four plots showed symploms of the disease and the plots which had recovered earlier appeared more vigorous. In this variety the percentage decrease in the number of stalks, comparing the two treatments, amounted to 52 per cent in plant cane and 63 per cent in first ratoons whereas the corresponding decrease in weight of cane was 69 per cent and 76 per cent respectively. (See Tables 3 and 4.) These effects are well illustrated in the accompanying photograph which also shows the pronounced stunting effect. N:Co.293.This variety also shows a severe type of symptom with pronounced chlorosis.
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A certain amount of secondary infection did take place in the "planted healthy" plots but most of these recovered subsequently so that one month after the first ratoon harvest only one stool remained diseased. All the "planted diseased" plots remained so until the most recent inspection when two stools had apparently recovered. This condition will have to be confirmed at a later date as it may only be a delay in the appearance of the symptoms. The effect of mosaic disease on N:Co.293 is of the same order as that in N :Co.292. As can be seen in the tables the decreases were more marked in the ratoon crop being 74 per cent in number of stalks and 86 per cent in weight of cane per plot. The effect of the disease on stalk number and stalk length is shown in the photograph. N:Co.334.This variety seems to show a severe type of symptom in younger cane but at later stages the pattern is milder and of the normal N :Co.339 type. In the "planted healthy" treatment eight plots had become infected, six months after planting. At the plant cane harvest there were nine infected plots. After the second crop however, a certain amount of recovery was evident when only six plots exhibited symptoms. The "planted diseased" plots have shown no tendency to recover. This variety has shown a greater degree of tolerance to mosaic than the others with the exception of N:Co.339. The decrease in number of stalks and weight of cane remained more or less static over the two crops harvested so far and there has been no pronounced stunting effect. This is contrary to observations in the other varieties (except N:Co.339) where the adverse effects of the disease were greater in the ratoon crop. N: Co.339.The symptom pattern in this variety shows variations from the normal mild type which is probably the most common, to a more severe type. This suggests strain differences in the virus. No evidence of recovery was found in the "planted diseased" plots and all the "planted healthy" plots had become infected before the first harvest. This variety has always been classified as tolerant to mosaic disease. However, in the early stages of this experiment it was obvious that a difference existed in the vigour of the plots of the two treatments. The plots planted with healthy seed cane consisted of stools which were much more vigorous than those derived from diseased seed cane. This difference is still evident despite the fact that there are now no healthy plots of this variety. However, a comparison of yields of the two crops indicates that the difference between "planted healthy" and "planted diseased" is lessening which suggests that the secondarily infected plots are now being affected by the disease. This variety is not featured in the photograph, the growth being so variable that it was difficult to select a typical pair of plots as an illustration.
The results shown in the tables indicate that on the average of the two crops N :Co.339 is the least affected by the disease in this experiment. N:Co.376.This variety exhibits a very severe type of symptom associated with very pronounced chlorosis. In the "planted healthy" plots half of the plants had become infected six months after planting and at the plant cane harvest seven plots were diseased. In three of the latter however, only single stalks were showing the symptoms. By the first ratoon harvest only two plots exhibited symptoms and one month later all twelve plots were healthy again. Three of the "planted diseased" plots appear to have recovered according to the latest inspection but this may be a case of delay in symptom expression. This variety exhibits extreme intolerance to mosaic infection. Evidence for this is the stunting effect which amounted to a 50 per cent decrease in mean length of stalk in the diseased plots. The stunting effect is well illustrated in the photograph. As can be seen from the tables the percentage decrease in number of stalks was 65 per cent and 79 per cent in plant cane and ratoon cane respectively, while the corresponding decreases in weight of cane were 80 per cent and 89 per cent respectively. Discussion Statistically the design of this experiment has a number of limitations which might tend to increase the apparent effect of the disease on the varieties concerned. Where diseased stools are growing adjacent to healthy stools the competitive factor enters into the picture especially where growth is retarded in the diseased plot. The growth retardation is likely to increase as adjacent healthy plots become dominant. In cases like N:Co.339 and N:Co.334, but particularly the former, where high susceptibility to the disease is involved, the intended control, i.e. healthy cane, is no longer present so that no basis remains for comparing healthy and diseased cane, the essence of a tolerance trial. However, in this particular experiment a comparison between "planted healthy" and "planted diseased" (irrespective of secondary infection) is of interest. Nevertheless there is a distinct tendency towards intolerance in three of the varieties concerned, viz. N:Co.292, N:Co.293 and N:Co.376. This is an observable fact and requires little in the way of statistical confirmation. In the cases of N:Co.334 and N:Co.339 the tolerance to mosaic infection is at a higher level but by no means a foregone conclusion. It is shown that the planting of mosaic-infected seed cane of any of these varieties can have serious consequences irrespective of whether the variety exhibits a tendency to recover from the disease or not. The variety N:Co.339 is a noteworthy inclusion in this group.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' AssociationApril 1963 Table 3 Mean Weight per PJot (Lbs.)
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N:Co.292 . P Planted Healthy Planted Diseased % Decrease 64.67 20.42 69 Rl 48.75 11.83 76
N:Co.293 P 39.00 13.55 64 Rl 56.08 8.00 86
N :Co.334 P 47.50 26.92 44 Rl 48.33 25.33 48
N:Co.339 P 54.17 28.17 48 Rl 47.58 38 08 21
N:Co.376 P 54.25 10.58 80 Rl 53.33 5.81 89
Table 4 Mean Number of Stalks Per Plot
N:Co.292 P Planted Healthy Planted Diseased % Decrease 29 14 52 Rl 27 10 63
N:Co.293 P 17 10 41 Rl 23 6 74
N:Co.334 P 21 15 29 Rl 24 17 29
N:Co.339 P 30 20 33 Rl 33 27 18
N:Co.376 P 26 9 65 Rl 28 6 79
The effect of mosaic disease on the varieties N:Co.292, N:Co. 293, N:Co.334 and N:Co.376. Each bundle is a complete plot (stool) from the experiment. Note the pronounced stunting effect in three of the varieties and the difference in number of stalks between" planted healthy" (H) and "planted diseased" (M) in all four varieties.
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Mr. Wilson said that the main interest in this paper centred round the effects of mosaic on the varieties but he found the question of recovery from the disease very intriguing. He therefore asked if there was any possibility of any immunity arising from a mild inoculation of the disease, and what would happen if one propagated from a plant which had recovered; could it be re-infected again? Mr. Thomson said there had been evidence of recovery especially in N:Co.310 and cuttings from such recovered cane planted in a greenhouse came up healthy but the new plants could easily be re-infected by inoculation or when planted in the field. There was another type of recovery, which was recovery from diseased stalks. Dr. Dodds asked where N:Co.310 would now be classified as far as the effect of mosaic was concerned as it was the most popular cane still and he would like to know how it compared with the newer varieties. N:Co.376 was such an excellent variety in so many respects that it was disappointing to learn that it was so intolerant to mosaic disease. Mr. Thomson replied that N:Co.310 would be somewhat similar to N :Co.293 with regard to resistance and tolerance, but it has also a very distinct tendency towards recovery. Dr. Brett asked if there was more chance of recovery in stools which became infected after planting than in ones which had been derived from diseased cuttings, and in which, therefore, all shoots could be expected to be diseased. He also asked if N:Co.376 showed any noticeable amount of recovery in the field. Mr. Thomson said the varieties mentioned could be divided into two groups. One which showed very severe types of symptoms consisted of N:Co.292, N:Co.293 and N:Co.376 and the other group namely N:Co.339 and N:Co.334 did not show always such severe symptoms. The varieties which showed the more severe symptoms had a larger tendency towards recovery. There appeared to be no permanent recovery in the case of N:Co.292 and N:Co.376. Mr. Main asked if suitable climatic conditions and adequate use of fertiliser providing good growing conditions, would tend towards greater recovery. After a drought when the vitality of the cane was lowered, would such a condition tend towards greater incidence of the disease? One of his fields of N:Co.310 had mosaic and he was considering ploughing it out but if increased fertiliser application and the use of irrigation could help towards recovery, he would not plough the cane out. Mr. Thomson replied that if the percentage of mosaic in a field of N:Co.310 was not high, and he doubted that it would be, he would not advise ploughit out from the point of view of mosaic alone. There was a masking of symptoms leading to these showing up at odd times but he did not consider fertiliser practice could have any effect on recovery of N:Co.376.
Mr. Coignet said it was noticeable that there was an absence of mosaic visible in cane growing a mile or two from the sea. He asked if this was due to climatic conditions leading to the absence of vectors or the effect of iodine or sodium chloride in the air, or was this only ascribable to a masking of symptoms. Mr. Thomson stated that efforts were now being made to determine why mosaic disease had this peculiar distribution. He thought that the fact of its lesser incidence near the sea might be due to effect on the vector. Within one or two miles from the coast there was probably a deposit of sodium chloride on the leaves which made them less attractive to the insect. He did not think there was masking or recovery in this case. Dr. Cleasby said he had observed a case of recovery in N:Co.376 in the field. He asked if there was any connection between mosaic and hot water treatment for ratoon stunting disease. The incidence of mosaic seemed to be increased by this treatment. Mr. Thomson said he had first come across mention of the connection between mosaic susceptibility and heat treatment followed work done in America, where it appeared that mosaic was increased by heat treatment. Dr. Abbot had stated that planters in Louisiana were refusing to use heat treatment because of the danger of mosaic being increased by this, particularly in N:Co.310, which in Lousiana was highly susceptible to mosaic. If it were the case that heat treatment increased the chance of mosaic disease, Mr. Thomson still maintained that this treatment should be continued in this country because ratoon stunting disease was a bigger danger to our Industry, with its present varieties, than was mosaic. Some experiments had been carried out at the Experiment Station, unfortunately too late for a field test, but in the greenhouse, where artificial inoculations were made on canes which had been heat treated. The results were up to now inconclusive but one factor to be considered was that of artificial inoculation. In the United States of America field trials had been made on N:Co.310 from which it appeared that heat treatment led to more mosaic. The impression was two-fold, one side of the argument being that the variety had changed because of heat treatment. The other argument was that the cane germinated more quickly after heat treatment (not our experience here), and was available to the insect longer. Dr. Dick (in the Chair) said that to use commercial fields as a source of plant material was a mistake. It was much better to establish nurseries for the propagation of seed material for such small areas could be adequately inspected and rogued. Mosaic could be controlled by roguing while ratoon stunting could not, and necessitated heat treatment, which should therefore be continued.
Proceedings
of
The
South
African
Sugar
Technologists'
AssociationApril
1963
127
COMPETITION IN FERTILISER TRIALS

By H. M. DICKS Summary The influence of "border effects" on experimental results is discussed and the findings of research workers in Hawaii, Louisiana and Queensland are summarised. The results of a "long term" fertiliser trial which was harvested in sections to test the influence of "end" and "side" effects on treatment means and responses are presented and discussed. Side effect, measured by the successive elimination of outer rows, appears to have a marked influence on the "response" to Nitrogen, the reduction in mean yield being greatest for the "no nitrogen" plots. End effects would appear to vary with treatment and interactions, in particular the N x P, become more pronounced with the elimination of end. effects. The reduction in mean yield associated with the elimination of end effects is quite considerable, ten per cent, but becomes relatively smaller with the increased fertility of the plot. ment means in order that unbiased comparisons between treatments can be made and, in this respect, it is essential that "border effects" be taken into account when considering the gross and nett plot sizes. It is often as a result of faulty plot techniques that expected responses (in some cases quite obvious to the eye) fail to materialise when the time comes to harvest the trial and to compare the effects of treatments in terms of yields. Naquin (1932) in Hawaii has demonstrated with the aid of photographs the border effect of one variety on another. In almost all cases the more vigorous varieties reduced the 4 row plot of the less vigorous variety to 2 lines. The bias in this case is obvious, the yield being obtained from an effective area one half of the nett area. Photographs were also used to illustrate the effect of "compensation", that is, the two outer rows (of a 4 line plot) of the more vigorous variety take advantage over the less vigorous adjacent variety and in turn produce a smothering effect on its own two inner rows. Naquin has also demonstrated how the cane in a "no nitrogen" or "control" plot was affected by the nitrogen from the adjacent "high nitrogen" plot. The "lateral drift" of the fertiliser is noticeable as far in as the third line of the eight line plots, which would imply a nett effective area of two lines. The effect was as marked for "no phosphate" next to "phosphate", but only to a moderate extent (2 rows) in the case of potash. In all the sugarcane variety trials conducted by Arceneaux (1939) border competition proved to "have a detectable influence on yield relationships, but the error thus introduced was not found important except in comparing varieties of widely different vigor". Kerr (1939) discussing plot techniques under Queensland conditions concludes "that it is evident that the proximity of a variety of superior vigor results in abnormal growth of the outer row of cane and a depressed yield for the neighbouring row of the less vigorous variety. "(An) additional feature is that the abnormal growth of the continuous lines is reflected also in the next row of the respective plots". That is, there is a further border influence of the first border effect; which is in agreement with the photographs of Naquin (1933).
1. Introduction One of the main objects of field experiments is the comparison of treatment responses under environmental conditions similar to those experienced in field practice. Thus in each plot area it should be the aim to obtain as nearly as possible the environmental conditions that exist under actual field conditions, and the treatment responses obtained on those plots should reflect the response which one would expect to find under the commercial practice of the experimental findings (Naquin 1932). Davidson (1962), has shown that, due probably to the larger scale farming operations, farm yields approach experimental yields more closely only in years of low yield, all other conditions being assumed equal. For this reason, therefore, it is necessary to consider experimental results in the light of optimal conditions. Thus, while treatment means may have limited application, comparisons between treatments should, nevertheless, reflect the relative magnitude of the differences to be expected under field applications of the treatments concerned. From the experimenters point of view, however, it is necessary to have unbiased estimates of the treat-
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2. Experimental Results In the past while plot size has ranged from 12 lines X 121' X 4' 6" to 4 lines X 30' X 4' 6" for fertiliser trials carried out at both the Experiment Station Farms and co-operators land, no attempt has been made to determine an effective plot size for fertiliser trials under Natal conditions. The large 12 lines X 121' plots have proved both unwieldy and expensive and have invariably precluded replications because of the large area of land taken up by one replication. On the other hand the small 4 line X 30' plots have, after 2 crops, failed to demonstrate any significant response to nitrogen, and, to quote one experiment, the "control" plots after 5 ratoons yielded as high as those plots which had received as much as 500 lbs. N at each successive stage. With these results in mind together with the observations of Naquin and the analyses of Kerr, Arceneaux et al, it was decided to investigate the drift of nitrogen, in particular, over a six line plot. The trial selected for the investigation was a "Long term" NPK (23) factorial replicated 4 times, which was in its first ratoon of its second cycle. Planted originally in November, 1950 it was ploughed out after the third ratoon in 1958 and replanted, the previous plots being located and subjected to the same treatments in the second cycle as in the first cycle. The treatments for the second cycle, first ratoon were : Nitrogen: Phosphate: Potash: Nil and 100 lbs. N per acre Nil and 150 lbs. P205 per acre Nil and 150 lbs. K20 per acre
Table 2 Treatment Means in Tons Cane per acre. (Average of 4 plots.)

Treatment Control n p n p k nk pk n pk PLOT SIZE A B C D F E ( = 1/33) (=1/50) (=1/100) (=1/45) (=1/67) ( = 1/134) 47.36 62.73 48.01 67.10 49.11 66.00 52.40 72.24 45.02 62.51 44.67 66.89 47.11 66.19 49.64 71.12 56.64 43.80 62.16 43.46 67.55 45.69 66.75 48.47 71.35 56.15 41.47 56.70 42.02 60.78 43.41 59.78 46.41 67.03 52.20 39.19 56.02 38.20 60.20 41.27 60.17 43.67 65.63 50.54 3.80 38.42 55.05 36.60 60.38 39.36 60.31 42.18 65.64 49.74 3.40
G.M. 58.12 S.E. of single plot 3.65 yield
3.89
3.58 3.61
From Table 2 it will be seen that the reduction in mean yield for the eight treatments with the decrease in plot size is not constant. This differential decrease in yield is demonstrated in Table 3:
Table 3 Treatment DIFFERENCE
(A-B)=d1 (B-C)=d2 (D-E)=d3 (E-F)=d4
The gross plot of 6 lines X 48'X 4' 6" was harvested as follows: Six feet were cut off the ends of each line and weighed separately from the centre 36 feet. The weights from the ends and centres of the two middle lines were pooled; the 2 line plot being the minimum plot size under investigation (1/100 acre with ends 1/134 acre without ends). The plot dimensions and areas are given in Table 1.
Table 1
Analysis of the differences di (i= 1-4) reveals a significant reduction in yield for all non-nitrogen plots; that is, the yields obtained from the 2 line plots without nitrogen are significantly less than their corresponding 4 line plot, which in turn are significantly less than their corresponding 6 line plots. While the response to nitrogen is of the order of obviousness it is interesting to note the increase in the F- values obtained in an Analysis of Variance of the data from the six plot sizes. These results are summarised in Table 4. From Table 4 it will be observed that the N x P interaction almost attains significance at the 5 per cent level for the 2 line plot "eliminating end effect" (Plot size F). For the 2 line plot "ignoring end effect", (Plot size C), this interaction was only significant at the 20 per cent level.
The treatment means for each plot size are presented in Table 2.
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963 Table 4 Variation in F- values obtained in the Analysis of Variance of data from 6 plot sizes
F- Values Source of Variation *Blocks Nitrogen (N).. Phosphate (P) . . Potash (K).. Nitrogen X Phosphate . Other two factor interactions Error Mean Square DF Plot A 7 1 1 1 1 2 18 190.37 7.95 7.97 1.67 <1 13.3054 Plot B 213.21 4.36 7.41 1.68 <1 15.1061 Plot C 291.82 6.05 9.16 2.23 <1 12.7883 Plot D 193.28 8.50 9.41 2.32 <1 13.0308 Plot E 220.00 4.23 10.17 2.34 <1 14.4290 Plot F 311.71 5.89 12.58 4.03 <1
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11.5374
*Note:
The NPK interaction was completely confounded with blocks. The F- values required for significance are: (5%) 4.41, (1 %) 8.28.
Table 5 N P Interaction tables for two Plot Sizes (Means in T.C.A.) 5. (A) Plot Size C ( = 1 /100 acre) Nitrogen
(l) Phosphate: (1) p.. Difference 5. (B) Plot Size F(=1/134 acres) Nitrogen (1) Phosphate: (1) p.. Difference 38.89 39.39 0.50 n 57.68 63.01 5.33 Difference 18.79 23.62 44.75 45.96 1.21 n 64.46 69.49 4.99 Difference 19.71 23.49
to the elimination of end effects becomes relatively smaller. The eleven per cent reduction in yield brought about by the elimination of end effects illustrates why experimental plot yields are invariably in excess of the yields obtained in practice on large areas of land. Table 6 also illustrated that the possibility of using a "conversion factor" common to all treatments in order to "adjust" experimental results, is rather remote. To eliminate end effects from all nutrition trials would be a very costly proposition but, by increasing the length of the line for each plot, it may be possible to reduce the proportion of ends to centres, in which case the effect of ends on the estimation of treatment responses and interactions will be negligible and the practice of harvesting the centre two lines (of a 6 line plot) will be justified.
References Arceneaux, G. et al (1939). Proc. I.S.S.C.T. 6th Congress. Page 403. Davidson, B. (1962). Nature Vol. 194. Page 458. Kerr, H. W. (1939). Bur. Sug. Exp. Stn.Queensland Tech. Comm. No. 11 (1939). Naquin, E. E. (1932). Proc. I.S.S.C.T. 4th Congress. Bull. No. 11. S.A.S.A. Experiment Station
MOUNT EDGECOMBE
For the two line plots the average reduction in yield when end effects are eliminated is 6.4 tons or 11 per cent but closer inspection of the data from Tables 5 (A) and 5 (B) reveals that this reduction is not consistent for the treatment means under consideration. These differences expressed as percentages of the mean yields in Table 5 (A) are presented in Table 6.
Table 6 Per cent Reduction in Yield with Elimination of End Effects Nitrogen
(1) Phosphate: (1) p .. Mean Reduction (%) .. 13.1 14.3 13.7 n 10.5 9.3 9.9
19th March, 1963
From previous results obtained from this trial together with the results presented, in Table 2 it would appear that there is a negative response to the application of phosphate alone, in which case "control" is superior to phosphate. Thus from the trend in per cent reduction in yield illustrated in Table 6, it may be postulated that with increasing levels of nutrition (especially nitrogen) the reduction in yield due
Mr. Gosnell asked if the yields of the various lines in the plots were easily discernable or whether the results only showed up on harvesting. Mr. Dicks said that end effects tend to mask the differences between the lines but when viewed from an elevated position the difference between nitrogen and no nitrogen plots was distinctly noticeable to the naked eye. Dr. Cleasby said the problem of the size of plots was largely answered in the paper and would save a lot of time for agronomists in the future. Dr. Dick (in the Chair) agreed that the analysis in the paper would save a lot of trouble in the future. Previously the Experiment Station had done a lot of field trials and sometimes been at a loss to explain the rather anomalous results and in particularly to explain to growers the high yields obtained from experimental plots.
130
FLAME PHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATIONS OF CATIONS IN CANE LEAVES AND STALKS

By K. E. F. ALEXANDER Summary Flame photometric determinations of potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium in plant tissues are discussed. The difficulties due to phosphate suppression and potassium enhancement of calcium readings are covered at some length. A description of practical methods of overcoming these interferences is given. A third method operates by adding a "substitution" element (e.g. barium, strontium, or magnesium) to all samples and standards. By adding a relatively highly concentrated solution of one of these elements, it is assumed that the phosphate ions link with the added element rather than with the calcium. In theory, the unencumbered calcium ions then give their full emission in the flame. (See graph. 2.) A fourth method is the "internal standard" procedure. The theory of this method is that, when an equal proportion of the unknown sample is added to each of the standards, the interfering substance in the sample will affect both the calcium in the standard and that in the sample equally. In the case of phosphate, this method will not work satisfactorily, because the suppression caused is not independent of the varying P:Ca ratio normally found in cane samples. A fifth method envisages the addition of glycerin to all samples and standards. Only a short reference to this method has been seen in the literature, and it has not yet been tried out here. A further method tested here was the addition of E.D.T.A. solution to all samples and standards. The method seemed to work reasonably well, but rather a high flame background was encountered. This limited the use of the method in low calcium concentrations. It should be mentioned here that any method of phosphate suppression should not impair the rapidity and ease with which flame photometer readings can be made. If a solution requires time-consuming treatment before spraying, then the advantages of the flame photometer are largely offset. Initial testing of calcium determinations by flame methods was done both on cane-leaf extracts and on simulated leaf-extract solutions. In such solutions the substances present in sufficient quantities to affect calcium readings were considered to be potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and sulphuric acid. The effect of each of these substances was tried in turn. Potassium did tend to enhance calcium readings, but provided the calcium standards contained an average amount of potash found in cane-leaves, this effect was not serious. Thus a very low potash in an unknown would depress an average calcium figure by about 6 per cent, whereas a very high potash would cause a 4 per cent enhancement. Initially it was thought that magnesium tended to depress calcium readings, since, by adding magnesium sulphate to calcium solutions the readings were lowered. Later tests, however, proved that it was the sulphate ions that were causing the depression, and not the magnesium. In these test solutions the sulphuric acid normally present in leaf extracts had been omitted. The depression due to sulphuric acid or
In sugarcane tissue there are four metals which can be conveniently determined on the flame photometer. These are potassium, magnesium, sodium and calcium. Since the first three elements present little or no difficulty due to radiation interference, the bulk of this paper will be taken up with calcium determination. Phosphorus in a solution has a marked suppressing action on calcium emission, when the solution is sprayed in a flame photometer. To illustrate this point, a set of 10 standards was made up. Each standard contained 18 p.p.m. CaO, which is equivalent to 0.3 per cent CaO on plant tissue when 150 mg. of dry material is dissolved in 25 ml. of extract. This is an average calcium value to be expected in the analysis of cane leaves. No phosphate was added to the first standard, but phosphate was added in successively greater amounts to the remaining standards. When sprayed in the Beckman D.U. flame photometer, using hydrogen at 5 p.s.i., and oxygen at 15 p.s.i., slit width 0.02 m.m., and wavelength. 554 millimicrons, the standards gave scale readings as shown in graph 1. it can be seen that a calcium emission reading of 100 units on the scale can be reduced by roughly twothirds to a minimum of about 34 units. Due to the varying amounts of phosphorus found in the plant material to be analysed, it is obvious that no reliance can be placed on any calcium results without taking phosphorus content into account. One method of obviating the phosphate effect is to add a large amount of this element to each of the standards, and to each of the unknowns. All calcium readings on the flame photometer are then depressed to a uniform maximum amount. At ratios of P 2 0 5 : CaO greater than about 1:1, as graph 1 shows, the curve flattens out i.e. variations in phosphate content will have no further effect on the calcium readings. Since calcium is such a strong emitter, the large depression of readings is no material set-back. The depression is easily countered by opening the slit further, or increasing the sensitivity of the machine. A second method is to remove all the interfering phosphate by the use of an ion-exchange column. The unknowns are run through a column, which is made of resins designed to remove the anions present. The resulting solutions are then sprayed, and compared with suitable standards containing neither phosphate nor sulphate ions.
131
sulphate ions was found to be stable for all concentrations of sulphuric acid likely to be encountered in our digested extracts. Thus, provided the acid is present in all standards, no errors in calcium determination are detectable through differences of acid concentration in individual extracts. The presence of sulphuric acid has the effect of largely eliminating the fluctuations caused by various phosphate concentrations. At very low phosphate values, sulphate ions depress calcium readings, but at medium and high values, sulphate ions enhance calcium readings. (See graph 3.) Sulphuric acid on its own, however, is not sufficiently effective in overcoming phosphate interference. In view of the previously mentioned suppression of calcium readings due to phosphorus, it was decided to "swamp" all future sample solutions and standards with this substance. Reasonably accurate calcium determinations on leaves were possible, provided that the standards also contained average quantities of potassium and sulphuric acid. The accuracy of results was checked both by the use of titration methods and by determining synthetic sample extracts of known, but varying, concentrations of calcium, potash and phosphorus. Later on, when larger numbers of cane stalk analyses were being done, it was decided to explore the possibility of using ion-exchange columns to remove the phosphates from sample extracts. Ten columns were
set up and filled with the correct amounts of activated anion-retaining resin. Ten "sample" solutions were made up (series "A"), using varying quantities of calcium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus to correspond with the ranges of these elements to be found in cane stalks. Enough sulphuric acid was added to each solution to correspond with that used in the wet-digestion process whereby 2 gms. of dry material ends up in solution together with 1 ml. of concentrated sulphuric acid in 50 ml. of water. Five ml. from each, of the ten. sample solutions was put through, an ion-exchange column. This was then washed through and made up to 50 ml. (Series B). The series B solutions were then sprayed, and compared with suitable calcium standards, having an average potash content. It was noted that where the potash content of the sample was higher than that in the standards, the resulting figure for calcium was higher than the known amount, and vice versa. Thus in material such as cane stalks, were the K 2 0 figures are commonly 10 or 15 times the CaO figures, potash has a definite enhancing effect on calcium readings. Before obtaining further sets of figures to prove the last statement, the magnesium chloride addition method was tried as a means of overcoming the phosphate interference. A 5 N. solution of magnesium chloride was added to each of the "A" series in the proportion of 1:4. Results were similar to the previous ones namely,
p p mP O D D E D 2 5A
Graph 1.18 p.p.m. CaO, with increasing quantities of P205. No sulphuric acid or magnesium chloride present. Graph 2.18 p.p.m. CaO, with increasing quantities of P2O5. All samples had sulphuric acid. 1 ml. of 0.5N magnesium chloride solution was added to 4 ml. of test solution in each case. Graph 3.This graph again shows 18 p.p.m. CaO solutions with increasing P2O5 increments. Here sulphuric acid was present, but not; magnesium chloride. Note that instrument settings for graphs 1 and 3 were the same, but for graph 2 the slit width was increased, since the addition of the magnesium chloride solution had in effect diluted the other ingredients. Wavelength was 554 millimicrons.
132
I'nmlinv > / // Sowh ,!/,,, .S,, 7ir/.W <tfte ' ,!, iaiimt -ip<-
Graph 4.This represents 30 p.p.m. C'aO with increasing amounts of K2() added. Graph 5.This is K20 (0 to 4,000 p.p.m.) without any CaO. In both eases the wavelength was 554 millimicrons. high potash additions gave enhanced calcium figures and vice versa. The phosphate depression was as effectively countered as it had been in the previous tests. However, since the calcium readings arc not depressed as much as they are when phosphate swamping is employed, smaller slit-widths could be used. This in turn reduced the amount of potassium radiation allowed to fall on the photocell, and thereby diminished the potash interference. The effect of potash interference was tested by adding from 0 to 4,000 p.p.m. K20 to 30 p.p.m. solutions of CaO. When these solutions were sprayed, it was found that as more potash was added, so the readings were enhanced almost linearly. All settings < " > n the photometer were then maintained, and soluI'ons of potash only (0 to 4,000 p.p.m.) were sprayed. I'he two sets of results were plotted in the form of graphs. The second graph showed a considerable response to potash on the calcium wavelength used (554 millimicrons). This graph was roughly parallel to the previous one, showing that most:, if not all, the enhancement due to the presence of potassium was due to the radiation of this element on the calcium wavelength. The experiment was repeated tit 422.7 millimicrons with very similar results. At (his wavc,ength the sensitivity to calcium emission was not as
great, and the slit had to be opened further, giving the potash an even greater effect on readings. The last stage was merely a check on previous stages. Sets of calcium standards were made up containing extremes of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus. sulphuric acid, and potassium in the various permutations corresponding to whole-cane, or stalk digestions. Magnesium chloride swamping was d o n e on all standards prior to spraying. The different levels of magnesium, phosphate, and sulphuric acid h a d no effect on either the high or the low calcium figures, but potash affected the readings. Potash introduced errors of up to 20 per cent in the low calcium range, and up to 10 per cent in the high calcium range, Since the potash effect is not overcome by conventional means, a correction (able must be drawn up from multiple graphs. I'olnsh analyses are normally done on all cane tissue extracts, and. where the potash figure is found, lo differ from the average K20 c o n t e n t in (he standards, the appropriate correction is then made. The following analytical procedure has n o w been adopted by the research chemistry section of the Mount Edgecombe Experiment Station: For r o u t i n e N I' K analyses of leaf laminae samples, 50 mg. of the dry, powdered material is wet-digested with sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, When clear, the extract
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is made up to 25 ml. with de-ionised water. A filtered aliquot is sprayed in the flame photometer at 766.5 millimicrons, and compared with potassium standards corresponding to 0.5 per cent, 1.0 per cent, 1.5 per cent and 2 per cent K a O on the original material. Where magnesium and calcium are to be determined, or when cane-stalk material is being analysed, 150 mg. of dry powder is digested. The magnesium determination is made on a filtered aliquot of this more concentrated extract, using a photometer wavelength of 285.2 millimicrons. The high background illumination coupled with a rather weak magnesium radiation results in a shallow, slightly curved graph at this wavelength. Nevertheless, fairly accurate and reproducible results can be obtained if care is exercised. For calcium determinations, 4 ml. of filtered extract is thoroughly mixed with 1 ml. of 0.5N magnesium chloride solution and sprayed at 554 millimicrons. Calcium standards, which have been similarly treated, are used for the comparison graph. The calcium figure read off from this graph is now corrected for potash effect. The analytical techniques used in the Fertilizer Advisory Laboratory employ a larger quantity of plant tissue for digestion. Two and a half grams of powdered leaf material is wet-digested with nitric and sulphuric acids. When digestion is complete, the extract is made up to 100 ml. with water. Suitably diluted aliquots are taken for normal flame photometric determinations of potassium and sodium. A portion of the extract is diluted five times for subsequent calcium determination. Eight ml. of this solution is then stirred with 1 ml. of 2N magnesium chloride solution, and sprayed in the flame photometer. At present magnesium is determined colorimetrically, but future analyses of this element will probably be done on a suitable flame photometer. Magnesium is more highly concentrated in the macromethod extracts obtained in the Fertilizer Advisory Laboratory. This higher concentration results in a steeper magnesium graph, favouring accuracy. At the same time, the photometric method is very much more rapid, and less costly in chemicals, than the colorimetric method. Before you open this paper for discussion, Mr. Chairman, there is one fact I should like to mention. Since writing the paper, further evidence has shown a tendency for increasing quantities of potassium in the presence of all the other ingredients, including the magnesium chloride swamping solution, to approach a limiting enhancement for calcium readings. Thus, by adding 2.0 gm. of potassium chloride per litre of magnesium chloride swamping solution, it has been possible to obtain accurate calcium determinations in the presence of various amounts of potassium. The resultant graph is steep, and flame background is not increased much. Table 1 shows results obtained on the first trial run.
TABLE i
K20% 0.50 0.125 1.25 1.25 0.25 0.25 P.O.% 0.50 0.125 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.375 CaO % Actual 0.03125 0.125 1.25 0.25 0.25 0.875 CaO% Found 0.031 0.12 1.23 0.24 0.24 0.85
TABLE 1 illustrates some calcium figures obtained on the flame photometer with various permutations of potassium and phosphorus. Swamping with magnesium and potassium was employed on all test solutions and standards. Percentages quoted would correspond to dry plant material.
Mr. Alexander after reading the paper said it was only in recent years had suitable apparatus been available and he then went on to describe the construction of the modern flame photometer. Mr. du Toit (in the Chair) said that those people who did the type of work described in the paper would find it of inestimable value. The paper dealt to a large extent with the determination of calcium and the exposition was one of the most practical he had seen. Calcium reading was usually depressed by phosphate and the author had obtained excellent calcium reading results by swamping the effect of both phosphate and potash. Test solutions made up without the author's knowledge and containing various interfering elements had been submitted to Mr. Alexander who had obtained the remarkable results shown in the addendum to the paper. The time saved by the use of the flame photometer was enormous as compared with the chemical methods previously used. Mr. Bishop said that with the simpler type of flame photometer used by the Fertiliser Advisory Service it was found necessary in the determination of calcium to keep on increasing the amount of this element present in solution and he asked why this should be so. Mr. Alexander thought that this was due to some kind of decay in the instrument itself, probably fatigue in the photo-electric cell or the capillary tube being coated with chemicals such as silica, but the latter was unlikely. Mr. Stewart asked if high concentrations of calcium could affect the determination of phosphate in the colorimetric analysis. Mr. Alexander replied that no such effect had as yet been found but no specific experiments had been done to investigate this aspect.
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THE ESTIMATION OF THE WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SUGARCANE IN NATAL

By G. D. THOMPSON, C. H. 0. PEARSON and T. G. CLEASBY Summary Replicated lysimeter trials on two sites have provided the means over the past three and a half years of measuring the potential evapotranspiration of sugarcane. The results indicate that the water requirements vary from a maximum of 0.24 inches per day in January to a minimum of 0.09 inches per day in June. It is shown that moisture deficits may occur at any time of the year and that the short periods of summer drought are most severe in suppressing crop yield. Of the various methods by which evapotranspiration may be estimated from meterological measurements and calculations, it appears that the Class A Pan should be recommended when time and cost as well as reliability are taken into account. An average ratio slightly lower than unity is obtained between potential evapotranspiration and Class A Pan evaporation for periods of full canopy. In order to account for variations in evapotranspiration from season to season and from area to area, it is valuable to establish even an approximate relationship between evapotranspiration and some easily measurable meterological factor or factors. Daily evaporation has been measured from both the Symons tank (a black tank 6' x 6' x 2' deep, sunk into the ground) and the Class A Pan in conjunction with the lysimetric work, and measurements of atmospheric temperature and humidity, run of wind and hours of sunshine have permitted estimates of evaporation to be calculated by the methods of Penman (1950) and Thornthwaite(1948). Results and Discussion The sugarcane crops in all instances but one were harvested at approximately one year old to avoid the errors introduced once the cane had lodged. Throughout the three crop cycles which have been completed the evapotranspiration was estimated over twentyeight day periods, and the results are presented in Tables 1 and 2 for Chaka's Kraal and Tongaat separately. The second ratoon crop at Tongaat was deliberately prolonged so that data could be obtained for a full canopy of cane over the September to December period. It is fortunate that the second ratoon data from this site proved to be quite as reliable as those from the plant crop, and the results can be accepted with confidence. In retrospect it appears that calendar monthly periods would have been preferable to twenty-eight day periods, but the original intention to measure weekly evapotranspiration was modified progressively as it became apparent that short-period data for the lysimeters were extremely variable, and ultimately four-weekly periods were found to be the minimum for which reliable data could be presented. The variability of the short-period data is the result of differences in the moisture contents of the soil profiles at the beginning and at the end of such periods, the percentage error decreasing as the period is lengthened and the amount of total evapotranspiration is increased. During the periods in the early stages of crop development when the sugarcane leaves form an incomplete canopy over the interrow, evaporation from the soil surface takes place to a significant extent. This is particularly true in the plant crop when bare soil is exposed to direct insolation, whilst transpiration in all crops is largely a function of the degree of ground cover. Total evapotranspiration under conditions of incomplete canopy may be governed to a large extent by the frequency with which the soil surface is wetted, and unless daily irrigation is applied the results will probably show poor repro-
Introduction Some knowledge of the water requirements of a crop is essential if an irrigation scheme is to be planned and operated intelligently. Whilst the amount of water applied per irrigation may be governed by the effective rooting depth of the plants and available moisture holding capacity of the soil, the frequency with which applications need to be made depends on the rate at which evapotranspiration takes place. And when irrigation is supplementary to poorly distributed but reasonably heavy summer rainfall it is also important to know the stage at which an irrigation cycle may commence without unnecessary wastage of water, and here again an appreciation of the rate of water use by the crop is invaluable. With these aspects of irrigation in mind, experiments using non-weighing lysimeters have been conducted on the S.A.S.A. Experimental Farm at Chaka's Kraal and by the Tongaat Sugar Company to measure the water requirements of sugarcane over the past three and a half years. The amounts of rainfall and overhead irrigation have been measured in raingauges on the lysimeters, and the amounts of excess water percolating through the soil profile within the lysimeter tanks have been removed and measured at regular intervals. The differences between the amounts of precipitation and percolation over specific periods have given a measure of the amounts of water evaporated from the soil and transpired by the crop. The results for the plant crops of these experiments, and also those from a third layout on the Illovo Sugar Estates have been given in a previous paper presented to an earlier Congress by the authors (Pearson et al, 1961). The construction of the lysimeters, the location of the experimental sites and the techniques of operation were fully described and will not be presented here.
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ducibility. Where a trash layer is used to mulch the ratoon crops, as was done in these experiments, this factor would be of considerably smaller importance. Thus the data in Tables 1 and 2 for periods prior to approximately mid-January, when an essentially complete canopy had been formed, should be considered relative to the conditions of the experiments only. Thereafter, the results should constitute reliable estimates of potential evapotranspiration, since Cowan and Innes (1956) showed that evaporation under a
canopy of sugarcane leaves was only one tenth of that from a fully exposed open water surface. Irrigations throughout the experimental periods were applied twice weekly whenever rainfall failed to exceed the requirements of the crop. For the sake of convenience the data for periods of full canopy in Tables 1 and 2 have been summarized by monthly periods in Table 3, and the general means calculated.
Table 3 Calculated Evapotranspiration for Calendar Months for Periods of Full Canopy only Month Plant January.. February March .. April May June July August September October November December 0.28 0.27 0.22 0.16 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.19 Chaka's Kraal Ins./day IstR 0.26 0.23 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.10 2ndR 0.25 0.21 0.24 0.18 0.12 0.13 0.13 Mean 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.19 Plant 0.25 0.23 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.13 Tongaat - Ins./day IstR 0.23 0.25 0.21 0,12 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.07 2nd R 0.19 0.16 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.02 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.19 0.21 Mean 0.22 0.22 0.19 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.14 0.19 0.21 Overall Ins./day 0.24 0.23 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.14 0.19 0.21
These data compare with mean summer and winter evapotranspiration of 0.24 inches per day and 0.16 inches per day respectively in Hawaii as reported for sugarcane by Campbell et al (1959), although peak values of 0.34 inches per day were measured there in the second summer of growth. The full implications of the maximum daily evapotranspiration occurring in January may be realised by considering the following table, in which the available moisture per foot of soil in the major soil types of the cane belt (after Maud, 1962) is expressed as the number of days supply to a crop when evapotranspiration is 0.24 inches per day.
Table 4 Available Moisture for Various Soil Types Expressed as Number of Days Supply to Sugarcane in January Approx. No. % Total area Avail, moist, of days Supply in January of Cane Belt Ins./foot per ft. of soil 3.2 13.0 19.3 4.8 9.9 6.3 8.3 8.0 7.1 6.9 10.3 0.92 1.22 0.71 1.90 2.06 2.54 2.19 1.95 0.44 0.28 1.21 3.07 4 5 3 8 11 9 8 2 1 5 13
The inadequacy of natural rainfall in supplying the full moisture requirements of the crop is illustrated in Figure 1 for the three crops harvested at Chaka's Kraal. It will be observed that the moisture deficits varied from 1.99 inches to 27.59 inches per crop, but these amounts must constitute improbable minima since runoff and deep percolation must inevitably have reduced the efficiency of the rainfall. These results also serve to emphasize the fact that moisture deficiencies invariably occur during the period of maximum growth from December to March, and that it is during this period that irrigation can be used to the greatest advantage. All of the crops produced were more than adequately fertilized, the general applications being 200 lbs. N, 100 lbs. P 2 0 5 and 200 lbs. K 2 0 per acre per crop. The yields and total amounts of evapotranspiration (Et) for the crops are shown in Table 5. These yields do exceed commercial yields of irrigated sugarcane in this area by a considerable amount, and the fact that the harvested areas were very small may account for this to a great extent. An interesting point arises, however, when it is considered that such high yields were fairly consistently obtained under conditions of potential evapotranspiration. It is possible that both the amount of water used by the crop and the yield may be less under the conditions which obtain commercially. Denmead and Shaw (1962) have shown for maize that the actual evapotranspiration falls below the potential level at remarkably low soil moisture tensions on days of high consumptive use. The point at which the phenomenon occurs is associ-
Soil Type Tugela Schist Granite T.M.S. (Ordinary) T.M.S. (Mist Belt) Dwyka Tilhte .. Lower Ecca Shale Middle Ecca Shale Red Dolerite Red Recent Sand.. Grey Recent Sand Alluvium (Red) \ Alluvium /
8+
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' AssociationApril 1963 Table 5 Sugarcane Yield and Total Water Use
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Station Chaka's Kraal Tongaat
Stage Plant 1st Ratoon 2nd Ratoon Plant 1st Ratoon 2nd Ratoon
Age of crop, months 12 104 11 12 11 15*
Tons/acre l/1000th ac. lysimeters 93.5 79.5 68.0 76.0 85.2 68.0
Tons/acre surrounding l/80thac. 61.6 67.3 52.3 55.8 60.3 69.5
Sucrose %Cane 12.9 10.8 11.9 13.1 14.5
Total water use, Inches 58.9 43.7 42.1 49.6 43.9 61.3
ated with the visible symptoms of temporary wilt, and these are a common enough sight even in well irrigated sugarcane fields at midday in summer. Growth measurements were taken concurrently on irrigated and unirrigated cane at the lysimetcr site at Chaka's Kraal during the first and second ratoon stages of the experiment. The results are plotted in Figure 2 where the rainfall is also shown. The considerable effects on yield of short periods of drought during the height of the growing season, are well illustrated. If N:Co.376 averages 9 tons of cane per acre per foot of stalk, then a difference between the mean growth rates of 0.70 inches per day during February, 1961, would have resulted in the loss of almost 4 tons of cane per acre over a period of a single week. The comparatively low value per day of winter irrigation may also be seen from these results. At this season the difference in growth rate between irrigated and unirrigated cane is seldom more than 0.1 inch per day, and it would only be in the event of the winter dry season persisting into August, September and October that its effects would compare with those of the short summer droughts.
The estimates of evapotranspiration for twentyeight day periods of full canopy at Chaka's Kraal have been compared with the measured evaporation from a Symons Tank and a Class A Pan, and with the calculated values from the formulae of Penman and Thornthwaite. The original Penman formula was modified by using the observed regression constants given by Glover and McCulloch (1958) for the Durban radiation station. These allow for variations in latitude when treating the " / N term for estimating incoming radiation, and by using the more correct local values the correlation coefficient between measured evapotranspiration and calculated evaporation was improved from 0.83 to 0.89. The Penman estimates for the twenty-eight day periods were calculated from the mean meterological data for the same periods. This was considered to be justified after the mean values of evaporation calculated daily from the formula were not found to differ by more than 0.001 inches of evaporation per day from the single calculation of evaporation from the mean meterological data. The various results are presented in Table 6, where the relative F factors (Et/Eo) are also given. The Class A Pan and Gunn Bellani radiation integrator were installed for the ratoon crops only.
Table 6 Summary of Evapotranspiration (Et) and Evaporation (Eo) Data and "F" Value for Periods of Full Canopy only.
Plant C h a k a ' s Kraal, Ins./day, Et Eo, Symons Tank Eo, Class A Pan Eo, Penman Et, Thornthwaite " F " factors (Et/Eo): Symons Tank Class A Pan Penman Thornthwaite Tongaat, Ins./day, Et Ml./day, G u n n Bellani .. .139 .098 .120 0.72 1.42 1.16 1.93 1 R .138 .108 .158 .148 .102 1.28 0.87 0.93 1.35 .129 7.15 2R .183 .148 .193 .165 .115 1.24 0.95 1.11 1.59 .142 8.47 Mean .153 .118 .144 .096 1.30 1.06 1.59 .135 7.81 0.90 19 r 0.87 0.87 0.89 0.87 D.F. 21 14 21 21
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The various Eo values and the Gunn Bellani measurements have been plotted against Et for each twenty-eight day period in Figure 3. The correlation coefficients (r) are reasonably encouraging, although the extent to which inaccuracies in the estimates of Et have affected the results cannot be determined. The relative values are very much in line with results obtained by Stanhill (1961) who worked with lucerne. His correlation coefficients for monthly periods, compared with the twenty-eight day values from Table 6 above are as follows: Stanhill Penman .. Class A Pan.. SymonsTank Thornthwaite .. .. .. 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 Chakcis Kraal 0.89 0.87 0.87 0.87
Station (0.80) is difficult to explain at this stage, and it would also appear that over shorter periods the latter correlation deteriorated rapidly.
Acknowledgments Acknowledgments are due to Mr. H. Dicks for his help with the statistical treatment of the experimental results and to Mr. C. Booth for the growth measurement data. References Campbell, R. B., Jen-Hu Chang and D. C. Cox, (1959), Evapotranspiration of Sugar Cane in Hawaii as Measured by In-Field Lysimeters in Relation to Climate, Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Techn. 10th Congress. Cowan, I.R. and R. F. Innes, (1956), Meteorology, Evaporation and the Water Requirements of Sugarcane, Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Techn. 9th Congress. Denmead, O.T. and R. H. Shaw, (1962), Availability of Soil Water to Plants as Affected by Soil Moisture Content and Meteorological Conditions, Agron. Jour., 54, 385-390. Glover, J. and J. S. G. McCulloch, (1958), The Empirical Relation between Solar Radiation and Hours of Sunshine, Jour. Roy. Met. Soc, 84, 172-175. Maud, R. R., (1962), Soil Moisture Relationships of Some Natal Sugar Belt Soils, Proc. of S.A. Sugar Tech. 36th Congress. Pearson, C. H. O., T. G. Cleasby and G. O. Thompson, (1961), Attempts to Confirm Irrigation Control Factors Based on Meteorological Data in the Cane Belt of South Africa, Proc. of S.A. Sugar Techn. 35th Congress. Penman, H. L., (1950), Evaporation Over the British Isles, Quart. Jour. Roy. Met. Sox., 76, 372-82. Stanhill, G., (1961), Comparison of Methods of Calculating Potential Evapotranspiration from Climatic Data, Israel J. Agric. Res., 1, 159-171. Thornthwaite, C. W., (1948), An Approach towards a Rational Classification of Climate, Geographical Review, 38, 55-94
It can be confirmed on the basis of these results that, taking into account costs of equipment and the time required to record the various meterological readings and to carry out the calculations where necessary, the Class A Pan is to be preferred as a means of estimating potential evapotranspiration. The fact that the ratio of Et to Eo (Class A Pan) is close to unity may be regarded as a further advantage from a practical point of view. However, the initial results with the Gunn Bellani radiation integrator are also encouraging, and this aspect of the research is to be pursued. The fact that the Gunn Bellani averages for twenty-eight day periods gave a better correlation with evapotranspiration (0.90) than with measured total solar radiation from the Durban
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Mr. du Toit said that he considered that, due to the efforts of a small group of people, South Africa was ahead of other countries in the collection of data concerning irrigation. In some countries irrigation was not necessary to obtain large yields, while again in some countries irrigation was essential to produce a crop at all. In South Africa cane could be grown under dry-land conditions but irrigation under certain conditions could increase the crop enormously. It was therefore of great importance to have all the data procurable and the information given in the paper gave an. excellent lead and he hoped that further information of this kind would be accumulated in the near future. Mr. R. A. Wood asked if there was any evidence that advective energy might seriously affect the estimation of water requirement. Mr. Thompson replied that this was so. Since the present equipment was installed studies had been made on net radiation and where previously there had been a tendency to criticise the Penman, equation, now that net radiation was being measured it was found that the results given by this equation for net radiation were just about right for our conditions. Comparing the estimated figures for evapotranspiration with those given by the lysimeter tanks it was found at times that the former were only half that of the latter. This could only be due to advective energyheat energy coming in or going out due to windand the whole cane belt could be subject to advective energy from the adjacent areas. From the data obtained so far, Mr. Thompson said he was sure that advective energy could be a primary factor in evapotranspiration. Advective energy was very difficult to measure but it was hoped to study how much advective energy affected the consumptive use of water by a sugarcane crop.
Dr. Cleasby said that a very important point was the economics of irrigation. From the experimental work done up to now there was no doubt that the response to a certain amount of water applied was economical, but when this was tried out on a field scale, was it economical or not? The difference between an experiment and field practice was that in an experiment one was sure that one got the water into the soil where, and when, it was wanted, but in a field this was not so simple, for to get the water into the soil was a major problem, because of factors such as run-off. Table 4, which was the practical interpretation of the data, showed that ordinary T.M.S. soil need be given only three days supply in January. This was due to the available water per foot in such soils being compensated for by the depth, sometimes as much as three feet, from which the available water could be drawn. Mr. Hill asked if the difference in evaportranspiration in the summer months between Chaka's Kraal and Tongaat might be due to some soil difference. Mr. Thompson said this was most probable and the only other factor might be due to difference in the micro-climate in the two areas. Until the rooting depth, as pointed out by Dr. Cleasby, was known for each soil type the data could not be interpreted fully. Work on this aspect would be started soon at the Experiment Station. Mr. Wilson (in the Chair) stated that the work reviewed by Mr. Thompson was that done so far, but plans for expanding this work as mentioned by him were now being made. It was planned that a physiologist should be appointed to the staff to collaborate in such studies and this whole fundamental and vital work would be tackled on a broad front.
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THE RESULTS OF HERBICIDE TRIALS CONDUCTED IN THE CANE BELT OF NATAL, 1962/63
By G. D. THOMPSON and J. M. GOSNELL Summary Three herbicide screening trials, nineteen regional trials and three subsidiary trials were conducted during 1962-63, covering a wide range of environmental conditions and weed populations in the Natal cane belt. The outstanding herbicide was Paraquat which gave good post-emergent control of the two most important weeds, Cyperus esculentus and Panicwn maximum, as well as the majority of other weed species. The symptoms of severe cane leaf scorching observed after Paraquat applications soon disappeared, and ratings for cane vigour after three months showed Paraquat treated cane to be among the best. Paraquat is at present too expensive for field recommendations. Diquat gave fairly good control of most weeds except grasses; Dalapon was useful where grasses were the main problem; and. DCM U gave good results where soil conditions were uniformly moist, whilst it also seemed to improve cane vigour. Of the remaining herbicides, CM (J, Stam 34 and Kuron showed some promise, whilst Eptam gave such good control of Cyperus esculentus that further work with this chemical is planned to reduce or eliminate its depressing effect on sugarcane. 2. Chlorinated Aliphatic acids: TCA (trichloroacetic acid) and Dalapon (2,2-dichloropropionic acid) are both well known and effective grass killers with a more limited action on Cyperaceae. TCA is absorbed mainly from the soil, whereas Dalapon is absorbed directly by the leaf as well as from the soil, the leaf action being the more effective of the two. These two chemicals can. be classified as post-emergent systemic herbicides. 3. Substituted Ureas: CMU (N-(4-chlorophenyl)N'N'-dimethylurea and DCMU (N-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-N'N'-dimethylurea) have been used mainly for pre-emergent work, and they control a wide range of weeds provided that the soil is sufficiently moist to allow solution and subsequent uptake of these relatively insoluble materials. CMU has a. solubility of 230 ppm. and DCMU a solubility of 42 ppm. (Woodford, 1960.) 4. Symmetrical Triazines: Simazinc (2-chloro-4,6bis (ethylamino)-l,3,5-triazine) and atrazine (2-cliloro4-methylamino-6-isopropylamino-l, 3, 5-triazine) are almost insoluble pre-emergent herbicides which can control a wide range of weeds, mainly broad leafed. The solubility of simazine is 3.5 ppm. and that of atrazine 70 ppm. (Woodford, I960.) 5. Diquaternary Salts: Diquat (l,l'-ethylene-2,2'dipyridylium dibromide) and Paraquat (l,l'-dimethyl4,4'-dipyridylium di(methyl sulphate)) are post- emergent weed killers, both systemic and contact in action. 6. Substituted Phenols: PCP (Pentachlorophenol) is an accepted post-emergent contact herbicide. Geeltox, containing DNBP (2-s-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol) is also a post-emergent contact herbicide. 7. Miscellaneous formulations: (a) Eptam (Ethyl-N,N-dipropyl-thiolcarbamate) may be used as a pre-planting treatment in the soil, and is very effective against Cyperaceae. (Crafts 1961.) (b) Stam 34 (N-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) propanamide) is used as a post-emergent treatment, mainly in rice lands, and is effective against many monocotyledons. (c) Weedazol or Amitrole (3-amino-l,2,4-triazole) is a systemic herbicide which may be used either pre-ploughing or post-planting to control grasses. (<r/) Fenac (2,3,6-trichlorophenylacetic acid) is a preemergent herbicide described by Bridge (1960). Procedures The plot size throughout the general and regional trials was 1/100th acre, and each experiment had four replications. The row width was always 4 ft. 6 ins. The diluted herbicides were sprayed from a two or three-nozzle boom, fitted with ceramic N-jets, and
Introduction The principles of screening available herbicides and attempting to adapt the most promising formulations to conditions in Natal were pursued during 1962 and early 1963. The experimental programme included three general herbicide trials in which wide ranges of herbicides were tested at different rates and in various combinations, using both "row only" and "complete cover" applications. In addition, nineteen regional trials were laid down on farms and estates along the length of the cane belt to study selected herbicides under as wide a range of environmental conditions as possible. Finally, three observational trials were conducted on the Mount Edgecombe farm to investigate particular properties of the contact herbicides. Since a considerable number of chemical compounds were involved in the programme as a whole, it may be of value to classify them by groups, both according to chemical composition and their effects on weeds, as follows: 1. Phenoxyaliphatic acids: 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and MCPA (4-chloro-2 methylphenoxyacetic acid) are well established herbicides which find principal application in pre-emergent control of broad leafed plants and seedling monocotyledons. Post-emergent control of some broad leafed species is also effective. Kuron, which contains 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophcnoxy) propionic acid, is a recently developed pre-emergent herbicide, described by Valdez-Pages and Jordan (1961).
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connected to a hand-operated pressure knapsack. The width of the swath was controlled simply by varying the height of the boom above ground level. In the first general trial, "row only" treatments were regarded as being one fourth of the "full cover" treatments, but thereafter as a more realistic one third of full cover. The volume rate of application was approximately 30 gallons per acre throughout. All of the experiments were terminated when the effects of the herbicides had been lost. This was done in preference to maintaining plots heavily infested with weeds which constituted a source of contamination for the rest of the field. The hand weeded treatments in most cases received two hand weedings at an estimated total cost of R4.00 per acre for labour. Where "row only" treatments were employed to reduce the cost of the chemical treatment as much as possible, the intention was to cultivate the intcr-row in the normal manner over the entire experimental site, cither with mule or tractor cultivators. This procedure tended to fill the sprayed furrow with fresh soil containing viable weed seeds during each cultivation, and pre-emergent treatments suffered particularly in this respect. On. the general experiment at Mtunzini the high ridges between deeply drawn furrows could not be satisfactorily negotiated by the tractor cultivator, and even when the two outer shoes were removed from a mule drawn Uba cultivator, filling of the furrow was most marked. In the regional trials the furrows were generally shallower and normal cultivation impaired the effects of the herbicides to a lesser extent, but it seems obvious that, if "row only" herbicide applications are to be successfully integrated with inter-row cultivations, then special implements and techniques will have to be developed. A standard system of scoring was used to evaluate the results of the experiments. This consisted of visual ratings from 0 to 9 for both weed control and cane vigour, i.e. 0/0 represented no weed control and complete supression of the cane, whilst 9/9 represented perfect weed control and maximum cane growth. Commercially acceptable weed control would be rated at approximately 7 or above. Ratings were usually made concurrently by four independent observers. Results 1. First General Herbicide Trial: This was planted on the Chaka's Kraal Experimental farm on the 8th January, 1962. The cane variety was N:Co.376. The main weed species were Cyperus esculentus and Portulaca oleracea. The treatments, together with the scoring which was carried out a month after planting, are given in next column:
Amount of commercial material/ac. Treatment Part i: Pre-cmergcnt (Sprayed 8.1.62) Eptam, full cover .. DCMU, full cover.. Eptam, row only .. CM U, row only .. CMU, full cover .. DCMU, row o n l y . . Simazinc, full cover MCPA, full cover .. Fenac, row only .. Simazinc, row only Fenac, full cover .. 2,4-D Ester, full cover 2,4-D Amine, full cover Control, no weeding Part II: Post-emergent Contact: (Sprayed 26.1.62) Paraquat Diquat Geeltox Stiim 34 PCP-I 2,4-D Ester.. PCP Control, no weeding Part H I : Post emergent Systemic (Sprayed 26.1.62) PCP + 2,4-D+TCA Weedazol Dalapon TCA Control, no weeding
Mean Mean Approx. weed cane cost of control vigour chem/ac. rating rating R 14-40 12-20 3-60 3-05 12-20 3-05 8-60 2-21 2-85 2-15 11-40 2-21 1.84
5 pts. 4 lbs.
U pts.
1 lb. 4 lbs. 1 lb. 4 lbs. 6 pts. 2 | pts. 1 lb. 10 pts. 6 pts. 5 pts.
8 8 7 7 7 5 5 3 2 2 2 2 2 0
2 9 4 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 7 6 6 5
4 pts. 2 pts. 12 pts. 12 pts. (US) 2 galls. 13 pts. 4 galls.
6 5 4 3 2 2 0
7 7 6 5 5 4 3
12-00 3-75 6-45 3-00 2-09 1-96
2 gal Is. + 3 pts.+ 1\ lbs. 2 galls. 1\ lbs. 15 lbs.

3 3 2 2 0
5 5 4 4 4
4-19 17-60 7-50 4-50
All of the post-emergent treatments were applied on a full cover basis. A further scoring for cane vigour some three weeks later gave very similar results. Extremely good results were obtained in this trial with DCMU and CMU. These can be attributed to the high rainfall over the period creating optimum soil moisture conditions. Eptam also gave excellent control over Cyperus spp., but caused severe depression of the young cane growth and even appeared to inhibit germination entirely from some setts. After 14 months, however, these effects of Eptam were not visually apparent on the site of this experiment. The only other treatments to show promise were Diquat and Paraquat, the latter particularly giving commercially acceptable control for five weeks after spraying, almost eight weeks after planting. The remarkably quick and complete recovery of the cane from a severe initial burn due to these chemicals was also first observed in this experiment. Photographs of the most effective treatments were included in an article by Thompson (1962). 2. Second General Herbicide Trial: This was planted on the Mtunzini Propagation Farm on 17th and 18th April, 1962. The means of four ratings which were
Proceedings of Tlie South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963
147
carried out during the period 9-} to 14 weeks after planting have been calculated and are given below for each of the various treatments:
Amount of commercial material/ac. Treatment Part I: Pre-emergent, row only (Sprayed 18.4.62) Hand-weeded Kuron DCMU CMU 2,4-D Amine Eptam
Mean Mean Approx. weed cost of cane control vigour chem/ac. rating rating
R 8 U.S. pts. \\ lbs. \\ lbs. If pts. 1 pt. 7.6 7.6 6.1 5 9 2 5 0 7.9 6.6 8 2 8 4 7.7 4.3
?
4-07 4-07 0-61 2-88
be \{ pts. Paraquat +1 pt. 2,4-D Ester per acre applied to the row only. Diquat also gave encouraging results, but TCA and Dalapon were disappointing. Of the pre-emergent treatments Kuron at a high rate gave good weed control but it caused some suppression of cane growth. DCMU and CMU both gave appreciable weed control and improved cane growth (see photographs). Initially, the weed population was mainly Commelina nudiflora, but later a fairly general population of broad leafed weeds and grasses, especially Digitaria horizontalis, developed. Paraquat and Diquat caused an initial setback to the cane, but the recovery from this is illustrated in the following table, where mean ratings over the 16-20 week period are shown:
Cane Vigour Ratings
Part II: Post-emergent, full cover (Sprayed 13.6.62) Hand-weeded Paraquat 6 pts. Paraquat |-2,4-D Ester 4 pis. ! 3 pts. Paraquat 4 pts. Paraquat 2 pis. Diquat | 2,4-D ! 2 pts. 1 3 pts. TCA ! 7 i lbs. Diquat -\ 2,4-D Ester 2 pts.-1-3 pts. Diquat 2 pts. Diquat 1 pt. Diquat 3 pts. 2,4-D-r TCA 3 pts. f 15 lbs. 2,4-D-IDalapon .. 3 pts.+ 7^ lbs. Nil Post III: Post emergent, row only (Sprayed 13.6.62) Hand-Weeded Paraquat+2,4-D .. Ester Paraquat Paraquat Paraquat Diquat Diquat Diquat + 2,4-D Ester Diquat + 2,4-DfTCA Diquat 2,4-D-!-TCA 2,4-D+DaIapon .. Nil
R 8.1 7.4 6.8 6.4 4.9 4 8 4 7 41 3.4 3.1 2 6 2.2 0.3 6.2 4.5 3.1 4.4 3.8 4.0 4.4 5.3 5.4 3.6 5.3 5.0 3.4 18 00 13 12 6 6 10 00 00 95
Treatment Hand-weeded All Diquat treatments All Paraquat treatments Nil
Full cover 7.4 6.9 7.2 2.6
Row only 8.1 7.7 7.6 4.9
4 85 3-75 1-87 5-62 5-60 8-97
The improvement in cane vigour after severe scorching by the Paraquat treatments, together with the maintenance of an acceptable degree of weed control for a long period are shown in Figure I. In contrast, the control exerted by Diquat was poorer and declined over the period shown. 3. Third General Herbicide Trial: This was planted on 14th December, 1962, on the Mount Edgecombe Farm, and included the following treatments:
Amount of commercial material per acre Approx. cost of chemical per acre R 2 p t s . + l pt. 6 pts. 41b. 41b. 41b. 5 pts.
R 14 pts.+ l p t . 2 pts. 5.6 7.8 6.3 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.1 4.8 3.6 2.8 2.4 0.6 0.2 8.3 4.3 5.9 5.9 6.3 6.4 5.9 5 9 5.9 6.6 7.6 6.3 6.1 4-37 6-00 2-00 4-00 1-25 1-87 1-62 2-32 0-62 1-87 2-99 Treatment No. Treatment
apt. H-pts.
ipt. 1 pt. j p t . + l pt. j p t . + l pt. +2+lb. ipt. 1 p t . + 5 lbs. 1 pt.+2ilbs.
Part I: Pre-emergent 1. Control, no weeding 2. Control, hand-weeded 3. Eptam + 2,4-D Amine 4. Kuron 5. D C M U 6. Simazine 80 w 7. Atrazine 80 w 8. 2,4-D Amine Part II: Post-emergent 1. Control, no weeding 2. Control, hand-weeded 3. Diquat+2,4-D Ester 4. Paraquat+2,4-D Ester 5. PCP4- 2,4-D Ester .. 6. DCMU+2,4-D Ester 7. Stam 34-t-2,4-D Ester 8. Dalapon-1-2,4-D Ester 9. TCA + 2,4-D Ester .. 10. T C A 4 - P C P f 2,4-D Ester ..
6-12 12-20 8-80 8-80 1-84 R
This experiment might appear to have been planted out of season, but the Middle Ecca soils in the Mtunzini area reportedly became waterlogged during the wet summer season, and an autumn plant is recommended to avoid this condition by taking advantage of reliable but lighter winter rains. In the event, both weeds and cane grew very slowly in the experiment, as illustrated in three of the accompanying photographs, and the periods of weed control effected should not be regarded as normal for spring or summer conditions. The scoring show that Paraquat achieved consistently the best weed control of the post-emergent group, and the optimum treatment would appear to
3 pts.+ l pt. 4 p t s . + l pt. 4 galls.+ 1 pt. 4 1b. + l pt. 10 pts.-h 1 pt. 7i-lb.+ l pt. 15 1b. + l pt. 10 l b . + 2 gall.-flpt. 11. Dalapon+ PCP+2,4-D Ester 5 l b . + 2 gall. + lpt. 2. TCA+Diquat+2,4-D Ester.. lOlb. + l p t . + lpt. 13. TCA + Paraquat + 2,4-D Ester 10 lb.+2 pts.+ lpt.
5-99 12-37 2-44 12-57 3-37 8-24 4-87 4-35 6-60 5-25 9-37
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The weed population in this experiment was predominantly Cyperus esculentus, and C.rotundus also occurred. Other weeds were Eleusine inclica, Amarantas spp., Oxalis spp., Bidens pilosa and Sorghum verticilliflorum. The Eptam was applied on 14th December, 1962, prior to planting. The remaining pre-emergent treatments were applied on 15th December and the post-emergent treatments on 5th January, 1963. DCMU was tested as a post-emergent herbicide for the first time, following reports of success in experiments in Trinidad (Laurie and Viitos, 1962). The Eptam treatment reduced the population of Cyperaceae but allowed a considerable number of broad leafed weeds to develop, despite the postplanting application of 2,4-D. The remaining preemergent treatments achieved no practical degree of control at any stage. Ratings were carried out on 23rd January, 1963, but effective control of weeds lasted in some of the post-emergent treatments until about the end of February. Rainfall over the various periods was as follows:
No. of days on which rain fell 7 7 14 8
third of this cost it might well be considered. TCA used alone gave good results, but the variability of its effects in other trials precludes its being recommended generally at this stage. DCMU as a postemergent treatment gave good results under the wet conditions in contrast with its almost complete ineffectiveness when sprayed pre-emergent under dry conditions. The high cost of DCMU and its dependence on suitably moist soil conditions must exclude it from consideration at present except for irrigated lands. Dalapon was inferior to TCA in this trial, but nevertheless exerted fairly substantial weed control. The straight contact herbicides were less effective than usual, presumably due to the fact that conditions for regrowth were excellent. The best contact treatment, as in almost all other trials, was Paraquat, whilst Stam 34 also gave reasonable control for a longer period than did PCP. Most of the herbicides had little effect on cane vigour. DCMU appeared to improve the condition of the cane, but Dalapon may have suppressed cane growth at a later stage than the time of rating. Paraquat, Diquat, PCP and Stam all scorched the cane leaves, but recovery by the crop was quick. 4. Regional Herbicide Trials.During the 1962 planting season nineteen regional trials were established on growers properties throughout the cane belt from Port Shepstone to Umfolozi, covering almost every major soil type and numerous different weed populations. The trials included the following "row only" treatments, the inter-rows being cultivated as in normal farm practice.
Rain Inches Pre-plan ting 1st 13 th Dec. .. Pre-emergence 14.12.624.1.63 Post-emergence 5.1.6331.1.63 1.2.6328.2.63 0.80 1.93 8.14 2.32
From these data it is apparent that the postemergent treatments operated under far more favourable conditions of soil moisture than the pre-emergent treatments, and this is reflected in the following average results:
Weed Control Rating 8.4 8.2 7.4 7.2 7.0 7.0 6.8 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.0 1.6 Cane Vigour Rating 6.8 6.6 6.2 6.2 7.3 5.8 5.9 6.8 6 0 5.9 6.8 7.2 6.6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Treatment Hand-weeded Nil DCMU 2,4-D Amine Kuron .. Diquat+2,4-D Ester Paraquat+2,4-D Ester Dalapon + 2,4-D Ester
Amount of commercial material per acre
Approx. cost of chemical per acre R
Herbicides Hand-weeded TCA + Paraquat TCA TCA + PCP DCMU Paraquat Dalapon + PCP TCA + Diquat Stam 34 PCP Diquat Dalapon Control, no weeding
Hlb. 11 pts. 2 pts. J p t . + l pt. l i p t . + l pt. 2-}lb. + l pt.
4-07 0-61
9
1-62 4-37 3-00
Treatments 3, 4 and 5 were pre-emergent, spraying taking place as soon after planting as possible. Treatments 6, 7 and 8 were post-emergent, being applied when the weeds were 2 to 4 inches high. This was usually 4 to 6 weeks after planting. Ratings for weed control and cane vigour were carried out regularly, and these have been grouped into the following periods after planting: (a) 2 to 5 weeks, O) 5i to 9 weeks, and (c) 9 to 14 weeks. After 14 weeks, effective weed control had been lost in all experiments, which were then hand weeded. A postcleaning rating for cane vigour was carried out in some cases at 16 weeks after planting. The general results were as follows:
The most successful treatment under the moist soil conditions which were obtained was TCA plus Paraquat, which at the end of February was still giving a better control of weeds than two hand weedings. Several other combinations of systemic and contact postemergent herbicides also gave good results. At R9.37 per acre, the TCA plus Paraquat combination is not economically warranted but on the row only at a
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of The South African Sugar Technologists Association- -April 1963 Proceedings
Cyperaceae was poor. It also appeared to stunt: the cane growth in some experiments.
Weed Control Rating Treatment Hand-weeded .. Nil DCMU .. .. 2.4-D Amine .. Kuron Diquat Paraquat Dalapon 2-5 4.9 3.7 5.0 5.5 5.4 Cane Vigour Rating Post5i-9 91-14 cleaning 5.8 3.6 4.5 4.4 4.2 3.8 4.9 4.3 7.1 4.4 5.5 4.2 5.1 5.0 5.5 5.4 7.7 4.3 4.7 3.9 3.7 5.0 6.6 7.0
5-9 9^-14 2-5 6.6 2.0 3.8 4.0 3.7 4.5 6.1 4.5 7.0 0.9 3.1 3.2 3.0 3.9 5.8 4.7 5.5 4.8 5.5 5.1 4.9
The results naturally varied from experiment to experiment according to the type of weed population and the evironmental conditions, particularly the soil moisture conditions after spraying. However, certain general conclusions may be drawn from the ratings and observations made during the experiments. In general, pre-emergent herbicides were unsuccessful in exerting any appreciable weed control except where soil conditions were suitably moist or where there were few monocotyledons present. Under wet conditions, DCMU gave fairly good weed control and usually resulted in even greater cane vigour than that observed in the hand-weeded plots. Under dry conditions, however, DCMU achieved relatively little control. Broad leafed weeds as well as grasses and sedges from seed were controlled by 2,4-D for a short period only. Kuron controlled a fairly wide spectrum of grasses and broad leafed weeds for a longer period than did 2,4-D, but gave somewhat erratic results. It achieved no control of Cyperaceae. For commercial weed control under Natal conditions it would thus appear that post-emergent herbicides are more promising. They have the considerable advantage that they are not as dependent upon weather conditions after spraying. Paraquat gave easily the best weed control for a sufficient long period after spraying to be regarded as a likely material for successful commercial use. It controlled almost all types of weeds effectively, and is particularly valuable for its good control of Cyperaceae. It scorches the cane quite severely, but the rate of recovery is remarkably good, and tillering appears to be increased. The ratings show that Paraquat gave both the best weed control and the highest cane vigour of all treatments except hand weeding. Unfortunately its cost is very high at present, and this precludes its commercial application as yet. Diquat gave reasonably good results, but its effect on grasses particularly is poorer than that of Paraquat. Diquat also scorches the cane, but recovery is quick. In view of its relatively low cost, this material could perhaps be recommended for temporary weed control when a weeding programme falls behind schedule, but it is not predicted that the results will always be satisfactory. Dalapon gave reasonable control where grasses were the main problem, but little or no control of broad leafed weeds was obtained and the effect on
The most troublesome weeds encountered during the regional trials were Cyperus esculcntus and Panicum maximum. Other Cyperus species such as C rotundas, and other grasses such as k/eusine indtca, Panicum laevifolium, Sorghum verticilhjlorum and Digitaria horizonialis were also common. I he grasses were generally best controlled by Dalapon, although both Paraquat and Kuron also gave good results. Cyperaceae were in general well controlled by Paraquat except under very wet conditions when DCMU was particularly effective. Broad leafed weeds included Commelina spp., Amarantus spp., Bidens pilosa, Siegesbeckia ohentalis, Physalis minima, I'ortulaca oleracea and Datura stramonium. These did not present such a problem, however, and most were easily killed by Paraquat, Diquat, Kuron and to a varying degree by DCMU and 2,4-D. 5. Observational Trials with Contact Herbicides. Since light intensity has been reported to afiect the results to be obtained with Diquat and Paraquat, aji observational trial was laid down during May 1962, to compare the effects ofDiquat, Paraquat and PC 1 applied at 6 a.m., 8 a.m., 10 a.m. and 12 noon. I he twelve plots sprayed on a single day were regarded as a replication, and successive replications were sprayed n of on the 1st, 23rd, 24th and 25th May The '-" rates -' ' application of the chemicals were: 2 pts./ac. Diquat 4 pts./ac. Paraquat 4 galls./ac. PCP The PCP used on 1.5.62 had very little apparent effect on the weeds present, and further work was delayed until 23.5.62 when a fresh consignment of PCP h a d been obtained. The predominant weeds on the experimental site, a cane break on the Mount Edgecombe farm, were Amarantus spinosus, Bidens pilosa, Cyperus spp., Chenopodium murale, Eleusine indica, and Eragrostis ciliaris. The general weather conditions obtaining during the spraying periods were as follows: 6 a.m. Medium or heavy dew, no wind, clear sky. Before sunrise. Screen temperatures 10.7 - 12.6C. Light dew, no wind, clear sky. After sunrise but in shade. Screen temperatures 16.9 - 18.2"C. No dew, slight wind, clear sky, no shade. Screen temperatures 23.8 - 24.8"C.
8 a.m.
10 a.m. 12 noon
No dew, slight wind, clear sky, no shade. Screen temperatures 25.3 - 27.7"C. Ratings for weed control were as follows:
Treatment Diquat Paraquat PCP 6 a.m. 4 7 0 8 a.m. 4 7 0 10 a.m. 5 8 1 12 n o o n 5 8 1
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From these data it does appear that both Diquat and Paraquat improved slightly in their effects on weeds as the mornings progressed, but whether this was due to increasing light intensity, the absence of dew after 8 a.m., or even rising temperatures has not been shown. The fresh consignment of PCP was unfortunately as ineffective as the first, and the results with this chemical were therefore of little interest. As Paraquat was known to be an expensive material, it was also decided to test possible combinations of Paraquat and Diquat which might give effective weed control at a more reasonable cost. The combinations used in unreplicated plots on the same weed species as the previous experiment, and sprayed on 1.5.62, were as follows, together with the average weed control ratings for the various treatments:
Pts. Diquat/ac. 1 1 1 1 1 2
T
Treatment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pts. Paraquat/ac. 0
i
Rating 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
conditions (Upchurch, 1957, Splittstocsscr and Dcrscheid, 3962), and the unreliability of rainfall in the cane belt militates against consistent results being obtained with materials which must enter or stay in solution in the soil to be absorbed through the roots. Under irrigated conditions this severe limitation falls away almost entirely. Secondly, the relatively low cost of labour automatically rules out all but the cheapest of herbicides, except when labour availability becomes a problem. This is in contrast to Hawaii (Hanson, 1962) where over half a million acres are sprayed annually, each field receiving an average of five applications at a total cost of about R50 per acre. A typical programme there might consist of a first spray with DCMU, a second with Atrazine, a third with TCA-I 2,4-D, and fourth and fifth applications dependent upon weed, populations. It therefore appears that the ideal local requirement at present is an inexpensive herbicide which is effective under a wide range of soil moisture conditions and in controlling a wide range of broad leafed weeds, grasses and sedges. The conclusion reached after conducting the fairly exhaustive experiments described in this paper is that no available material meets all of these requirements, but that Paraquat does so in all respects except cost. There remains, however, considerable scope for further investigation since other available formulations have had effects which might well be adapted to particular problems. The use of Dalapon on an intensive scale in areas infested with Panicum maximum is an example, whilst the excellent control of Cyperus spp. by Eptam can scarcely be overlooked as long as watergrass remains a major problem. The necessity for identifying the conditions under which particular results are obtained can only be emphasized. Whilst the inconsistency of many of the results may be ascribed to varying soil moisture conditions, an interesting further factor is the organic matter content of the soil. Recent work has shown that the effectiveness of a large number of soil applied herbicides, including DCMU, Eptam, Simazine, Dalapon and 2,4-D was inversely correlated with the organic matter content of the soil. For equal toxicity, approximately five times more herbicide was required at 20 per cent organic matter than at 4 per cent. (Upchurch and Mason 1962, Jordan and Day 1962.) Since the major soils in the Natal sugar belt vary from 1 to 8 per cent organic matter (Beater, 1962), variable results with constant rates of herbicides are to be expected. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the co-operation given by the Regional Representatives and the Regional Agronomists, who arranged sites for and conducted the Regional Herbicide Trials; by the Farm Managers who helped extensively during the programmes; and by the farmers and Estates who provided sites for the Regional trials.
l 2 0
The degree of weed control in none of these plots approached that obtained with 4 pints of Paraquat per acre, and the testing of Diquat/Paraquat cocktails was therefore not pursued. A third observational test on a cane break was sprayed on 1.5.62. This was designed to compare various levels of Diquat and Paraquat, with and without 3 pints of 2,4-D Isopropyl ester per acre. The weed population on the site of this experiment was largely Cyperus spp. and annual grasses. The treatments and ratings are given in the following table:
Treatment per acre Diquat, \ Diquat, \ Diquat, 1 Diquat, 2 Paraquat, Paraquat, Paraquat, pt. .. pt. .. pt. pts. 1 pt... 2 pts. 4 pts. No. 2,4-D 0.8 3.3 5.0 6 0 6.0 7.0 7.8 5.1 With 2,4-D 3.7 5.0 6 3 7 0 7.0 7.7 8.2 6.4
Mean
The addition of 2,4-D to both chemicals so consistently improved the efficiency of treatment that it was decided on these grounds to include the 2,4-D Ester with the Diquat and Paraquat applications in the Regional Herbicide Trials. General Discussion There are probably two main reasons for the fact that herbicides have not yet found widespread acceptance in Natal. Firstly, herbicide activity has been shown to be extremely dependent on soil moisture
152
References Beater, B. E., 1962. Soils of the Sugar Belt. Oxford Univ. Press. Bridge, K., 1960. Use of 2, 3, 6-Trichlorophenyl Acetic Acid as a Pre-emergent Herbicide in Sugarcane, Proc. Br. W. Ind. Sugar Techn. Crafts, A. S., 1961. The Chemistry and Mode of Action of Herbicides, Interscience Publ., N.Y. Hanson, N. S., 1962. Weed Control Practices and Research for Sugarcane in Hawaii, Weeds, 10, 3:192. Jordan, L. S. and B. E. Day, 1962. Effect of Soil Properties on E.P.T.C. Phytotoxicity, Weeds, 10, 3:212. Laurie, I. D. and A. J. Vlitos, 1962. Chemical Weed Control in Trinidad Sugarcane, Trop. Agr., 39, 1:33. Splittstoesser, W. E. and L. A. Derscheid, 1962. Effect of Environment on Herbicides applied Pre-emergence, Weeds 10,4:304. Thompson, G. D., 1962. Developments in Chemical Weed Control, S.A. Sugar Journ. 46, 4:313. Upchurch, R. P., 1957. The Influence of Soil Moisture Content on the response of cotton to Herbicides. Weeds 5, 2:112. Upchurch, R. P. and D. D. Mason, 1962. The Influence of Soil Organic Matter on the Phytotoxicity of Herbicides, Weeds 10, 1:9. Valdez-Pages, P. and E. A. Jordan, 1961. Kuron Herbicide, Sugar Journ. 24, 6. Woodford, E. K., (Ed.) 1960. Blackwell Sci. Pub., Oxford. Weed Control Handbook,
Mr. Thompson: No work has been carried out on this subject as yet, but it would obviously be to the advantage of the farmer if he could reduce the amount of water he had to haul. This haulage was a considerable item in the economics and organisation of herbicide usage. Mr. Sherrard asked if any herbicide was particularly effective against watergrass growing in a lawn. Mr. Thompson replied that Eptam had proved to be very effective against Cyperus Esculentus, but whether or not there was a practical means of applying this material to a lawn, and whether or not it would affect Cynodon Dactylon as well perhaps Mr. King could say. Mr. King said he did not think it a very practicable proposition on lawn. Mr. Wilson asked if Paraquat was translocated in. the plant to any extent. Mr. Thompson: Paraquat is translocated and the extent to which this occurs depends upon how quickly the sprayed parts of the weed actually die. It has been suggested that quick drying under conditions of bright sunshine could limit translocation, and that late evening spraying might prove to be most effective in allowing translocation take place. Mr. Pearson remarked that the use of herbicides in proximity to cotton should be practised with care. Cotton 200 yards away from one of the general herbicide trials was affected by 2 4-D. Dr. Cleasby: Reglone (Diquat) was very effective against watergrass on a commercial scale in the field at Tongaat.
Mr. N. C. King: Could the amount of water used with the herbicide per acre be reduced, and would there be any advantage in reducing it?
THE GREEN LEAF-SUCKER OF SUGARCANE NUMSCIA VIRIDIS, MUIR

By J. DICK Summary An .account is given of an outbreak, in Swaziland, of a leaf-sucking insect, Numicia viridis, Muir, on sugarcane of the variety N:Co.310. A brief description of the insect is followed by a discussion on symptoms and effects on the sugarcane plant. Among control measures, burning and harvesting of millable cane and treatment of the remainder with malathion dust were effective in reducing the infestation. A survey has revealed the presence of Numicia, although only in small numbers, on sugarcane in Natal. Box1 nor in "A Selected Bibliography of the Insects of the World associated with Sugarcane" by J. S. Wade.3 It may be deduced that Numicia viridis is a native insect and not a recent introduction. This is supported by the fact that it has now been collected, in small numbers, in other parts of Swaziland as well as at various localities in Natal. It has not previously been recorded as a pest of sugarcane or of any other crop. Description The adult female is a bright green insect with a body about 4.8 mm. long and rather flat outer wings 6 mm. long. The male is similar but smaller. When the insects were observed in July and August they were inactive and. spontaneous locomotion was limited to a rather slow walk. There is, however, some evidence that they may become more active in summer. When disturbed, they escape by hopping or by short, jerky flights. Although some local observers claimed that Numicia was attracted to lights, this may have been due to confusion with some other insect since no specimens were collected at electric lights near the most heavily infested area and attempts at attracting them to the headlights or parking lights of a vehicle, driven into the canefields at night, were unsuccessful. Eggs are laid in batches of between ten and twenty, which are placed in a row in the midrib, towards the tip of the cane leaf. Each egg is inserted into a separate puncture in the tissue of the midrib, on the lower surface of the leaf, by means of the ovipositor of the female. The resultant injury to the leaf generally causes a red discoloration which can be seen from the upper side. As is common among insects in this group, each egg has a lid, or operculum, which protrudes from the leaf and becomes detached when hatching occurs. This appears to require at least four weeks in August but may possibly be quicker in summer. The nymphs are paler in colour, smaller and more slender than the adults. They do not have wings. A number of glands at the hind end of the body secrete stiff threads of wax which appear as a tuft at the end of the tail. Both nymphs and adults feed by sucking the juice from the leaves of cane plants by means of a proboscis which is inserted into the tissue of the leaves. There are probably six instars, including the adult stage, and the entire life cycle requires practically six months during the colder half of the year. Development is presumably more rapid in summer and there is some evidence of two generations occurring during the warmer period.
Historical The land selected for sugarcane cultivation on Tambankulu Estate, in the north of Swaziland, is level or, at most gently sloping and the volcanic soil is rich and of good structure. A scientifically designed and efficiently operated system of overhead irrigation makes available adequate supplies of water, brought in channels from the Komati River. From the start, fertilizer application has been generous. Under these conditions the cane, which consisted exclusively of the variety N:Co.310, developed so rapidly and appeared so healthy that it aroused the envy of visiting growers from other areas. Towards the end of 1961, somewhat more than four years after cane was first planted in this area, it began to be noticed that the crop in some fields was beginning to suffer from a malady, the cause of which was not immediately apparent. Although some insects were observed, it was not at first obvious that they were responsible for the condition, and investigations were carried out on a number of other factors including soil and fertilizer, trace elements, water supply and drainage, and the possible occurrence of diseases. By July, 1962, however, when symptoms had become acute over a considerable part of the thousand-acre sugarcane plantation, insects were present in such large numbers that their connection with the malady became apparent. Identity of the Insect Specimens, which were sent to the South African Division of Entomology and thence to an expert in Brussels, were identified as Numicia viridis, Muir, (Fulgoroidea: Tropiduchidae). The original description of this species2 is contained in a paper, published in 1931, dealing with specimens in the British Museum. The habitat is given as Natal: Weenen and Pondoland: Port St. John and the date of collection as 1924. There is no record of host plants but, from the localities cited, it is obvious that they were not collected on sugarcane. The species is not mentioned in the Review of Applied Entomology up to 1962, nor does the name appear in the "List of Sugarcane Insects" by H. E.
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Symptoms and Effects Recognizable symptoms do not appear until the insects are present in appreciable numbers, although it is suspected that, by this stage, the cane may already have been adversely affected. In infested canefields, the first symptom noticed is a weakening of the leaf tissue, which leads to buckling and drooping of the leaves. Later, the leaves develop a blotchy yellow discoloration and often die at the tips and along the edges. In severe cases, the growing point of the cane shoot is affected and the stick becomes soft and flabby, especially at the top. At this stage, growth of the crop is noticeably retarded. When samples were analysed at the Experiment Station, the sucrose content, purity and fibre percentage of cane showing severe symptoms were low by comparison with those of cane from less heavily infested fields. Representative figures are shown in Table 1. Even in the more healthy cane the sucrose was low, but this might have been largely due to immaturity.
Table 1
Insect incidence High Low .. .. .. Purity 75 0 84.8 Sucrose Cane 7.93 32.17 Glucose Ratio 7.49 1.71 Fibre " Cane 6.90 9.34
symptoms except those of gumming disease. This disease is present in the relatively mild, chronic phase in much of the cane at Tambankulu. It is independent on the insects and does not appear to have been an important factor in the debility of the cane. At Mount Edgecombe, the leaves of young, healthy plants of N:Co.310 were inoculated with a liquid prepared by grinding the bodies of Numicia with a small amount of distilled water. Three methods of inoculation were tried: inserting a hypodermic needle into the spindle, rubbing the leaves with a mixture of the inoculant and kieselguhr as an abrasive, and running the liquid down the centre of the spindle which was then punctured with a needle. Treatment with the insect extract, by any of these methods, resulted in an obvious yellow discoloration of (he leaves, similar to that observed in the fields at Tambankulu. Where drops of the inoculum had fallen on the leaves distinct blotches appeared. These at first resembled. water-marks, but they became yellow after about a week. In controls, inoculated with water alone, the only symptom was slight mechanical injury caused by the needle or the abrasive and there was no yellow discoloration. The results of this experiment suggest that the blotchy discoloration of the leaves, which is characteristic of heavily infested areas, and possibly some of the other symptoms, may be due to poisoning of the plants by the insects. Unlike a virus disease, such a toxic effect would be quantitative, so that the more heavily infested areas would be more severely affected. A cane crop which has been subjected to severe attack is unlikely to recover completely, and some loss in yield is almost certain to occur. One after-effect is the development of side-shoots near the t o p of the stick. This presumably indicates that the growing point has been injured. Alternative Hosts At Tambankulu, at the period when the cane was most heavily infested, a search was made in wild grasses in an attempt at discovering alternative hosts. Since this took place during the dry, winter season, there was very little green foliage in the veld, a n d no specimens of Numicia were found. A cursory examination of grasses along river banks and watercourses also failed to reveal the presence of the insects, although some were found in a lawn, apparently of Stenotaphrum secundatum, surrounding the swimming bath at Tambankulu. Inspection of rice fields a n d volunteer maize near the heavily infested area gave negative results. More recently, on an estate on the Natal South. Coast, where Numicia had been found in appreciable numbers on sugarcane, patches of maize appeared to be free. On this estate, several batches of eggs were found in the leaves of Johnson grass, Sorghum halepense. Possible Natural Enemies At least half of the adult leaf-suckers seen at Tambankulu towards the end of July, 1962, were carrying the larvae of a moth, presumably belonging to the family Epipyropidae. These larvae, which are
In preliminary investigations on the nature of the symptoms, some attention was paid to the various means by which a sucking insect might affect a plant. These include mechanical injury, removal of nutrients, transmission of diseases and toxic effects. Mechanical injury to sugarcane by Numicia includes the effect of the puncture made by the proboscis in search of juice. If Numicia feeds within the vascular tissue, disorganization and blockage of the conducting elements might be an important factor. This, however, still requires investigation. In addition, when the insects are numerous, damage to the vascular tissue of the midrib during the process of oviposition may be severe and it is suspected that this factor may account for the dead leaf-tip symptom. As far as removal of nutrients is concerned, the quantity of juice consumed by a single insect must be small. However, in such a severe infestation as occurred at Tambankulu, when up to five hundred insects might be present on a single stool, the importance of this factor would be considerable. The diseases transmitted by plant-sucking insects are generally those associated with the presence of a virus. Young ratoons, even in the most heavily infested area, did not show the characteristic yellow discoloration, and shoots emerging from setts collected in this area and planted at Mount Edgecombe, appeared to be healthy. From this evidence it may presumably be inferred that no virus disease is involved. Healthy plants, which were inoculated with the juice from severely affected leaves, developed no
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short and broad, somewhat resembling mealybugs in appearance, occur on the dorsal surface of the adult Numicia, under the wings. When fully grown, they pupate in white, silken cocoons on the cane leaves, and give rise to adults which are small, stout moths with vestigial wings. No males have been seen and, since the females commence oviposition almost immediately after emergence, reproduction is thought to be parthenogcnetic. The minute eggs are laid in a cluster of five or six hundred, next to the empty pupal case. The value of these insects as a control factor is doubtful since they do not appear to cause any significant mortality of Numicia or to prevent the females from producing eggs. They may be passengers rather than true parasites, and possibly feed on the waxy secretions of the leaf-suckers. They have not, as yet, been found on specimens of Numicia collected in Natal. Coccinellid bettles, identified as Micraspis quadristriatata, Fabr., were present in fair numbers on infested cane but were not actually observed feeding on Numicia. They are known to attack various species of Aphids. A few eggs of the leaf-sucker were found to have been parasitised by minute wasps. On the whole, however, natural control did not appear to be very effective. Insecticides At the beginning of August, 1962, a small-scale insecticide trial was carried out in one of the most heavily infested plots at Tambankulu. The chemicals were applied from the ground by means of small, portable power machines of a type which can deliver either dusts or sprays. The insecticides used were dusting powders of malathion (5%), sevin (10%) and BHC (5%), which were applied at between thirty and forty pounds per acre, and emulsion sprays of Rogor E, and a mixture containing toxaphene (40 %) and DDT (20 %), both at approximately two pounds of active ingredient in thirty to forty gallons of water per acre. It was noticed that the dusting powders gave far better penetration of the dense cane foliage than did the sprays. Although it was impossible to obtain accurate mortality counts, observation indicated that malathion dust had produced a satisfactory kill and that it was the most rapid in taking effect. When examined three days later, malathion plots still appeared to be the best. Aerial applications of malathion dust at about thirty pounds per acre were therefore recommended as a control measure. It was at first feared that at least two applications, at intervals of four or five weeks, might be necessary since malathion did not appear to be very effective against the eggs. However, a single dusting, carried out at a period when the egg stage was at a minimum, reduced the population so effectively that no further treatment was necessary. In a subsequent trial, carried out by the officers of the Swaziland Department of Land Utilization, parathion and telodrin sprays were somewhat more effective than malathion dusts when applied by air-
craft. On account of the dangerous toxicity of these materials to humans, their large-scale use was not recommended. Other Control Measures All cane at Tambankulu is burned before harvest. Examination indicated that this would normally destroy all stages of Numicia. Before the application of insecticides, it was therefore recommended that infested cane of a millable age should be harvested as soon as possible. Since burning in rainy weather might not be completely effective, it was suggested that, in this event, the remaining trash should be set on fire again when dry. Under the present system of irrigation, sugarcane at Tambankulu never experiences water stress and even the ripening-off process is not severe. In consequence, the foliage is extremely lush and the plant has almost the appearance of a greenhouse crop. These factors may have encouraged the spectacular increase in populations of Numicia. As a long term project, it has therefore been suggested that the effect should be investigated of altering the water regime so as to enforce greater hardiness in the cane. Although there is, as yet, no reliable evidence of resistance to Numicia in any variety of sugarcane, it is considered that the exclusive cultivation of N:Co.310 at Tambankulu might be dangerous from several points of view. The introduction and testing of other varieties on this estate has therefore been recommended. Regular inspection at Tambankulu and other localities in Swaziland is being maintained by local personnel, so that there should be adequate warning of any new increase in numbers. Numicia Survey The discovery of Numicia in appreciable numbers on an estate on the Natal South Coast caused some concern and it was decided that the Experiment Station staff should carry out a survey of selected areas throughout the sugar belt. The object of this investigation was to study the distribution and importance of the leaf-sucker and, where possible, to collect information on factors which might encourage its increase. The main part of this survey was carried out in January and February 1963, during which period all parts of the sugar belt, including Wartburg and Pongola were visited. In selected sites, which were often those in which it was considered most likely that the insects would be present, the cane was examined for eggs or the appearance of any symptoms. In each site, four framed sheets of black plastic material, one yard square, were placed at random, between the cane rows, and the cane above and around them was treated with malathion dust. After three or four hours, the sites were revisited and any insects which had fallen on the plastic sheets were collected and counted. Since a technique differing only in details has been used in Swaziland, valid comparisons could be made.
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On the South Coast, the insects were found only on the estate already mentioned where, in some fields, numbers corresponding to about sixteen insects per stool were recorded. Since the discovery of the leafsucker in this area, careful observations on population trends have been made by the personnel of the company concerned and the most heavily infested areas have now been treated with malathion dust. No specimens of Numicia were found in the Wartburg area, where eight sites were examined. Among twenty-one sites on the North Coast, fifteen did not yield any Numicia and the numbers in the other nine, being less than one individual per two stools of cane, were too low to be of practical importance. In Zululand and at Pongola, although sixteen out of the thirty-four sites examined revealed the presence of the insects, the numbers were generally low. Only on the Umfolozi Flats, at Nyalazi River and on one plot at Pongola, were numbers greater than one individual per stool in evidence, the highest population found in the whole of this area being about three nymphs per stool in two fields on the Umfolozi Flats. Thus, out ofa total of eighty sites examined, twentyfive were positive but, in the worst of these, population numbers were far lower than those which caused injury to the cane in Swaziland. In no case did the cane showsigns of having been affected by the insects. Factors Conducive to Outbreaks Since populations were low in practically all the sites examined, the survey gave very little information on factors which might be conducive to outbreaks.
S.A.S.A. Exp. Station, MOUNT EDGECOMBE.
Two types of environment were more often positive, namely alluvial flats and areas irrigated by overhead spray. Observation of the area in Swaziland in which a severe infestation occurred suggests that increase in numbers is favoured by factors tending to produce a lush, rapid growth of cane foliage. Generous fertilizer applications and irrigation, with a regime which does not allow water stress to develop, are characteristic of this area. Acknowledgments At the request of the South African Sugar Association and the Swaziland Government, Dr. T. J. Naude of the Entomology Division of the South African Department of Agriculture spent a week at Tambankulu investigating the problem, and returned later to discuss the results of insecticide trials. His advice and assistance are gratefully acknowledged. Mr. A. C. Venn, Mr. C. Stedman and Mr. A. Dicks of the Swaziland Department of Land Utilization carried out a survey of practically all sugarcane estates in. Swaziland, and have kept the situation under constant observation. In addition, their co-operation in connection with insecticides trials was most valuable.
References Box, H. E. (1953): "List of Sugarcane Insects". 101 pp. London: Commonw. Inst. Ent. i Muir, F. A. G. (1931): "New and little-known Fulgoroidea in the British Museum (Homoptera)". Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10)7, pp. 297-314. 3 Wade, J. S. (1951): "A selected Bibliography of the Insects of the World associated with Sugar Cane, their Predators and Parasites". Mem. No. 1,1.S.S.C.T. Honolulu, Hawaii.
NUMICIA VIRIDIS. 1. Eggs in midrib of cane leaf, X 8. 2. Nymph x 5. 3. Adult x 5.
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Mr. du Toit (in the Chair) said that fortunately the insect had now largely disappeared but the information given by the author would appear in our Proceedings and thus be of value to other countries should they experience such a situation in future. Mr. C. Halse stated that Numicia had been found on other hosts such as cotton, maize and Napier Fodder. Hand dusting of the field was not very successful and populations remained the same as before. There appeared to be a change in the life cycle from nymphs to adults and this appeared to be continuing, at least three cycles having taken place since the infestation was first observed. Dr. Dick said he considered that the control might not have been as successful at Illovo as had been hoped, because the insecticide had been applied in smaller quantities than in Swaziland. Mr. Halse asked if it could be that the insecticide was not effective at the egg stage and that a continuation of hatching of eggs developed.
Dr. Dick replied that while the insecticide had some effect on the eggs not all were killed. Mr. K. Alexander asked if the eggs were laid in the midrib purely as a protective measure, for it would appear that the developing nymph did not draw any nourishment from the leaf. Dr. Dick replied that this was probably so. Dr. Brett thought that the host mentioned was probably not Johnson grass, or sorghum halepense, but sorghum verticilliflorum. Dr. Shuker said the fields at Tambankulu were well grown and it was his impression that where the infestation occurred the yield could have been depressed by as much as fifty per cent. Dr. Dick said he had not seen the cane at Tambankulu before it became infested but he had been told that there was a very great depression in yield due to the attack of the insect.
Proceedings of The South African Si/gar Technologists Association- -April 196 J
A SUMMARY OF THE FIELD TEST RESULTS OF THE HYDROGRAB CANE LOADER

By GEORGE S. BARTLETT Introduction The introduction of the self-loading cane trailer into the harvesting systems employed in Natal, has achieved the following advantages over the former method of hand loading the cane. 1. The cutting crew has been completely divorced from the transport system. 2. A standard cutting and stacking task can be set and the cutters are free to leave the field once this task has been completed. 3. The individual cutter can be made responsible for completing his basic task based on weight, and a bonus can be paid as an incentive to cut additional cane. 4. The fast cutter is not kept in the field to assist the slow cutter in loading the cane. 5. The above advantages have led to a far more contented cutting crew. 6. Cutting and stacking can continue in spite of a breakdown in the transport system and the cane can be moved at a later stage, even at night if necessary, without the help of the cutters. 7. The transport system is highly flexible and can be moved from one cutting area to another, at a moment's notice. Harvesting systems employing self-loading trailers have resulted in increasing the individual cutter's output to a degree, with an Industrial average of between 3 and 1\ tons per unit, although higher outputs of from 5 to 8 tons have been reported. While present labour conditions are such that there is no immediate need for increased mechanisation of the harvesting operation, the fact that labour shortages have occurred in the past, coupled with the trend towards increased industrialisation throughout South Africa, should be sufficient to cause each cane farmer to consider ways and means of reducing the number of labour units in his employ. In studying the time it takes a cane cutter to complete his daily task, it was found that he spends approximately 80 per cent of his time cutting, using the remainder to either load the cane onto a golovan or to stack it for loading by a self-loading trailer. It is _ apparent, however, that the task of lifting, carrying and loading or stacking is far more tiring and requires more physical exertion than cutting the cane, especially if the cane has to be carried over long distances and up ladders. From an engineering standpoint, it is far easier and less expensive to mechanise the loading operation than the cutting operation, especially when one has to handle badly lodged, twisted or trashed cane. This paper is a summary of the data compiled during three seasons of field testing of the "Hydrograb" extension boom and. cane grab, which was offered to the Mechanisation Committee by Messrs. R. Scott & Co. (Pty.) Ltd., and various Massey-Ferguson tractors. It should be noted that in field testing this machine, the loading operation was so organised that none of the advantages discussed above were lost, and that the introduction of the loader was so arranged to disrupt as little as possible the normal harvesting routine. Brief Description of the Machine The field test was conducted during the 1960, 1961 and 1962 seasons, during which various changes were made to the machine so as to improve its performance. For the purpose of this summary, all data etc. will be headed by the particular year concerned. The machine can be divided in three basic units, namely the "Hydrograb" with its extension boom a n d cane grab, the hydraulic loader and the tractor. 1960 The "Hydrograb" was manufactured and submitted to the Mechanisation Committee by Messrs. R. Scott & Co. (Pty.) Ltd., P.O. Box 6, Maydon Wharf, Durban. This unit consists of an extension boom, to the end of which is pivoted, on a long shaft, a hydraulically operated cane grab which can swing freely through the vertical plane but cannot slew through the horizontal plane. A "Horndraulic" loader, manufactured by Steel Fabricaters, Cardiff, United Kingdom, and submitted to the committee by Messrs. R. Scott & Co. (Pty.) Ltd., was attached to a standard Massey-Ferguson 35 tractor, which was supplied by the farmer on whose farm the machine was tested. 1961 The original "Hydrograb" cane grab was used throughout the 1961 season, while the extension boom was replaced half way through the test, by one of a new design. A Massey-Ferguson 702 Industrial tractor and loader, manufactured and submitted on a hire basis by Messrs. Massey-Ferguson (S.A.) (Pty.) Ltd., P.O. Box 233, Vereeniging, was used. 1962 The original cane grab and the re-designed extension boom was used throughout the 1962 tests.
*
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A Massey-Ferguson 205 Industrial-tractor with hydrostatic transmission and a Massey-Ferguson 702 loader was submitted by Messrs. Massey-Ferguson (S.A.) (Pty.) Ltd. The tractor was powered by a three-cylinder diesel engine and was fitted with an instant forward-reverse transmission plus torque converter. Six-ply 7.50 x 16, and six-ply 13 x 24 tyres were fitted to the front and rear wheels respectively. The rear tyres were not water ballasted as in previous tests but a set of rear wheel weights were fitted, each weighing 160 pounds. At the beginning of the test a "transporter box" half filled with, earth was fitted to the three-point hitch to act as a counterbalance weight, however, this was replaced later in the test by a specially designed, earth filled, 44 gallon drum mounted at the rear of the tractor.
The 702 loader is of box-frame construction with two hydraulic rams being used to raise and lower the boom. The loader, with Hydrograb fitted, has a safe working load of 600 pounds and is able to load to a height of fifteen feet. The maximum outreach of the grab beyond the front tractor wheels is almost nine feet. The Scope and Purpose of The Test Most of the test during the three seasons, was conducted on the Umhlatuzi Flats where cane was loaded into 3} ton golovans operating on a 24 in. gauge tramline. A limited test during the 1961 and. 1962 seasons was also conducted on a farm at Gingindhlovu where the cane was loaded into two to three ton infield trailers, which were loaded to a height of approximately 6 ft. The following amounts of cane were loaded:
1960 Tons cane loaded Umhlatuzi Flats Gingindhlovu Total 4,716 4,716 No. Golovans or trailers loaded 1,851 1,851 T o n s Cane loaded 3,011 917 3,928
1961 N o . Golovans or trailers loaded 1,345 314 1,659 Tons Cane loaded 1,538 114 1,652
1962 N o . Golovans or trailers loaded 429 39 468
Total tons loaded during the entire test: 10,296 tons. Total number of golovans or trailers loaded: 3,978. The purpose of the 1960 test was as follows: (a) to subject the loader to a prolonged test of loading cane under practical conditions and to study the efficiency of loading and the effect it had on the rate of cutting. (b) To test the strength of the loader. (c) To observe the effect its operation had on the tractor. (d) To determine whether it is able to fit in with the normal system of harvesting. During this test, it was found that although the loader could fit in with the normal harvesting operation, its construction was not robust enough to stand up to the work. Trouble was also experienced with the tractor and it was decided therefore that the 1961 test be run to: (a) subject the re-designed "Hydrograb" unit to a prolonged practical test to determine whether the problems experienced in the earlier test had been overcome; (b) determine whether the Massey-Ferguson 702 Industrial tractor was better suited, to this type of work than the Massey-Ferguson 35 tractor used in the previous test, and to observe the advantages of: (i) the independent hydraulic system;
(ii) the heavy duty clutch; (iii) the foot throttle; (iv) the power steering. (c) determine the advantages of using the MasseyFerguson 702 loader in place of the Horndraulic loader used in the earlier test; (d) obtain further performance data. The 1961 test showed that most of the troubles which had been experienced with the "Hydrograb" and the "Horndraulic" loader had been overcome, however, considerable trouble was still being experienced with the clutch. The tractor driver also showed signs of fatigue and it was decided therefore that a further season of tests would be conducted using a tractor with a hydrostatic transmission to determine: (a) whether the Massey-Ferguson 205 tractor could effectively overcome all clutch problems presented by the Massey-Ferguson 702. (b) whether faster and more efficient loading could be achieved with this type of transmission bearing in mind the "operator fatigue factor". (c) To continue the prolonged practical test of the Hydrograb to sec if any mechanical or structural defect would show up. (d) To obtain performance data. All these tests were carried out under normal field conditions, loading both trashed and burnt cane.
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Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists" AssociationApril 1963
Results of The Tests This series of tests has resulted in the Hydrograb unit being modified to the point where it will stand up to the conditions found on the average cane farm. Although there is a tendency of the grab jaws to bend outwards after a period of work thereby allowing cane to fall out of the grab, this is not considered serious as these can be bent back to their original position, a job which is only required after loading, from 5,000 to 6,000 tons of cane. It is planned to have an added adjustment in the production model which will close the gap between the grab times caused by the bending, thereby increasing the tons loaded to almost 8,000 tons before heating and rebending is required. The 702 loader gave no trouble at all during the 1961 and 1962 tests and it is felt that only loaders of this type should be used for this operation. The lighter loaders such as the one used in the 1960 test are not built strong enough for the work required It is obvious from the 1962 results that an industrial type tractor equipped with a "hydrostatic" transmission and torque converter is necessary if large tonnages are to be handled. The recurring clutch trouble experienced in the two earlier tests was completely eliminated and the operator seemed quite happy to operate the machine and showed no signs of fatigue as he had done when operating the previous tractors. A bumper was fitted to the front of the tractor and a hitch to the rear to facilitate better and more efficient operation when shunting golovans. It is now felt after loading more than 10,000 tons of cane with this machine, that it can fit in with the normal system of harvesting cane. It was found that it is best operated with the cutting face running across the rows rather than parallel to them. Each cutter was given a set number of rows of a specified length as his daily task. All he had to do was to cut and top the cane and throw the sticks into bundles weighing from 400 to 600 pounds. This eliminated hand loading which increased the cutters' daily production. By having the cutting face running across the rows of cane, the tractor was able to run back and forth along the rows which provided a far smoother operation than would have been the case running across the rows. On the "Flats", portable tramline was laid along the fire breaks which were cut across the lines of cane. It was found that this resulted in a far more stable track than when the line was run parallel to the cane-row. The same tractor which did the loading was used to haul the gollovans in and out of the fields. The empties were placed at the point on the spur-line beyond the cutting area, and as each was loaded, it was pushed a short distance down the line towards the main line. It was found that the cane was generally loaded on the day after it was cut. This was desirable in that
it completely separated the cutting and loading operations. Each cutter left his identifying number on the rows of cane he had cut and the numbers of the golovans into which this'cane was loaded were recorded against his number by the tractor driver and Induna. A basic task was set and a bonus paid for any amount cut above the task. A number of advantages arose from the use of the Hydrograb. Firstly, it was possible to divorce the cutting operation from the loading operation which made the cutters independent of the arrival of the empties. Thus the fast cutters were not held back by the slow cutters which resulted in a more contented labour force. Similarly, the track laying and the moving of the golovans to the main line was left to the tramline and loading crews which completely relieved the cutter of any responsibility of the cane once it had been cut and placed in stacks in the field. A second advantage was the ability to stockpile cut cane in the field in the event of no empties being delivered to the field. The cutting could continue and once the golovans arrived, the loading pace could be increased to take care of the stock-pile. A third advantage was the fewer tipples which occurred. This was the result of not overloading the trucks, as was necessary with 'one cutter, one truck' system, which, incidentally, also limited the cutter's daily cut to the amount he could load onto one golovan. In some instances one cutter's daily task was loaded on to four or five golovans. It was noticed that where the cane was being loaded on to infield trailers, the machine's loading rate was increased due to the trailer being able to be brought close to the stacks of cane for loading, whereas on the "Flats", the cane sometimes had to be carried 20 yards or more from the cutting face to the tramline. On the other hand, the loader sometimes had to wait for trailers returning from the South African Railways siding which reduced the actual operating time of the machine. Summary of The Test Data A complete record of breakdowns was kept for the information of the manufacturers which led to modifications in design and improvements in the efficiency of the machine. The remainder of the data recorded included the individual cutter's performance and the performance of the loader. It was found after the 1961 test that sufficient data had been obtained on the labour's performance and it was decided to concentrate the 1962 test on the performance of the machine. Table 1 shows the actual performance of each unit of labour who cut cane and placed it in small stacks for either machine or hand loading during the 1960 tests. It will be seen that 970 unit days of labour cut 5,338 tons, an average of 5.5 tons per unit.
161
Table 2 shows the summary of the 1960 tests by fields. However, there is insufficient data available to draw a complete comparison of the performance of labour which cuts and stacks cane for self-loading trailers or cuts and loads golovans, or cuts only and stacks for mechanical loading with the Hydrograb. It was decided therefore, that a complete record of these operations would be kept during the 1961 tests and this data is shown in. Table 3. It will be seen that the average tons of cane cut and loaded into golovans was 2.76 tons, while the units who had to cut only and stack in small stacks for either mechanical or manual loading, averaged 5.2 tons per day, an increase of 88.2 per cent. The increase in burnt and trashed cane was 101 per cent and 80.5 per cent respectively. The overall average of cutting and stacking for Bell trailers was 2.94 tons per unit. The effect of having two labour crews, one to cut only, and the other to load the golovans, was studied. From Table 3 it can be seen that their output was 5.2 tons and 5.46 tons respectively. This gives an average of 5.32 tons cut and loaded for two units of labour which is an average output of 2.66 tons per unit. This figure is less than the 2.76 tons per unit cut and loaded, which indicates that nothing was gained by separating the two operations. A record of the Hydrograb's loading performance was kept throughout the three tests. This is shown in Tables 4, 5 and 6, which are for the years 1960, 1961 and 1962 respectively. A good indication of the improvement in the loader's performance over the three years is shown in Table 7, where it can be seen that the average tons of cane loaded per hour was increased from 6.71 tons using the Massey-Ferguson 35 in 1960, to 11.52 tons using the Massey-Ferguson 205 in 1962, an increase of about 72 per cent. It should be pointed out however, that in 1962 a number of five ton golovans were used which increased the average load from 2.62 tons in 1960 and 2.22 in 1961, to 3.58 tons in 1962. Although this will account for part of the increased efficiency, it can be said that the main cause
for the improvement is the hydrostatic transmission and torque converter of the Massey-Ferguson 205 tractor. The slipping clutch trouble experienced in 1961 which reduced performance, was eliminated, thereby contributing to the increased loading efficiency. The 1962 figure of 8.85 tons per hour when loading on to trailers cannot be considered to be significant due to the limited amount of cane loaded and the wet conditions experienced during the test. It was noticed when loading the trailers on slopes that greater stability could be achieved by widening the axles, fitting dual rear wheels, lowering the counterbalance weight and shortening the hydrograb boom to possibly 3 ft. in length. It will be appreciated that the long boom is needed when loading golovans in order to obtain height, however, this is not necessary when loading the low, long trailers. Conclusions 1. The "Hydrograb" loader fitted to a MasseyFerguson 205 tractor and 702 loader is able to satisfactorily load cane onto either golovans or trailers, without excessive or unreasonable mechanical failures. 2. This unit will fit into the average harvesting system presently found on gently sloping terrain on the Natal cane farm, without upsetting the normal routine. 3. The machine is able to load at an average loading rate of 11.5 tons per hour and this can be increased to as much as 15 tons per hour under suitable conditions. 4. Its use will result in an average increase of 82 per cent in the cutter's output and therefore will considerably reduce the required number of cane cutters. Acknowledgments The Mechanisation Committee is indebted to Messrs. W. E. Robarts, M. Kramer and E. Kramer, who greatly assisted with the recording of test data and in the field testing of this machine.
164
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists AssociationApril 1963 Table 2
SUMMARY OF TEST BY FIELDS

1960
i
TONS C U T ] 1 GOLOVANS LOADED
1 !
CUTTING UNITS
Field No.
Field Acreage
For Total Field 468.8 1806.7 604.9 521.5 398.9 617.5 919.9 5338.2
Loaded by Hy- 1 drograb 415 5 1806.7 604 9 521.5 324.1 559.6 484.0 4716.3
For Total Field 217 745 248 188 132 226 342 2,098
By Hydro- j grab 195 745 248 188 102 202 171 1,851
For Total Field 102 290 198 86 66 103 125 970
Loaded i byHydrograb
Yield Tons Per Acre
AVERAGE TONS j C U T PER UNIT
AVERAGE TONS LOAD PER GOLO.
For Total Field 4.596 6.230 3.055 6 064 6.044 5 995 1 """ j 7 359 j 5.503
Loaded ; by Hy- | drograb
For Total Field 2.16
Loaded byHydrograb 2 131 2 425 2.439 2.774 3 177 2.770 2.830 2.548
A (Burnt) B (Burnt) C (Trashed) D (Burnt) E (Burnt) F (Burnt) G (Burnt) Totals
.74 25.4 14.0 9.6 7.9 12.0 25.2 111.5
290 198 86 55 95 70 794 j
26 83 71.13 43 2 54.3 50.48 51.46 36 5 47.87
6.230 3.055 6.064 5 893
2.425 2.439 2.774 3.022
'"'
5 890
"
2 732 2 689
6.914 2 545 5 940
Table 4
HYDROGRAB LOADING PERFORMANCE

1960
AVERAGE TONS LOADED PER AVERAGE NUMBER OF GOLOVANS LOADED PER
Field No. A (Burnt) Total B (Burnt) C (Trashed) D (Burnt) E (Burnt) F (Burnt) G (Burnt) Totals
i
Total Days of Operation 9 7 16 41 20 9 6 9 11 112 103
Total Tractor Hours * 36.60
Total Tons Loaded 209.2 206.3 415.5 1806.7 604.9 521.5 324.1 559.6 483.9 4716.2 4507.0
Total Golovans Loaded 93 102 195 745 248 188
Day 23.24 29.47 25.97 44.05 30.25 57.94
Hour 5.64
Day 10 33 14.57 12.18 18.17 12.40 20.89 17.00 22.44 15.54 16.52 17.07
Hour 2.79
272.00 102.66 62.58 44.92 78.58 74.17 671.51
6.64 5.89 8.33 7.21 7.12 6.51 6.71
2.74 2.42 3.00 2.27 2.57 2.30 2.62
1
102 202 171 1,851 1,758 54.01 62.18 43.99 42.11 43.76
* For the first nine days of operation, no record was kept of tractor hours.
Table 3
SUMMARY OF TESTS BY FIELDS

Umhlatuzi Flats: 1961
LABOUR UTILISATION Field No. Field Acres Total Tons Cut Av. Tons Acre Cut arid Stack Bell Burnt 1 8.5 2 Bell 6.6 3 Bell 5.0 4 Golovan 16.7 5 Bell 9.7 6 Bell 15.1 Burnt Trashed
TOTAL
Cut and Load Golovan Burnt 157 420.6 2.68 Trashed
Cut Only Burnt Trashed
Load Manually Burnt Trashed
Hydrograb Loading Burnt Trashed
Trashed
420.6 420.6 275.5 128.1 403.6 302.4 7.7 310.1 1533.9 1533.9 484.8 120.9 605.7 782.6 569.4 1352.0 62.44 91.85 62.02 61.15 49.48
Unit Days Tons Av. Tons/Unit Unit Days Tons Av. Tons/Unit Unit Days Tons Av. Tons/Unit Unit Days Tons Av. Tons/Unit Unit Days Tons Av. Tons/Unit Unit Days Tons 89.54. Av. Tons/Unit

101 275.5 2.73 106 302.4 2.85

59 128.1 2.17 3 7.7 2.58

13 34.0 2.62
__
309 1499.9 4.85

8 57.7 7.21

1442.2
Burnt Trashed
TOTAL
Burnt Trashed
TOTAL
Burnt Trashed
TOTAL

166 484.8 2.92 212 782.6 3.69

60 120.9 2.01 172 569.4 3.31
Burnt Trashed
TOTAL
Burnt Trashed
TOTAL
168
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963 TABLE 6
HYDROGRAB LOADING PERFORMANCE

1962
Actual Working Hours (Vibrocorder) 2:10 1:25 4:55 8:30 5:50 5:35 5:50 4:45 4:40 26:40 1:50 4:40 4:40 10:10 4:35 5:45 6:30 5:50 4:35 4:45 32:00 4:40 5:15 5:35 6:45 6:50 6:00 35:05 4:50 6:30 7:00 2:00 20:20 133:45 Average Tons Loaded per Hour (Actual) 4.80 7.23 10.14 8.27 10.14 8.20 11.20 13.04 11.00 10.60 9.25 6.85 12.60 9.65 13.50 10.40 8.92 12.50 10.03 11.15 10.95 11.58 11.60 13.60 14.10 15.05 13.00 13.30 10.42 13.92 14.11 8.97 12.67 11.52 Average Tons Loaded per Golovan or Trailer 5.20 5.47 4.08 4.40 3.28 3.53 5.01 3.26 3.42 3.63 4.23 2.46 3.92 3.37 4.11 3.98 3.87 3.64 4.35 3.54 3.90 3.60 3.80 3.60 3.66 3.43 3.12 3.51 2.96 3.23 3.53 2.56 3.21 3.58
Date
Golovans or Trailers 2 2 12 16 18 13 13 19 15 78 4 13 15 32 15 15 15 20 10 15 90 15 16 21 26 30 25 133 17 28 28 7 80 429
Tons
August 15 17 18 Weekly Total 20 21 22 24 25 Weekly Total 28 29 September 1 Weekly Total 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weekly Total 10 11 12 13 14 15 Weekly Total 17 18 20 21 Weekly Total Total
On the Umhlatuzi F lats 10.400 10.950 49.000 70.350 59.150 45.900 65.200 61.950 51.400 283.600 16.900 32.000 58.950 107.850 61.750 59.850 58.000 72.850 45.950 53.050 351.450 54.050 60.850 75.800 95.150 102.950 78.100 466.900 50.400 90.450 99.000 17.950 257.800 1537.950 At Ginginglovu 67.450 11.700 35.200 114.350
24 25 October 3 Total
23 4 12 39
8:10 1:15 3:30 12:55
8.26 9.36 10.00 8.85
2.94 2.93 2.93 2.93
Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963 Table 7 Comparative Loading Performance of Hydrograb Mounted on M-F 35, M-F 702 and M-F 205 Tractors
Total Golovans or Trailers Loaded Average Tons Loaded Per Hour Average Tons Loaded per Golovan or Trailer
169
Tractor Used Loading 1960 M-F 1961 M-F 1962 M-F Golovans: 35 702 205
Total Tons Loaded
Actual Working Hours
1,758 1,357 429
4507.00 3011.10 1537.95
671:51 331:30 133:45
6.71 9.10 11.52
2.62 2.22 3.58
Loading Trailers: 1961 M-F 702 1962 M-F 205
314 39
917.20 114.35
107:25 12:55
8.87 8.85
2.92 2.93
....... Mr. Bartlett replying to a question as to whether he had done, or was contemplating doing any work on the stacking of cane for self-loading trailers, said this had been considered but he was not in favour of such practice. It meant loading twice, the cane had to be picked up and stacked and then an expensive winch was required to haul the stack on to an expensive trailer. However he had no doubt that the Hydrograb could stack cane successfully for self-loading trailers. To a further question on the use of the Hydrograb on slopes, the author said it had as yet been used only on gently sloping land but with dual wheels at the rear he believed it could be operated on steeper slopes than those tackled heretofore. On still steeper slopes it might be necessary to mount this type of loader on a crawler tractor. One never really knew on how steep a slope one could operate a machine until one had tried it out and until the labour had developed the technique called for under steep conditions. At Tongaat when the side-loader was first used, it was thought suitable only for certain land but with the development of the necessary techniques it was now used on steeper slopes than originally expected. The 205 with the hydrostatic transmission, dual wheels, and the 702 loader with the boom, cost just over R4,028. If the dual wheels were not required this would be less. The Hydrograb section itself cost about R240. Some cost studies had been made on the "flats" which worked out to 5 to 10 cents per ton more to load mechanically under such conditions. He had preferred not to put costs in the paper because these would vary depending on each individual farmer's degree of efficiency and it would be better for individuals to work out their costs after knowing the price and loading performance of the machine. In the future, when the labour became scarcer to get, a slight rise in costs due to mechanical loading must be tolerated.
Dr. Dodds said the paper was one of great value and importance to the Industry and while Mr. Bartlett had commented on the fact that his papers had been last on the programme on each occasion, his efforts ensured that the Congresses would end on the high note at which they started. Mr. Boic said that at Chirindu three loaders of the type mentioned were used, two mounted on Fordson Majors and one one an MB6 Marshall. In 1960 some 60,000 tons of cane were loaded by these machines. The machines worked well in the field but their use caused trouble in the factory. This was due to the cane at the bottom of the bundles picked up with the push and grab type loader also picking up much dirt, as much as 500 cubic feet of sand in eight hours. Because of complaints at the factory, by 1962 only about twenty per cent of the cane was loaded by the machines as against seventy per cent in 1960. Mr. Bartlett explained that the push and grab type of loader was considered but the grab type was selected, as this only occasionally picked up any dirt, when the tines dug into the soil. When cane was stacked on trash, it could be picked up with very little trash adhering to the bundle. He therefore recommended the type of grab described in the paper in preference to the push and grab type. Mr. Boic related that in 1962 the pusher type was discarded but much labour then had to be used to retrieve the cane left on the ground. Mr. Bartlett said that the machine had worked at a rate of about 15 tons per hour, which was suitable to the requirements of about eighty-five per cent of our growers. Only one labourer, who worked with the operator of the tractor, was employed to pick up the odd sticks of cane left behind. At times, in very good cane, the bundles were too heavy for the machine, in which case this labourer would carry some of the cane on to the next heap or alternatively, this could be done by the machine.
170
Mr. Boyce asked if any compaction tests were made after the use of the machine. Mr. Bartlett replied that Dr. Maud had visited the loading area on the Umhlatuzi flats and had checked on this. Dr. Maud said that at Umhlatuzi on a silty alluvial soil there was no significant compaction and the cane ratooned well. Compaction on some other soils must be expected however, but this would happen with any type of infield transport and it could probably be partially overcome by sub-soiling or other similar operation later on.
Mr. Bartlett remarked that by fitting dual wheels on the rear axle, compaction could be reduced, however the front axle was chiefly responsible for compaction because the load was over this axle. There are tractors which operate in the reverse way, having the boom mounted over the large rear wheels, rather than the smaller front wheels and the driver's controls reversed. This was an ideal type of loader as it would cause much less compaction, but it was very expensive. The fitting of bigger tyres on the front axle had been discussed but this was entirely a matter for the manufacturer's attention.

SASTA Proceedings of The 37th Annual Congress 1963

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SASTA Proceedings of The 37th Annual Congress 1963

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE

THIRTY'SEVENTH ANNUAL CONGRESS

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

THE SOUTH AFRICAN SUGAR TECHNOLOGISTS' A S S O C I A T I O N

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

OPENING ADDRESS by M R . H. R. P. A. KOTZENBERG, Secretary for Commerce and

INTERIM REPORT ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION,

TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMMITTEE (AGRICULTURE) REPORT,

THIRTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL SUMMARY OF MILLING RISULTS OF SUGAR FACTORIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA,

by C. G. M. Perk 1962 to 31ST MAY, 1963, by J. L. du Toit . . . . . . . . . . . .

WEATHER REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1ST JUNE,

PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT IN MELT-SULPHITATION REFINING AT UMFOLOSI, by

STEAM CONSUMPTION TESTS ON VACUUM PANS,

. by D. . L. . Hughes . 2), by E. J. Buchanan,

MUTUAL MILLING CONTROL PROJECT (PROGERSS REPORT NO

K. Douwes Dekker and A. van Hengel

CALCULATION OF MILL SETTINGS, IMPROVING THE CANE KNIVES,

THE FEEDING VALUE OF MOLASSES,

FLAME PHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATIONS OF CATIONS IN CANE LEAVES AND STALKS, by

Thompson, C. H. O. Pearson and T. G. Cleasby . b y G . D . Thompson and J . M . Gosnell .

THE RESULTS OF HERBICIDE TRIALS CONDUCTED IN THE CANE BELT OF NATAL,

THE GREEN LEAF-SUCKER OF SUGARCANE, NUMICIA VIRIDIS, MUIR,

A SUMMARY OF THE FIELD TEST RESULTS OF THE: HYDROGRAB CANE LOADER, by

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'" AssociationApril 1963

Vice-President L. F. CHIAZZARI Hon. Technical Secretary W. O. CHRISTIANSON

J. L. DU TOIT J. L. Du TOIT J. L. Du TOIT

Former Vice-Presidents 1926-27 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1931-32 1932-33

1934-35 1935-36 1936-37

B. E. D. PHARCE E. CAMDEN-SMITH J. RAULT

Council of the Association

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

South African Sugar Technologists' Association

JEHRING, G. JOHNSTONE, F. KARLSON, M. A. K I N G , N. C. KOTZENBERG, H. R. P. A. KRAMER, A. LAX, R. LEE, G. LENFERNA, G. LINK, F.

MACKAY, J. G. M A I N , J. W. M A N N , Q. V. M A U D , R. R. MORRISON, E. MURPHY, E. S. NAPIER, J. N E L , G. NICKSON G. OLIVIER, V.

HALSE, C. G. HALSE, R. H. HARMSWORTH, J. R. HARRIS, W. HEMPSON, W. J. HENDRY, D. W. W. HIBBERT, A. W. H I L L , M. HILLIARD, J. T. HUGHES, D. L.

WAGNER, C. L. WALSH, W. H. WARNE, D. E. WILSON, J. W R I G H T , B. F. YOUNG, C. M.

PACKHAM, G. PEARSON, C. H. O. PERK, C. G. M. POPE, R. J. POYNTON, G.

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

THIRTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL CONGRESS

J. L. DU TOIT {President) was in the Chair.

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists* AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'' Association -April 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril, 1963

INTERIM REPORT ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

TECHNICAL EDUCATION COMMITTEE (AGRICULTURE)

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationiApril 1963

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists' AssociationApril 1963

THIRTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL SUMMARY OF MILLING RESULTS OF SUGAR FACTORIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'1 AssociationApril 1963

N :Co.292 N :Co.293 N:Co.310 N :Co.334 N:Co.339 N :Co.376 N:Co.382 N :Co.392 N.50/211.

Proceedings of The South African Sugar Technologists'1 AssociationApril 1963

1960-61 18 8,649,617 83,364 77,316 32 179 112 93 2

1961-62 18 9,384,090 85,053 80,973 33 187 116 95 1

1962-63 17 10,749,410 97,100 90,034 40 221 119 93 3