A New Information Processing Model of SLA and Its Implications in Teaching ESL to Adult Learners

Jiazhen Hu -----------------------------------------------------------------------According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of nonnative speakers of English increased dramatically in the past decade (International Reading Association, 1993). To help adult non-native speakers to learn English as a second language is one of the important missions of adult education. To carry out this mission effectively, we need to have a sound theory to guide us. Though there are many existing SLA (second language acquisition) theories, such as Krashen's monitor model (1981, 1985), McLaughlin's information processing model (1983), Schumann's acculturation theory (1986, 1978), and Cummins' language proficiency models (1986, 1981), they fail to offer significant insight about adult ESL learning and instruction. Thus, we need a better model, which can shed light on adult language learning processes and help us improve ESL instruction. This paper proposes such a model, which consists of three major components: the processing orientation hypothesis, external and internal conditions, and learning task analysis.

Processing Orientation Hypothesis

The first component of the new model deals with the internal linguistic processing mechanism. I hypothesize that once the linguistic input is registered, it is processed in two major different ways, target language oriented and metalanguage orientated. By target language orientated, we refer to a heavy utilization of the target language in processing the input. In case of learning English as a second language, this means learning English through reasoning and thinking in English. By metalanguage language orientated, we mean the linguistic processing is accomplished by relying on a language other than the one being learned. One example will be learning Esporantal through thinking, reasoning or processing in English. In most cases, the metalanguage orientation means the L1 orientation, but sometimes they are not identical. For the sake of convenience, hereafter I use "the L2 orientation" for "the target language orientation" and "the L1 orientation for "the metalanguage orientation". The processing orientation a learner adopts is not static. A learner may shift from one orientation to another. If we represent the processing of L2 with a continuum, then the so-called L1 and L2 orientations are actually two extremes of such a continuum. Theoretically, it is possible that each type of orientation may shift toward the other end along the continuum, but in real life, the shift from an L2 to an L1 orientation is rare. In most cases, the shift is from an L1 orientation to an L2 orientation. A gradual shift from an L1 orientation to an L2 orientation represents progress one has made in learning the second language. A complete shift to the L2 orientation means that the learner has achieved a higher level proficiency in the target language. Though an L2 orientation rather than an L1 orientation is conductive to a high level of attained L2 proficiency, an L1 orientation is an inevitable stage in adult L2 learning. This is because second language learning progresses with a shift from the L1 orientation to the L2 orientation along the processing continuum, and the most important condition for this shift is the

development of both explicit and implicit knowledge of L2, particularly lexical structures of the target language. A beginning ESL learner proficient in his or her own native language has developed an adequate linguistic system with well developed L1 lexical structures. Those structures contain a variety of information, including syntactic, semantic, phonological, graphic, and even concrete experiences or anecdotes related to the concepts designated by the lexicon. As the learner is making progress in learning a target language, those lexical structures are undergoing gradual changes. When a concept designated by a lexicon or phrase being learned in the target language already exists in the learner's L1 linguistic system, the learner does not need to learn all the information related to that lexicon or phrase, but only the information which is not available in the existing structure. In such a case, the new information is either the phonological or graphic information of the lexicon in the target language. This means that at the beginning stage, the lexical structures of the concepts whose designator have been acquired by the learner are only partially related to the target language. In other words, though an L2 learner may have learned part of the L2 linguistic system, the representation of the learned L2 linguistic system is grounded in lexical structures with only small segments encoded in the target language. At this level of L2 proficiency, if the learner is engaged in using what he or she has learned to communicate, he or she has to activate relevant lexical structures to get access to semantic information. However, most of the semantic information is encoded in L1, and in accessing it, the learner goes back to his or her native language. An L1 orientated processing takes place. As the learner makes progress in L2, he or she is gradually expanding his or her knowledge base of the formal properties of the target language and acquiring new information about the lexicons he or she has already learned. The new information is integrated into the existing structures. This process continues. With new information constantly added, the lexical structures change, and the proportion of the structure which is related to the

target language increases. The increase brings about an increase in the degree to which the learner uses the target language in making sense of the incoming data and performing social functions. When enough information in L2 about a lexicon is acquired, its lexical structure changes from a L1 dominated structure to a structure with two more or less equal components, one of which is organized in L1 and the other in L2, with each containing rich information about that lexicon. When the lexical structures develop to such a degree, the learner no longer needs to go to activate the L1 section of the lexical structure in meaning making processes. When a large amount of the learner's lexical structures reach this stage, an L2 orientation dominates, which in turn speeds up the learning process and leads to the attainment of high L2 proficiency. Besides the growth and development of the L2 knowledge base, other factors also affect a learner's processing orientations. One of these factors is the linguistic complexity of the input. When the input is easy to process within the learner's L2 capability, an L2 orientation may take place. When the complexity of the input is beyond the learner's L2 capability, an L1 orientation is most likely. Anther factor is the intricacy of the task the learner is engaged in. If a task demands an L2 proficiency which is beyond the learner's capacity, this task may trigger an L1 orientation. If the task is not challenging enough in terms of a learner's L2 proficiency, an L2 orientation is possible. A third factor is the learner's knowledge background. To construct meaning, one needs to activate background knowledge. The linguistic codes in which the background knowledge has been encoded determine the way the background knowledge is retrieved. If the background information is encoded in L1, the retrieval of that information tends to be L1 oriented. If the information is encoded in L2, the retrieval process may be L2 oriented. The described relationship between these factors and processing orientations seems to be one-way, but it is in fact reciprocal. An L2 orientation aids in encoding the incoming information in L2, enables one to process the L2 input directly, thus facilitates the

learning process, and enhances attained proficiency, while an L1 orientation makes it hard to store information in L2, delays the process of having an L2 task performed when the task requires the retrieval of stored information, thus slows down the learning process and hinders one from attaining a high level of L2 proficiency.

External and Internal Conditions

Language is human and social; its acquisition takes place in a social context and is affected by the context. In this context, social and cultural variables, economic and political factors, daily occurrences, and linguistic input are important external conditions for second language acquisition. Related to internal conditions are affective and cognitive factors. Affective variables include personality, self-esteem, personal attitudes toward both L1 and L2 cultures and people, perceived social distance between the L1 and L2 cultures, perceived economic status of L2, career orientation, understanding of ways to achieve personal goals, and motivation to learn L2. Cognitive variables include cognitive strategies, learning style, intelligence, memory, and cognitive strategies. Internal and external conditions act upon each other and shape each other: internal conditions are shaped by the environments the learner is in, and the perception of external conditions is filtered by the internal conditions. The way one responses to and interacts with external conditions defines him or her. The experiences one has gone through shapes one's view of the target language, its culture and its people and the native language, its culture and people. Positive attitudes toward each cultural group may positively shape the learner's attitude, which may lead him or her to develop high self-esteem and strong motivation and drive to learn from the other group without feeling to have his or her selfidentity threatened. But negative attitudes toward one's own

culture may give rise to low self-esteem, and negative attitudes toward the culture of the target language may prevent one from making real efforts to know that culture and to learn the language. The same can be said of the roles L1 and L2 play in the learners' life. Great economic and political values associated with knowing L2 may transform into a strong extrinsic motivation for a learner to learn the second language. However, if knowing the second language helps little enhance one's economic or political status, the absence of economic or political incentive may generate no motivation on the part of the learner in learning L2. Similarly, affective variables define the way one interacts with his or her environment. Introversion and extroversion affect the efforts one would like to make to shy away or to actively engage in social interactions with others, thereby decreasing or increasing the opportunities to be exposed to linguistic input. Low self-esteem may give one a sense of a pessimistic view of one's potentials and discourage one from trying to achieve one's goal or dream.

Learning Task Analysis

Gagne et al (1992) classifies learning into five types: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and attitudes. Learning a second language involves all those capabilities. It involves learning verbal information because it requires integration of existing knowledge and new information. It involves attitudes as they modify the learner's choice of action (Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1992). It involves discrimination, identification of object properties, defining concepts, and formation of higher-order rules. These functions are intellectual skills. Learning a second language is to learn to solve social interaction and meaning making problems. Problem solving requires learners to monitor and control "learning and memory processes" and to be "able to select and regulate the employment of relevant intellectual skills and bring to bear task-oriented cognitive strategies" (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992). In addition, several hundred muscles are used in the articulation of human

speech (throat, larynx, mouth, lips, tongue and other muscles). To coordinate those muscles in producing new sounds, sounds which differ from those one is familiar with requires a tremendous degree of muscular control or the psychomotor coordination of the "speech muscles" (Brown 1994, 57). Muscular control is within the domain of learned motor skills. As second language learning involves all five types of capabilities, the theories guiding ESL instruction should be theories dealing with the learning of all these capabilities. However, ESL instruction draws insight heavily on cognitive and humanistic theories, which are sound theories for intellectual and cognitive, affective aspects of learning, but are not sound theories to guide the learning of motor skills. Gagne et al (1992) pointed out "the learning of motor skills is best accomplished by repeated practice." Repeated practice is based on behaviorism. Therefore, ESL instruction should broaden its theoretical foundation to include behaviorism.

Pedagogical Implications
The new model has a number of pedagogical implications. First, the model suggests that a necessary condition for achieving a high level of proficiency in learning a second language is to adopt an L2 orientation. To achieve an L2 orientation, one needs to expand one's knowledge base about the target language and enrich L2 linguistic information in lexical structures. One way to do so is to provide extensive reading practices. Reading can keep the lexical structures activated, help the reader to glean both lexical semantic and syntactic information, and enrich the L2 component of lexical structures. This implication is supported by research (Krashen & Co, 1994). Second, for an L2 orientation to take place, one must suppress the L1 orientation. As has been discussed elsewhere, if explanations instructors or dictionaries provide for certain lexical items are not

simple enough, the learners may have difficulty processing the explanation in L2, thus hindering an L2 orientation. Therefore, ESL instructors need to simplify the complexity of both grammatical structures and lexical items in providing explanations in instruction. Third, instructors need to take into consideration their students' objectives in learning a second language and adjust their teaching methods and presentation accordingly. If the students are learning a second language for social interactions and survival purposes, instructors need to pay attention to develop their students' communicative ability. If their students are college bound, both BICS and CALP should be given attention. Fourth, SLA involves physical aspects of learning, and practice is a must to achieve accuracy and smoothness. So controlled practice and pattern drills should be included in ESL classrooms. By controlling the lexical items and sentence patterns, the instructors prevent learners from being overwhelmed by the learning task and release them from paying attention both to meaning and forms to giving more attention to achieve accuracy in speech production. Fifth, controlled linguistic input reduces the authenticity of L2, especially the phonological aspect. So even when employing the pattern drills or audiolingual method in teaching, instructors should try their best to use normal speech so that the learners are able to acquire the authentic phonological system. Sixth, to achieve a high level of proficiency, no single method is adequate since each method has a different focus and is not able to deal with all aspects of the L2 learning. Instructors need to use an eclectic method to assure the learner to develop an all-around linguistic ability. Seventh, affective and sociocultural variables affect second language acquisition. To facilitate the learning process, instructors need to pay attention to these variables and make sure that

optimal conditions are met. Eighth, as the richness of the contents of L2 substructures of a lexicon plays an important role in the degree of reliance on an L2 orientation, instructional activities and curricula need to be designed to enrich the contents of these substructures. One way to do so is make easy and interesting reading materials available to ESL classes, provide extensive reading practice, and get students exposed to as much comprehensible linguistic input as possible. Ninth, language learning is a meaning making process. Comprehension involves predicting, hypothesizing, confirming and inferring. To enhance one's comprehension ability, one needs to learn to use various cognitive and metacognitive strategies. So in teaching, ESL instructors need to teach those strategies in authentic meaning making contents. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are especially important when dealing with difficult texts and when comprehension on the initial reading fails. Thus in teaching, difficult reading materials, materials at the instructional level, should be used. Difficult materials are effective to be used for teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies. But due to their high level of difficulty, difficult materials consume more cognitive efforts and decrease reading speed. Slow reading speed means less amount of materials to be covered in a given a period of time and thus reduces the quantity of linguistic input and intake. If reading materials are confined to difficult ones, such a curriculum hinders the development of lexical structures and slows down the second language learning process. Thus, a more balanced curriculum is needed. That is, the curriculum needs to include both kinds of materials: easy ones and difficult ones. The easy materials are for extensive reading and for expanding one's implicit knowledge of the L2 linguistic system; the hard materials are for learning to use both cognitive and metacognitive strategies in meaning making processes and for learning explicit linguistic knowledge, including learning specific grammatical rules.

References
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Cummins, J. (1979). "Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimal age question, and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 197-205. Frodesen, J. (1990). "Grammar in writing." In Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second language (2nd ed., pp. 264276). New York: Newbury. Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Krashen, S. (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press. McLaughlin, B. (1987) Theories of Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold. -----------------------------------------------------------------------Contact: thea@chicago1.nl.edu Entered: 20 Jun 95